UNIT I - BASICS OF MECHANISMS

Introduction
The subject Theory of Machines may be defined as that branch of Engineering-Science, which deals with the
study of relative motion between the various parts of a machine, and the forces which act on them. The knowledge of this subject is
very essential for an engineer in designing the various parts of a machine.

The Theory of Machine may be sub divided into the following four branches :

1) Kinematics : It is that branch which deals with relative motion between the various parts of the machine.

2) Dynamics : It is branch the branch deals with forces and their effects , while acting upon the machine parts in motion.

3) Kinetics : It is the branch that deals with the inertia forces which arise from the combined effect of mass and motion of
machine parts

4) Statics : It is the branch that deals with the forces and their effects while the machine parts are at rest. The mass of the parts
are assumed to be negligible.

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Course Objectives After completion of this course, you should be able :

 To understand the layout of linkages in the assembly of a system/machine.

 To study the principles involved in assessing the displacement, velocity and acceleration at any
point in a link of a mechanism
 To analyse the motion resulting from a specified set of linkages in a mechanism

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Introduction Content
Objectives After completion of this topic, you should be able to:

 Understand basic concepts

 Find degrees of freedom , number of pairs and links.

Basic Terms
Link:
Each part of a machine which moves relative to some other part is known as kinematic link or simply link. A link
may contain several parts , which are rigidly fastened together , so that they do not move each other. For
example ,in a reciprocating engine piston , piston rod and crosshead constitute a link ; connecting rod with big
end and small end bearings constitute a second link ; crank , crank shaft and flywheel a third link and cylinder ,
engine frame and main bearings a fourth link.

Types of link :

a) Rigid link :
A rigid is one which does not undergone any deformation while transmitting motion. Example :
Connecting rod

b) Flexible link :
A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of motion.
Example : Belt , rope.

c) Fluid link :
A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid receptacle and the motion is transmitted through the
fluid by pressure or compression only. Example : hydraulic press and jack.

Kinematic Pair :
The two links or elements of a machine , when in contact with each other , are said to form a pair. If
relative motion between them is completely or successfully constrained, the pair is known as kinematic pair.

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 Types of Kinematic pair:-

1) According to the type of relative motion between the elements :

a) Sliding pair :- When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one can only slide
relative to another , the pair is known as a sliding pair.
Example : The piston and cylinder , tailstock on the bed.

b) Turning pair :- When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one can only turn
or revolve about a fixed axis of another link , the pair is known as turning pair,
Example : lathe spindle supported in head stock , cycle wheels turning over their axels.

c) Rolling pair : - When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one rolls over
another fixed link , the pair is known as rolling pair
Example : Ball and roller bearings .

d) Screw pair :- When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one element can
turn about another by screw threads , the pair is known as screw pair.
Example : bolt and nut , lead screw of a lathe with nut.

e) Spherical pair :- When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one element
(with spherical shape) turns or swivels about the other fixed element, the pair formed Is called spherical
pair.
Example : The ball and socket joint , attachment of car mirror , pen stand.

2) According to the type of contact between the elements :

a) Lower pair : When the two elements of a pair have a surface contact when the relative motion takes
place and surface of one element slides over other , the pair formed is known as lower pair.
Example : Sliding , turning and screw pairs form lower pairs

b) Higher pair : When the two elements of a pair have a line or point contact when relative motion takes
place and motion between them is partly turning and partly sliding , then the pair is known as higher
pair .
Example : toothed gearing , belt and rope drives.

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 3) According to the type of closure :

a) Self closed pair : When the two elements of a pair are connected together mechanically in such a
way that only required kind of relative motion occurs , it is then known as self closed pair.
Example : The lower pairs are self closed pairs.

b) Force closed pairs : When the two elements of pair are connected mechanically but are kept in
contact by the action of external forces , the pair is known as force closed pair.
Example : cam and follower .

