This T-V diagram shows different lines of constant pressure.

A student asked about the

paths of lines from a compressed liquid to a superheated vapor when going over the
critical point.

3
Overview
Last Time (Lecture 2)
• Phase change A
• P-v-T phase diagrams
– For every coordinate (T-v or P-v), there is B
only one state
– P is then a unique function of T and v (vice C

versa) D
1 2
– For pure substance, state is defined by two
independent variables – state postulate 3
4

This Lecture
• Identifying properties of thermodynamic state
– Thermodynamic Tables
– Steam tables (i.e. water) will be used extensively as an example in this lecture
• Saturated water, Superheated Vapor Water, Compressed Liquid, Saturated Solid-Vapor
• Tables B.1.1-B.1.5 (Borgnakke & Sonntag)
• Tables A-4 through A-8 (Cengel & Boles 3rd Ed.)
– Tables on other substances exist and will be used in this course
• Refrigerants, air, gases, etc.
4
1.2.5 Using property tables
• Property tables will be used extensively in this course
• Below is a PV diagram to identify relevant tables for given phases of WATER
– Water is a substance chosen to be a prime example since we experience it daily
– Please also note the same exists for other substances

P P

Table
Table
SOLID + LIQUID

B.1.4
LIQUID

B.1.3

VAPOR L
SOLID

V
L+V
Tables
LIQUID + VAPOR
B.1.1 + B.1.2

S+V
SOLID + VAPOR
Table:B.1.5

v v
5
1.2.5.0 Properties of interest
• Pressure
– Normal component of force per unit area: 𝑃 = 𝐹 𝐴
– Units in tables: kPa, MPa, bar
• Temperature
– Comparative measurement of hot and cold
– Units in tables: oC, K
• Specific volume (v)
– Volume per unit mass: 𝑣 = 𝑉 𝑚
– Reciprocal of density: 𝑣 = 𝜌−1
– Units in tables: 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
• Internal energy (U or u)
– Energy contained within a substance, excluding kinetic energy and potential energy (introduced in
Lecture 4+5)
– Units in tables based on specific internal energy (per unit mass): 𝑢 = 𝑈 𝑚 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
• Enthalpy (H or h)
– Convenient grouping of internal energy, pressure & volume: H = U+PV (introduced in Lecture: 7)
– Units in tables based on specific enthalpy (per unit mass): ℎ = 𝐻 𝑚 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
• Entropy (S or s)
– Measure of molecular disorder of a system (introduced in Lecture 9)
– Units in tables based on specific entropy (per unit mass): 𝑠 = 𝑆 𝑚 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝐾 6
1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables
P
Saturated Water Tables: B.1.1 & B.1.2
• Temperature and pressure are dependent properties in the
saturation region L+V

• B.1.1 – temperature is independent property

Tables
B.1.1 + B.1.2

• B.1.2 – pressure is the independent property

v

… …
Specific volume Specific volume
Specific Corresponding properties Specific Corresponding properties
Temp. saturation Press. Press. saturation Temp.

• Saturation pressure: pressure at which the liquid and vapor phases are in
equilibrium at a given temperature.

• Saturation temperature: temperature at which the liquid and vapor phases

are in equilibrium at a given pressure. 7
 P

1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables L+V

Tables
B.1.1 + B.2.1

Saturated Water Tables: B.1.1 & B.1.2

• Taking B.1.1 table as example
– Concept applies to all other saturated tables

• Properties with subscript f

– Saturated Liquid

• Properties with subscript g …

– Saturated vapor Specific volume
Specific Corresponding properties
Temp. saturation Press.
• Properties with subscript fg
– Difference between saturated vapor and saturated P
liquid values
E.g.: 𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓
Compress. Superheated
– Liquid Vapor

– E.g.: enthalpy (h) Saturated Saturated

• ℎ𝑓𝑔 = ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 heat of vaporization Liquid Saturated Vapor
• Amount of heat needed to evaporate or
Mixture
condense a unit mass of water
v-vf
• States located in between Sat. Liquid & Sat. Vapor vf vg v
– Saturated Mixture
vfg = vg - vf
8
1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables
Example 1-5
Two vessels exist, each containing 50 kg of water. The first vessel
contains saturated liquid water at 90C, while the second vessel Sat. Liq. Sat. Vap.
contains saturated vapor at 90oC. Determine the pressure in each 90oC 90oC
vessel and the required volume of each vessel.
T
Solution: Saturated
Vessel 1: Saturated liquid Liquid
Psat = 70.14 kPa
90C Saturated
Pressure = saturation pressure at 90oC: 70.14 kPa Vapor

Volume: V = v*m; v = vf 3
@90C = 0.001036 m /kg
V = 0.001036 m3/kg * 50 kg = 0.0518 m3 vf vg v

Vessel 2: Saturated vapor

Pressure = saturation pressure at 90oC: 70.14 kPa

…
Volume: V = v*m; v = vg @90C = 2.36056 m3/kg
V = 2.36056 m3/kg * 50 kg = 118.03 m3

Vessel 2 has to be extraordinarily larger (x 105) than

vessel 1 because vapor is less dense than liquid
9
1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables
Exercise 1-4:
A vessel contains 50 kg of saturated water vapor at atmospheric pressure (i.e.
100 kPa). Determine the temperature in the tank and the volume of the tank.

