GHJ

Welding
Table of Contents
1. Section 1 Fundamentals of Welding

2. Section 2 Welding Metallurgy
3. Section 3 Welding Design
4. Section 4 Welding Equipment & Consumables
5. Section 5 WPS & PQR
6. Section 6 Welding Inspections & Techniques
7. Section 7 Welding Defects, Causes & Remedies
8. Useful Websites
Fundamentals of Welding
Section 1
Welding
Definition 1:
Welding is a complex, metallurgical process involving

melting, solidification, gas-metal reactions, surface
phenomena and solid state reactions for joining metals.
Definition 2:
Welding is the joining of multiple pieces of metal by the

use of heat and or pressure. A union of the parts is
created by fusion or re-crystallization across the metal
interface. Welding can involve the use of filler material,
or it can involve no filler.
Major classification of welding
• Arc Welding
• Resistance Welding
• Flash Welding
• Oxyfuel Gas Welding
• Solid State Welding
• Electron Beam Welding
• Laser Beam welding
• Brazing
• Soldering
• Adhesive Bonding
• Thermal Spraying
Arc Welding:
Definition
– A fusion process wherein the coalescence of the
metals is achieved from the heat of an electric arc
formed between an electrode and the work.
Arc Welding Processes

• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)/ stick welding
• Sub-merged arc welding (SAW)
• Gas metal arc and flux cored arc welding (GMAW)
• Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
• plasma arc welding (PAW)
• Electrogas welding
• Electroslag welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding

(SMAW)/ Stick Welding
DIAGRAM 1
DIAGRAM 2
Overview of Process
SMAW is an early arc welding process used for
ferrous and several nonferrous base metals. It uses
a covered electrode consisting of a core wire
around which a concentric clay-like mixture of
silicate binders and powdered materials (such as
fluorides, carbonates, oxides, metal alloys and
cellulose) is extruded. This covering is a source of
arc stabilizers, gases to displace air, metal and slag
to protect, support and insulate the hot weld metal.
Tools & Equipment

• Electrode (consumable & non-consumable)
• Electrode Holder
• Electrode Cable
• Welding Machine (AC or DC Power Source)
• Work Cable
• Clamp
• Filler Metal
• Welding Helmet
• Protective Clothing
Advantages
• Many welding applications with small variety of
electrodes.
• Simple, portable,& inexpensive equipment
• Self flux provided by electrode
• Provides all position flexibility
• Weld can be made in Confined location
Limitations
• Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons.
• Not used for aluminum and its alloys, or copper and
its alloys (energy density is too high).
• Best suitable for joining metals of
sections1/8 to 3/4 in.(3 to 9 mm) thickness.
• Groove weld joints in plate thickness normally
require edge preparation to allow proper access to
the root of the joint.
• Typical current range is between 50 and 300A.
Limitations contd…
• Special electrodes can be used as high as 600A and
others as low as 30A, allowing weld metal deposition
rates of between 2 and 17 lb/h (1 & 8 KG/Hr).
• High material cost as 60% of the weight of the
purchased electrodes is deposited as filler metal.
Applications
• Construction
• Pipelines
• Shipbuilding
• Fabrication job shops.
• Maintenance Industries
Common Defects
• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Incomplete Fusions
• Inadequate joint penetration.
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
SUB-MERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Diagram 1
Overview of Process
In SAW, the arc and molten meta; are shielded by an
envelope of molten flux and a layer of unused
granular flux particles. When the arc is struck , the
tip of the continuously fed electrode is submerged
in the flux and the arc is therefore not visible. The
weld is made without the intense radiation that
characterizes an open arc process and with little
fumes.
Tools, Equipment & Materials

•Electrode (consumable & non-consumable)
• Electrode Holder
• Electrode Cable
• Power Source (600 to 2000A output)
• Automatic Wire Feed
• Tracking System
• Work Lead
• Weld Backing
• Filler Metal
• Welding Helmet
• Protective Clothing
Advantages
• Useful for welding both Sheet and plate.
• Thin materials speed up to 200in/min (84mm/sec) can
be achieved.
• In thick section applications, high metal deposition
rates of 60 to 100 lb/h (27 to 45 kg/h).
• Least Expensive in operating cost
• Edge preparation is not required due to the usage of
DCEP (Direct Current Electrode Positive).
• Consistent weld quality
Limitations
• Welds can only be made in the flat and horizontal
positions.
• Used for all grade of carbons, low alloy and allow
steels. Stainless Steel and some nickel alloys are
also effectively welded or used as surfacing filler
metals with the process.
• Power Source, Three Phase 220V or 440V
• Single phase 440V.
Applications
• Used for all grade of carbons, low alloy and alloy

steels. Stainless Steel and some nickel alloys are
also effectively welded or used as surfacing filler
Pipelines.
• Jobs require deposition of large quantities of filler
metal.
• Fabrication job shops.
• Maintenance Industries.
• Pipelines
Common Defects
• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