Kinematic Chain :
A kinematic chain is a series of links connected by kinematic pairs. The chain is said to be closed chain if every
link is connected to at least two other links, otherwise it is called an open chain. A link which is connected to
only one other link is known as singular link. If it is connected to two other links, it is called binary link. If it is
connected to three other links, it is called ternary link, and so on. A chain which consists of only binary links is
called simple chain. A type of kinematic chain is one with constrained motion, which means that a definite
motion of any link produces unique motion of all other links. Thus motion of any point on one link defines the
relative position of any point on any other link. So it has one degree of freedom.

Mechanisms :
A mechanism is a combination of rigid or restraining bodies so shaped and connected that they move upon
each other with a definite relative motion. A simple example of this is the slider crank mechanism used in an
internal combustion or reciprocating air compressor.

Machine :
A machine is a mechanism or a collection of mechanisms which transmits force from the source of power to
the resistance to be overcome and thus perform a mechanical work.

Structure :
It is an assemblage of a number of restrained bodies having no relative motion between them and meant for
carrying loads having straining action.
Example : A roof , truss , machine frame.

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Differences between Machine and a structure :

 The parts of a machine move relative to one another where as the members of a structure do not move
relative to one another.

 A machine transforms the available energy into some useful work , whereas in a structure no energy is
transformed into useful work.
 The links of a machine may transmit both power and motion , while the members of a structure transmit
force only.

Degrees of Freedom :
It is defined as the number of independent motion (both translational and rotational ) a body can have .
Mathematically the degrees of freedom of a body in space is given by ,
Degrees of freedom = 6- number of constraints
If number of constraints are four then degree of freedom will be 2.

Relationship for constrained motion in a mechanism in planar motion

o Degrees of freedom or mobility
o Kutzbach’s criterion
f = 3(l-1) – 2pl – pn.

where
f - number of degree of freedom or mobility
l – number of sinks
p1 - number of lower pairs
pn – number of higher pairs.

 Griibler’s Criterion
Let n be the no. of links in a mechanism out of which, one is fixed, and let j be the no. of simple
hinges(ie, those connect two links.) Now, as the (n-1) links move in a plane, in the absence of any
connections, each has 3 degree of freedom; 2 coordinates are required to specify the location of any
reference point on the link and 1 to specify the orientation of the link. Once we connect the linmks there
cannot be anyrelative translation betweenthem and only one coordinate is necessary to specify their
relative orientation.Thus, 2 degrees of freedom (translation) are lost, and only one degree of freedom
(rotational) is left. So, no. of degrees of freedom is: F=3(n-1)-2j

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Most mechanisms are constrained, ie F=1. Therefore the above relation becomes,
2j-3n+4=0 ,this is called Grubler's Criterion.

Failure of Grubler's criterion

A higher pair has 2 degrees of freedom .Following the same argument as before, The degrees of
freedom of a mechanism having higher pairs can be written as,
F=3(n-1)-2j-h
Often some mechanisms have a redundant degree of freedom. If a link can move without causing any
movement in the rest of the mechanism, then the link is said to have a redundant degree of freedom

Corresponding equation for one degree of freedom mechanisms consisting

2pl + pn - 3l + 4 = 0

For one degree of freedom systems consisting of lower pair only, the number of links should
be even.

f= 0 - Structure

f= -1 or less - * Statically inderminate structure

* Redundant constraints in the chain.

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 Fig
7a

Fig
7b

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 .

Grashof's Law:
 The sum of the longest and the shortest length should not be greater than the sum of
remaining two links length if there is to be continuous relative motion between the two
links.
 In a four-bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between hinges on a given link as a
bar where:
s = length of shortest bar
 l = length of longest bar
p, q = lengths of intermediate bar

Grashof's theorem states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one revolving link if
s + l <= p + q (1) and all three mobile links will rock if
s + l > p + q (2)
The inequality 1 is Grashof's criterion.
The link opposite the frame is called the coupler link, and the links which are hinged
to the frame are called side links.
A link which is free to rotate through 360 degree with respect to a second link will be
said to revolve relative to the second link (not necessarily a frame).
If it is possible for all four bars to become simultaneously aligned, such a state is
called a change point.