(a) 99.62oC, 0.05215 m3

(b) 105.99oC, 84.7 m3
(c) 105.99oC, 0.0524 m3

…
(d) 99.62oC, 84.7 m3

[ans: d]

10
1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables
Quality of Saturated liquid-vapor MIXTURE
• Temperature and pressure are dependent in a saturated mixture
• Other parameter values (e.g. v, u, h, s) depend on the quantity of vapor and liquid in the
mixture

• Quality: faction of vapor mass present in the saturated liquid-vapor mixture

masssaturated vapor mg
x 
masstotal m f  mg

• Saturated liquid: x = 0
– No mass of substance is vapor
• Saturated vapor: x = 1
– All mass is substance is vapor
• Saturated Mixture
– 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (i.e. state 3)

11
1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables
Property Values of Saturated liquid-vapor MIXTURE
• Average value given in terms of quality

Example: Container of Saturated MIXTURE

• Liquid has mass mf and occupies volume Vf
• Vapor has mass mg and occupies volume Vg

We note
• 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑔
• 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔
• 𝑉 =𝑣∗𝑚
• 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 ∗ 𝑚𝑓 & 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑣𝑔 ∗ 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 −𝑚𝑔
• = = 1−𝑥
• 𝑣 ∗ 𝑚 = 𝑣𝑓 ∗ 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑣𝑔 ∗ 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑣𝑓 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑔 𝑚𝑔 • Specific volume of Mixture:
• 𝑣=𝑚 +𝑚
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 • 𝑣 = 1 − 𝑥 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑔
• Definition of quality OR
• 𝑥=𝑚
𝑚𝑔
=𝑚
𝑚𝑔 • 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓 +𝑚𝑔
12
1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables
Lever Rule: linear interpolation
• Other extensive properties (e.g. u, h, s) of a saturated
mixture can be determined by the level rule
• Example: let Y be any extensive property (i.e. mass
dependent) and y be the corresponding intensive
property (i.e. mass independent)
– The y value of a saturated liquid-vapor mixture
lies between yf and yg values
𝑌
─ 𝑦𝑓𝑔 = 𝑦𝑔 − 𝑦𝑓 with 𝑦 =
𝑚

─ 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑦𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑦𝑔 − 𝑦𝑓
─ 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑦𝑓 + 𝑥𝑦𝑓𝑔
─ Quality is related to horizontal distances in the
saturated liquid-vapor dome in the P-v or T-v
diagrams
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑓
𝑥=
𝑦𝑓𝑔
13
1.2.5.1 Saturated Tables
Exercise 1-5
Consider a closed container of water at a pressure of 700 kPa that contains 1.78 kg of
saturated liquid and 0.22 kg of saturated vapor. What is the specific volume, internal energy,
enthalpy and entropy of the mixture?
P,T
Solution:
• First find quality: 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.22𝑘𝑔 0.22 + 1.78 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑥 = 0.22𝑘𝑔 0.22 + 1.78 𝑘𝑔 = 0.11
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
• 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 0.001108 + 0.11 0.27176 = 0.031
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

… vf v vg v

Ans: v = 0.031 m3/kg, u = 902.7 kJ/kg, h = 924.7 kJ/kg, s = 2.51 kJ/kgK

1.2.5.2 Compressed Liquid
• Compressed liquid: substance’s pressure is greater
than saturation pressure.
– E.g. water at 60C, 500 kPa
– Also known as subcooled liquid because
temperature is lower than saturation temperature
at given pressure P
• E.g. water at 30C, 19.941 kPa
Table
– Compressed Liquid Tables: B.1.4 B.1.4

– Property values given as function of temperature L

for given pressure listed in heading

• Property values of compressed liquids do not vary
largely with pressure
– Increasing pressure 100 times often causes v
properties to change less than 1%.

• At P < 5 MPa for water, data are approximately

equal to the saturated liquid data at the given
temperature. We approximate many intensive
parameters y (e.g. v, u, and s data) as: 𝑦 ≅ 𝑦𝑓@𝑇

15
1.2.5.2 Compressed Liquid
Table B.1.1
Example 1-6
Show that at 2000 kPa and 200C water is a
compressed liquid and find the percentage error
associated with approximating internal energy as
internal energy for a saturated liquid at 200C.
Solution: Table B.1.4
• At T = 200C, Psat = 1553.8 kPa
• P > Psat, the state is compressed liquid
• Go to Compressed Liquid Table (B.1.4)
– u = 850.3 kJ/kg

• Approximate
solution: uf@200oC = 850.64 kJ/kg

𝑢𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥. −𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
• Percent difference: 𝑥100% = 0.04%
𝑢𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥.