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Some important concepts in link mechanisms are:

Crank: A side link which revolves relative to the frame is called a crank.
Rocker: Any link which does not revolve is called a rocker.
Crank-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if the shorter side link revolves and
the other one rocks (i.e., oscillates), it is called a crank-rocker mechanism.
Double-crank mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links revolve, it is
called a double-crank mechanism.
Double-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links rock, it is
called a double-rocker mechanism

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All four-bar mechanisms fall into one of the four categories listed in Table
Table

Classification of Four-Bar Mechanisms

From table, we can see that for a mechanism to have a crank, the sum of the length of
its shortest and longest links must be less than or equal to the sum of the length of the
other two links.
However, this condition is necessary but not sufficient. Mechanisms satisfying this
condition fall into the following three categories:
When the shortest link is a side link, the mechanism is a crank-rocker mechanism.
The shortest link is the crank in the mechanism.
 When the shortest link is the frame of the mechanism, the mechanism is a double
crank mechanism.
When the shortest link is the coupler link, the mechanism is a double-rocker
Mechanism.

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Constrained Motions:

Constraint means: Limitation of motion (or) action.

Completely Constraint: Moves in a definite direction
Example: square bar moving in square hole.
Incompletely Constraint: Moves in all direction
Example: Circular bar moving in a circular hole.
Successfully Constraint: Motion is not completed by itself but by some other
means.

Stem – 1: Which of the following is a turning pair ?

Option – 1: Piston and cylinder of a reciprocating engine

Option – 2: Shaft with collars at both ends fitted in a circular hole (correct)
Option – 3:Lead screw of a lathe with nut
Option – 4: Ball and socket joint

Stem – 2: A combination of kinematic pairs , joined in such a way that the relative motion between the links is
completely constrained is called a ?

Option – 1: Structure
Option – 2: Mechanism
Option – 3: Kinematic chain ( Correct)
Option – 4: Machine
F
ig 9

Stem – 3: A kinematic chain is known as mechanism when

Option – 1: none of the link is fixed

Option – 2: one of the link is fixed (Correct)
Option – 3: two of the link is fixed
Option – 4: all of the link is fixed

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Summary In this topic, you have learned:

 The branch of science which deals with the study of relative motion between the various parts , and
forces which act on them , is known as theory of machine .
 A link is a member which is connected to other members and has motion relative to the other member.
 A joint of two links having relative motion between them is known as kinematic pair
 Degrees of freedom may be defined as number of independent motion a body can have.
 The relationship between number of pairs (p) and number of links (n) in a kinematic chain is given by ,
n = 2p-4
Where as number of links(n) and number of joints (j) is given by ,
j = 3/2 . n - 2
 In the above equations , if
LHS > RHS , then the chain is locked
LHS = RHS , then the chain is constrained
LHS<RHS , then the chain is unconstrained

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Inversions of Content
Mechanisms
Objectives After completion of this topic, you should be able to:

 Identify various inversions of various inversions of mechanisms

Inversions

The process of fixing different links of a kinematic chain one at a time to produce distinct mechanisms is
called kinematic inversion. Here the relative motions of the links of the mechanisms remain unchanged.
First, let us consider the simplest kinematic chain, i.e., a chain consisting of four binary links and four
revolute pairs. The four different mechanisms can be obtained by four different inversions of the chain.

Inversion of Four bar Chain:

A four bar chain consists of 4 turning pairs. It is the basic chain and the diagram is given here for reference.

Fig : Four bar Mechanism

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 Beam Engine: (Crank and Lever Mechanism)

 A part of the mechanism of a beam engine also known as crank and lever
mechanism) which consists of four links is shown in Figure. In this mechanism, when
the crank rotates about the fixed center the lever oscillates about a fixed center D.
 The end E of lever CDE is connected to a piston rod which reciprocates due to the
rotation of the crank. In other words, the purpose of this mechanism is to convert
rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double Crank mechanism).