• This difference is acceptable

1.2.5.3 Saturated Solid-Vapor
P
• At low temperatures, P-v-T surface is steep and flat
• Incompressible substance with specific volume that is weak
function of temperature
• 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑇 = 𝑣𝑖
• Same concept as saturated liquid-vapor applications S+V
Table:B.1.5
– Subscript “i” refers to solid
– Subscript “g” refers to vapor
– Lever rule
1.2.5.4 Superheated Vapor
P
• State with pressure lower than saturated pressure Table
B.1.3

• State with higher temperature than saturation temperature Super

heated vapor

• Consider water at 100 kPa, 200C

– T > Tsat @100kPa superheated vapor
v
• Table B.1.3
– Function of temperature for given
pressure in the heading
1.2.5.4 Tables - General
Choosing the correct table
• Need to determine the state first
– Examples:
Given: T & P Given: P & T
Is T > Tsat for Is P > Psat for
given P? given T?

No Yes No Yes

T = Tsat? T < Tsat? Superheated P = Psat? P < Psat? Compressed

Vapor Liquid

Saturated Compressed Saturated Superheated

MIXTURE Liquid MIXTURE Vapor

19
1.2.5.4 Tables - General
Choosing the correct table
• Need to determine the state first
– Examples: Given: T (or P) & y* *y is any variable: v, u, h, s

Is y < yf at given
T (or P)?

No Yes

Compressed
Is yf ≤ y ≤ yg? Liquid

No Yes

Thus, y > yg Saturated

MIXTURE

Superheated
Vapor 20
1.2.5 Using property tables
Example 1-7 STATE 1  STATE 2
Consider the closed, rigid container of water shown. The pressure is
700 kPa, the mass of the saturated liquid is 1.78 kg, and the mass of
the saturated vapor is 0.22 kg. Heat is added to the water until the
pressure increases to 8 MPa. Find the final temperature, enthalpy, and
internal energy of the water. Does the liquid level rise or fall?
HEAT

Let’s introduce a solution procedure that we will follow throughout the course.

Solution:
• System: Closed system composed of the water enclosed in the tank  mass
is constant
• Process: Volume is constant (rigid container)
• Property Relation: Steam Tables
• Because volume & mass are constant: 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ; 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 ; 𝑣 = 𝑉 𝑚 → 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
• As in Example 1-5:
– Find quality: 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.22𝑘𝑔 0.22 + 1.78 𝑘𝑔
– 𝑥 = 0.22𝑘𝑔 0.22 + 1.78 𝑘𝑔 = 0.11
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
– 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 0.001108 + 0.11 0.27176 = 0.031
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
21
1.2.5 Using property tables
• State 2 is specified by:
• P2 = 8MPa, v2 = v1 = 0.031 m3/kg

• At 8 MPa,
• vf = 0.001384 m3/kg, vg = 0.02352 m3/kg
– Is v2 < vf ? NO
– Is vf < v2 < vg ? NO
– Is vg < v2 ? YES
• v2 > vg@8000kPa  state 2 is superheated; No liquid exists! Liquid level will fall from state 12.

• Extra: Find T2, u2, h2

• P2 = 8 MPa
• Where does v = 0.031 m3/kg at 8000 kPa?
• Falls in between T = 350 and 400oC
• Interpolation gives:
• T2 = 362 C
• u2 = 2776 kJ/kg
• h2 = 3024 kJ/kg
• s2 = 6.186 kJ/kgK
22
1.2.5 Property Tables
Interpolation
• Linear interpolation is often needed if given state is in between the
property values given in the tables
Example 1-9: find specific enthalpy for T = 450C, P = 100kPa

Solution
• T > Tsat @ 100kPa  superheated vapor

• Linear interpolation
𝑇450𝐶 −𝑇400𝐶 ℎ450𝐶 −ℎ400𝐶
– =
𝑇500𝐶 −𝑇400𝐶 ℎ500𝐶 −ℎ400
50
– ℎ450𝐶 = ℎ400𝐶 + ℎ500𝐶 − ℎ400𝐶
100
– ℎ450𝐶 = 3383.1 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔

• Warning: interpolation may be

required for any table
1.2.5 Using property tables
Exercise 1-6: P,T
Fill out the following table for substance water:

Remember: quality only exists if it is underneath the ‘dome’

vf v vg v

P [kPa] T [oC] Quality, x v [m3/kg] u [kJ/kg] h [kJ/kg] s [kJ/kgK]

A 500 20
B 500 0.20
C 1400 275
D 300 0.8
E 500 3450
1.2.6 Ideal gas equation of state
Equations of State
The relationship between the state variables, temperature, pressure, and specific
volume.
Ideal gas equation of state
• Robert Boyle (1662)
– Gas pressure inversely proportional to volume: 𝑃 ∝ 1 𝑉
• Jacques Charles and Joseph Gay-Lussac (1802)
– At low pressures, volume is proportional to temperature
• Some variants of ideal gas equation

𝑇
𝑃=𝑅 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑣

Remember: Absolute temperature (K) and absolute pressure

25
1.2.6 Ideal gas equation of state
Gas constant (R)
• Each gas has specific value of R
• Related to universal gas constant (Ru) through molar mass (M, i.e. molecular
weight)
𝑅𝑢
𝑅=
𝑀
• Values of Ru are 8.314 kJ/(kmolK), 8.314 kPam3/(kmolK),

Mass (m) and molar mass (M)

• Mass is related to the moles (N) of substance through the molecular weight or
molar mass.
𝑚 = 𝑁𝑀
• Molar mass: ratio of mass to moles. Same value regardless of the system of units.
For example, in the case of air:

g kg lbm
M air  28.97  28.97  28.97
gmol kmol lbmol

26
1.2.6 Ideal gas equation of state
The combined gas law
• By writing the ideal gas equation twice for a fixed mass and simplifying, the properties of an
ideal gas at two different states can be related.
PV PV PV PV
P1V1 = m1RT1 m1  m2 so 1 1
 2 2 and, hence, 1 1
 2 2
R T1 R T2 T1 T2
P2V2 = m2RT2

Example 1-8
An ideal gas having an initial temperature of 25C undergoes the two processes described
below. Determine the final temperature of the gas.
• Process 1-2: The volume is held constant while the pressure doubles.
• Process 2-3: The pressure is held constant while the volume is reduced to 1/3 of the
original volume.
P
Solution:
Process 1-2: 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ; 𝑃2 = 2𝑃1 p2 Extra: plot the processes
• 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑃1 → 273.15 + 25 𝐾 ∗ 2; 𝑇2 = 596.3𝐾 on the P-V diagram

1 p1
Process 2-3: 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 ; 𝑉3 = 𝑉2
3
• 𝑇3 = 𝑇2 𝑉3 𝑉2 → 596.3𝐾 ∗ 1/3 = 198.8𝐾 V
v2 v1 27
 1.2.6 Ideal gas equation of state
• IDEAL GAS: good approximation for the behavior of many gases and vapors encountered
in real engineering problems.
• When can Ideal Gas assumption be used?
(1) gas pressure is very small compared (2) gas temperature is twice the
to the critical pressure (and the critical temperature and the
substance is in the gas/vapour phase). OR pressure is less than 10 times the
critical pressure

• Water vapor (i.e. steam) is

often mistaken as an ideal gas.
• There is only a certain regime
of steam that can be
approximated as an ideal gas
• Graph shows approximate error
in assuming ideal gas for state
location (water)
• Common gases that can often
be treated as ideal gas
• Air, N2, O2, H2, CO2, CO,
Ar
• Often valid for 28
temperatures < 1000K
 1.2.6 Ideal gas equation of state
• IDEAL GAS: good approximation for the behavior of many gases and vapors encountered
in real engineering problems.
• When can Ideal Gas assumption be used?

Examples 1-9
a) Water: The region for which water behaves as an ideal gas is in the superheated region
and depends on both temperature and pressure. Often when water is encountered in
engineering problems, the ideal gas assumption may not be used to solve problems. We
must use the real gas relations (e.g. data from the property tables).

b) Oxygen/Nitrogen: The critical pressure and temperature for oxygen are 5.08 MPa and
154.8 K, respectively. For temperatures 300-1000 K and pressures less than 50 MPa (1
atmosphere pressure is around 0.1 MPa) oxygen/nitrogen is considered to be an ideal gas
and the ideal gas equation can be used.
29
1.2.6.1 Ideal Gas Exercises
Exercise 1-7
Calculate the specific volume of nitrogen at 300 K and 8.0 MPa and compare the result with the
value given in a nitrogen table as v = 0.01484 m3/kg. The critical temperature of nitrogen is
126.2 K, its critical pressure is 3.39 MPa and its gas constant (R) is 0.2968 kJ/kgK. Why are
values using the ideal gas equation different than the tables?

Ans: 0.01113 m3/kg

Exercise 1-8
Determine the particular gas constant for air (M=28.97 kJ/(kmolK)) and hydrogen (M=2.016
kJ/(kmolK)).

Ans: 0.2869 kJ/(kmol K), 4.124 kJ / (kmol K)

30