 The mechanism of a coupling rod of a locomotive which consists of 4 links is shown in
Figure. In this mechanism, the links AB and CD (having equal length) act as crank and
are connected to the respective wheels.
 The links BC act as coupling rod and link AD is fixed in order to maintain constant
center to center distance between them. This mechanism is meant for transmitting
rotary motion from one wheel together wheel




Fig Coupling rod of a locomotive



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 Watt’s Indicator Mechanism (Double lever mechanism).
 A watt is indicator mechanism (also known as watt's straight line mechanism or double
lever mechanism) which consists of four links.
 The four links are fixed link at A, link AC link CE and link BFD. It may be noted that BF
and FD forms one link because these two parts have no relative motion between them.
 The links CE and BFD act as levers. The displacement of link BFD is directly proportional the
pressure of gas or stream which acts on the indicator plunger. On any small displacement of mechanism,
the tracing point at the end of the link CE traces out approximately a straight line

Fig : Watt’s Indicator Mechanism

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 Single Slider - Crank - Chain:
A single crank chain is a modification of the basic four-bar chain. It consists of one sliding pair and three
turning pairs. It is found in reciprocating steam engine mechanism.
This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice versa.

Fig. Inversions of single slider crank chain

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 Rotary Internal Combustion engine or gnome engine:
Sometimes back, rotary internal combustion engines were used in aviation. But now a-
days gas turbines used in its place. In consists of seven cylinders in one plane and
all revolves about a fixed center. A, as shown in Figure.
While the crank (link 2) is fixed. In this mechanism when connecting rod (link 4)
rotates, the piston (link 3) reciprocates inside the cylinder forming link l.

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Double - Slider Crank Chain:
A Kinematic pair which consists of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs is known as double slider crank
chain. Inversions of double slider crank chain:

Elliptical Trammels:
This inversion is obtained by fixing the slotted plate (link 4) as in Figure.

.
Fig : Elliptical Trammel
Scotch yoke Mechanism:
This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion in reciprocating motion. The inversion is obtained by
fixing either link 1 or link 3.

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 Oldhem’s coupling:
An oldhem􀂶s coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts whose axes are not at a small distance
apart. The shafts are coupled in such way that if one shaft rotates, the other shaft also rotates at the same
speed.
This inversion is obtained by fixing links 2 as shown in fig. The shafts to be connected have two flanges
(link 1 and link 2) rigidly fastened at their ends by forging

Fig : Oldhem’s Coupling

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Mechanical
Advantage It is defined as the ratio of the load to effort. in a four bar chain as shown in figure The link DA is called the
driving link and the link CB as the driven link.
The force FA acting at A is the effort and the force FB at B will be the load or Resistance to over come. We
know from the principle of conservation of energy neglecting effect of friction.

ideal mechanical advantage

If we consider the effect of friction, less resistance will be over come with the given effort. Therefore actual
mechanical advantage will be less.
Actual mechanical advantage:

Mechanism the of Efficiency

Mechanical advantage may also be defined as the ratio of output torque to the input torque.

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Transmission angle In Figure, if AB is the input link, the force applied to the output link, CD, is transmitted through the coupler
link BC. (That is, pushing on the link CD imposes a force on the link AB, which is transmitted through the link
BC.) For sufficiently slow motions (negligible inertia forces), the force in the coupler link is pure tension or
compression (negligible bending action) and is directed along BC. For a given force in the coupler link, the
torque transmitted to the output bar (about point D) is maximum when the angle between coupler bar BC
and output bar CD is /2. Therefore, angle BCD is called transmission angle.

Transmission angle

When the transmission angle deviates significantly from /2, the torque on the output bar decreases and
may not be sufficient to overcome the friction in the system. For this reason, the deviation angle =| /2- |
should not be too great. In practice, there is no definite upper limit for , because the existence of the inertia
forces may eliminate the undesirable force relationships that is present under static conditions.
Nevertheless, the following criterion can be followed.

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Test your Knoweledge

stem – 1: Oldham’s coupling and elliptical trammels are the inversions of

Option – 1: Double slider crank chain (Correct)

Option – 2: Single slider crank chain
Option – 3: Four bar chain
Option – 4: None of the above

Stem – 2: Whiteworth quick return mechanism is an inversion of :

Option – 1: Double slider crank chain
Option – 2: Single slider crank chain (Correct)
Option – 3: Four bar chain
Option – 4: None of the above

Stem – 3: In a kinematic chain with four lower pairs , if all the four lower pairs are turning pairs , the
mechanisms is classified into

Option – 1: Double slider crank chain

Option – 2: Single slider crank chain
Option – 3: Four bar chain (Correct)
Option – 4: None of the above

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Summary In this topic, you have learned:

 If different links of four bar mechanisms are fixed , four different mechanisms will be obtained , this is
called inversions.
 The first inversions of slider crank mechanism is used in reciprocating engine , second inversion is
used in Whiteworth quick return mechanism , third inversion is used in oscillating cylinder engine and
the fourth inversion is used in hand pump.
 First inversion of double slider crank mechanism is used in elliptical trammel , second inversion is
used in Scotch yoke mechanism and third inversion is used in Oldham’s coupling.
 The ratio of load to effort is known as Mechanical advantage.


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Description of Content
Common Mechanism
Objectives After completion of this topic, you should be able to:

 Describe various Mechanisms

Single slider A single crank chain is a modification of the basic four-bar chain. It consists of one sliding pair and these
mechanism: turning pair. It is found in reciprocating steam engine mechanism.
This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice versa.

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Double slider A Kinematic pair, which consists of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs, is known as double slider crank
mechanism chain. Mechanism comprising double slider chain is called double slider mechanism.effectively and
economically counteract them.

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Offset Slider The offset slider-crank mechanism shown in Figure has velocity characteristics, which differ from a center
Mechanism: slider and crank. If connecting rod of a center slider crank mechanism is large relative to the length of cranks
2 then the resulting motion is very nearly harmonic.

Quick Return Crank and slotted lever quick return mechanism.

Mechanism: This mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines, slotting machines, and in rotary internal combustion
engines. In this mechanism, the link AC (i.e. link 3) forming the turning pair is fixed as shown in Fig. The link
3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine.
The driving crank CB revolves with uniform angular speed about the fixed center C. A sliding block
attached to the crank pin at B slides along the slotted bar AP and thus causes AP to oscillate about the
pivoted point A.
A short link PR transmits the motion from the AP to which carries the tool and
reciprocates along the line of stroke R1 R2. The line of stroke of the ram (i.e. R1 R2) is
perpendicular to AC produced
 In the extreme positions, AP1, and AP2 are targeted to the circle and the tool is at the
end of the stroke. The forward or cutting stroke occurs when the crank rotates from
position CB1 CB2 (or through an angle B) in clockwise when the crank rotates from the
position CB2 to CB1 (or through angle ) in the clockwise direction. Since the crank
has uniform angles speed, therefore

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 Since the tool travels a distance of R1 R 2 during cutting and return stroke, therefore
travel of the tool or length stroke.

Whitworth quick
return motion This mechanism is mostly used in shaping and slotting machines. In this mechanism, the link CD (link 2)
mechanism: forming the turning pair is fixed as shown in Fig. The link 2 corresponds to a crank in a reciprocating steam
engine. The driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular speed.
The similar end attached to the crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar PA (link1) which oscillates at a
pointed point D. The connecting rod PR carries the ram at R to which a cutting tool is fixed. The motion of
the tool is constrained along the line RD produced i.e. along a line passing through D and perpendicular to
CD. When the driving crank
CA moves from the position CA1 to CA2 (or the link DP from the portion DP1 toDP2) through an angle 􀂶in
the clock wise direction, the tool moves from the left hand end to its stroke to the right hand end through a
distance 2PD. Now when the driving crank moves from the position CP2 to CP1 (or the link DP from DP1 to
DP2) through an angle P in the clockwise direction, the tool moves back from the right hand end of its stroke
to the left hand end.

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A little consideration will show that the line taken during the left to right movement of the ram (i.e. during
forward or cutting stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the driving crank to move from CA 1, CA2.
Similarly, time taken during the right to left movement of the ram (or during the idle or return stroke) will be
equal to the time taken by the driving crank to move from CA1 to CA2.
Since the crank link CA rotates a uniform angular velocity therefore time taken during the cutting stroke (or
forward stroke) is more than the time taken during the return stroke.
In other words the mean speed of the ram during cutting stroke is less than the mean speed during the
return stroke. The ratio between the time taken during the cutting and return stroke is given by

In order to find the length of the effective stroke.

R1R2, mark P1R1=P2R2 = PR. The length of effective stroke is also equal to 2PD.

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Snap - Action The mechanism shown in figure is typical of snap action mechanisms. They also include spring clips and
Mechanisms: circuit breakers. Typical snap-action, toggle, or flip-flop mechanisms used for switches, clamps, or fasteners.
One elements of a mechanism are always numbered beginning with 1 for the base or frame, and 2 for the
input or driving element. The mechanism of part (a) is bitable; that of (b) is a true toggle.

Linear Actuators: Linear actuators include

Stationery screw with traveling nuts
Stationery nuts with traveling screws
Single all double acting hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders.

Motion Adjustment Fine Adjustments.

and Damping Fine adjustments may be obtained with screws, including the differential screws, worm gearing, wedges,
mechanisms: lever and various motions adjusting mechanism.

Clamping Mechanism:
Typical clamping mechanism are the C-clamp, the woodworker's screw clamp, cam and lever actuated
clamps, vises, presses such as the toggle press, collets and stamp mills

Location Mechanism
These are usually self-centering and locate either axially or angularly using springs or détentes.

Ratchets and escapements.

These are May different forms of ratchets and escapements, some quite clever. They are used in lock,
jacks, clockwork and other application requiring same form of intermittent motion figure illustrates four typical
applications.

one direction of rotation of wheel Escapements used Rotary adjustments.

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To regulate movement of clockwork Control wheel 2 which may rotate continuously to allow wheel 3 to be driven

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Swinging or The class of swinging or rocking mechanisms is often termed as oscillators; in each case the output
Rocking member rocks or swings through engines, which are generally less than 360 . However output shaft can be
Mechanism: geared to a second shaft to produce larger angles of oscillation.

Fig (a) Fig (b)

Figure (a) is a mechanism consisting of rotating crank 2 and a couple 3 containing rock which meshes with
output gear 4 to produce the oscillating motion.

In Figure (b) crank 2 drives member 3, which slides on output link 4, producing a rocking motion. This
mechanism is quick - return linkage because crack 2 rotates through a large angle on the forward stroke of
link 4 than on the return stroke.

Fig (c) Fig (d)

9d

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 Figure C is a four bar linkage called the crank and rocker mechanism cranks 2 drives rocker 4 through
coupler 3 of course, link 1 is the frame. The characteristics of the rocking motion depend on the dimensions
of the links and the placement of the frame points.
Figure D. Illustrates cam and follower mechanism, in which the rotating 2 drives, link 3 called the follower in
a rocking motion.

Straight Line In the late seventeenth century before the development of the milling machine it was extremely difficult to
Generations: machine straight flat surfaces. For this reason good prismatic pairs without backlash were not easy to make.
During that era much thought was given to the problem of attaining a straight line motion as a part of the
coupler curve of a having only revolute connections.
Probably the best known result of this search is the straight line mechanism development by Watt for
guiding the pistons of early steam engines

Fig (a) Fig (b)

Figure (a) show Watt􀂶s linkage to four bar linkage developing an approximate straight line as a part of its
coupler curve. Although it does not generate an exact straight line, a good approximation is achieved over a
considerable distance of travel
Robert􀂶s mechanisms (Fig b)
In the geometric diagram of the apparatus, six bars of fixed length can be seen: OA, OC, AB, BC, CD, DA.
The length of OA is equal to the length of OC, and the lengths of AB, BC, CD, and DA are all equal forming a
parallelogram. Also, point O is fixed. Then, if point B is constrained to move along a circle which passes
through O, then point D will necessarily have to move along a straight line. On the other hand, if point B were
constrained to move along a line (not passing through O), then point D would necessarily have to move
along a circle (passing through O). Fig ( c)

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 Fig ( c)


The engine of an automobile is usually located in front part. How does it connect to the rear axle of the
The Universal Joint automobile? In this case, universal joints are used to transmit the motion.

Figure ( a)

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 The universal joint as shown in Figure (a) is also known in the older literature as Hooke's coupling.
Regardless of how it is constructed or proportioned, for practical use it has essentially the form shown in
Figure (b), consisting of two semicircular forks 2 and 4, pin-jointed to a right -angle cross 3.

Figure (b) General form for a universal joint

The driver 2 and the follower 4 make the complete revolution at the same time, but the velocity ratio is not
constant throughout the revolution. The following analysis will show how complete information as to the
relative motions of driver and follower may be obtained for any phase of the motion.


Indexing Mechanisms Geneva Mechanisms : ( Fig ( a) )
Because the driven wheel in a Geneva motion is always under full control of the driver there is no
problem with overrunning. Impact is till a problem unless the slots of the driven wheel are accurately
made and the driving pin enters these slots at the proper angle. For best results the pin should be shaped
so tht the pin picks up the driven member as slowly as possible. Impact can also be reduced by leaving
the top and bottom of the slot open. The fingers that form the slot will then have some . However strength
is of primary importance and the slot must be bridged by a web .

External Geneva and Internal Geneva have been used for both light and heavy duties. They are frequently
used as inputs to high speed devices e.g high speed mechanical counters use a Geneva between the first
and second wheels. Mutilated pinions, which connect succeeding stages, could not absorb the shocks
transmitted from the first to the second wheel.

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Mutilated Gears: Fig (b)
Gears can be used in several ways to produce intermittent motion. A typical unit is the "mutilated gear"
shown in the figure below. In this case some of the teeth have been removed from the driver and a partial
holding surface has been added to each gear to prevent slight rotation of the drum gear during the dwell
period.

Mutilated gears can be run without holding rings but it is not desirable no matter how slow the motion, the
teeth of the driver will sooner or later top the teeth of the output gear. Since the teeth will meet near a
centreline, even small input torque can produce large toggle forces that can damage the teeth.

Mutilated gears of the type shown in the figure below are subject to large impact loads and accelerations if
the driving speed is high. The shape of the first teeth that will mesh is sometimes modified to reduce
impact but only a slight advantage is gained. Attempts have been made to slack mount the first teeth but
only a slight advantage is gained. Geneva or star wheels are usually preferred for high speeds and for high
power applications.

Star Wheels Fig ( c)

A different type of intermittent motion mechanism is the star wheel. In the arrangement shown in the figure
below pins are used as teeth on the driver, but involute teeth can be used instead. This is another versatile
mechanism. It provides considerable freedom in choosing operating parameters. The output wheel for
example can be made to rotate more than one revolution. This is not possible with pure simple genevas.
Star wheel devices can rotate at different amounts at each index point. Accelerations and decelerations can
be controlled more readily than in a mulitalted gear pair." By careful shaping of the teeth. Internal pairs are
also possible.

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Fig (a) Fig (b)

Fig (c)

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Steering Gear Mechanisms

The steering gear mechanism Is used for changing the direction of an automobile axle with reference to the chassis, so as to move
the automobile in any desired path.
In automobiles front wheels are placed over the front axles , which pivoted at points A and B as shown in figure. These points are
fixed to the chassis. The back wheels are placed over the back axle, at the two ends of the differential tube. When the vehicle takes a
turn , front wheels along with respective axles turn about the respective pivoted points. The back wheels remain straight and do not
turn, therefore steering is done by means of front wheels only.

Cot Ø – Cot θ = c / b. c- Distance between the pivot and front axels . b Wheel base
Ø , θ  Angle turned by stub axle

This is the fundamental equation for correct steering.

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Ackeraman Steering Gear:
In this ABME is a four bar crank chain. The shorter links are of equal length are connected by hinge joint with front wheel axles. The
longer bar are of unequal lengths.

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  Pantograph is a mechanism used to produce paths on an enlarged or reduced scale exactly similar
Summary to one traced out by a point on its linkage
 The exact straight line motion can be obtained from the mechanisms which is having only turning
pairs or one sliding pair.
 The Peaucellier and Hart’s mechanisms produce exact straight line motion using only sliding pairs.
 Scot-Russel mechanism produces exact straight line motion using one sliding pair.
 Steering gear is used for changing the direction of two or more of the wheel axels so as to move the
automobile in any desired path.
 Universal joint is used to connect two non parallel and non interesting shafts.

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