Diagram 1
Diagram 2
Overview of Process
GMAW process use a continuous solid wire to
provide filler metal, and use gas to shield the arc
and weld metal. The electrode is solid and all of the
shielding gas is supplied by an external source. The
shielding gas used has a dual purpose of protecting
the arc and weld zones from air and providing
desired arc characteristics. Gases are used
depending on the reactivity of the metal and the
design of the joint to be welded.
GMAW Process Variations
In GMAW, the common variations of shielding gases, power sources
and electrodes have significant effects that can produce three
different modes of metal transfer across the arc. These are:
1) Spray Transfer
It describes an axial transfer of small discrete droplets of metal at
rates of several hundred per second.
2) Globular Transfer
In this process variation, carbon dioxide-rich gases are used to
shield the arc and welding zone.
3) Short Circuiting Transfer
In this transfer, the average current and deposition rates can be
limited by using power sources which allow metal to be transferred
across the arc only during intervals of controlled short circuits
occurring at rates in excess of 50 per second.
Tools, Equipment, Material

• A variable speed motor and motor control
• Welding gun
• Gas Nozzle on gun
• A system of cables, hoses, electrical connections and
casings.
• A mount for the spooled or coiled electrode.
• A control station containing the relays, solenoids and
timers.
• A source of shielding gas.
• Power Source (2KW to 20 KW)
• Water supply
• Shielding gas argon, nitrogen, helium
Advantages
• Long welds can be made without starts and stops.
• Minimal skill required.
• Minimal cleaning of surface before weld

• Allows welding in all positions
• High deposition frequency around 95-100% with solid
electrodes, 80-85% with gas-shielded cored
electrodes and 80-85% with the self shielded cored
electrodes.
Limitations
• Ferrous metals welding in all positions if they are
less than ¼ in (6mm) thickness.
• Globular and spray transfer are restricted to
welding steels in the flat and horizontal positions.
Applications
Common Defects
• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
FLUXED CORE ARC WELDING (FCAW)

Diagram
Overview of Process
FCAW process uses cored electrodes instead of
solid electrodes for joining ferrous metals. The flux
core may contain minerals, ferroalloys and
materials that provide shielding gases, deoxidizers
and slag forming materials.

• A variable speed motor and motor control
• Welding gun
• A system of cables, hoses, electrical connections
and casings.
• A mount for the spooled or coiled electrode.
• A control station containing the relays, solenoids
and timers.
• Water supply
Advantages
• Long welds can be made without starts and stops.
• Minimal skill required.
• Minimal cleaning of surface before weld

• Allows welding in all positions
• 80-85% with gas-shielded cored electrodes and 80-
85% with the self shielded cored electrodes.
Limitations
• Used Cored electrodes instead of solid electrodes.
• Used for ferrous metals.
Applications
• Ferrous metals in all positions.
• Produce vertical welds at deposition rates in
excess of 5 lb/h(2 kg/h).
Common Defects
• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

Diagram 1
DIAGRAM 2
Overview of Process
GTAW uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
which must be shielded with an inert gas.The arc is
initiated between the tip of the electrode and work
to melt the metal being welded, as well as the filler
metal, when used. A gas shield protects the
electrode and the molten weld pool, and provides
the arc characteristics.
• Welding Torch
•Tungsten Electrode
• Inert Gas
• Pressure regulators and flow meters
• Welding face shield
• Protective clothing
Current range 200A to 500A)
• High Frequency Oscillator
• Welding wire
Advantages
• Welds with or without filler metal
• Precise control of welding variables (heat)
• Low distortion
• Higher quality root pass.
• Accommodate wide range of thickness, positions and
geometries.
• Portable Equipment
• Combination with GMAW or SMAW produce good
results for pipe welding.
Limitations
• More training time required as GMAW & SMAW.
• More expensive than SMAW
• Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or stick
welding
• Lower deposition rates
• More costly for welding thick sections
Applications
• Most commonly used for aluminum and
stainless steel.
• For steel
– Except for thin sections or where very
high quality is needed
Common Defects
• Porosity
• Cracks
Resistance Welding
• Definition:
– This is a group of fusion welding processes that
use heat and pressure to make the coalescence.
• The heat comes from electrical resistance to
current flow at the site of the weld.
– The processes include:

• Spot Welding
• Projection Welding
• Seam Welding
Diagram
Resistance Welding
• Spot Welding
– A process typically used in high-volume, rapid welding
applications.
• The pieces to be joined are clamped between two
electrodes under force, and an electrical current is sent
through them.
– The advantages of spot welding are many and
include the fact that it is:
• An economical process
• Adaptable to a wide variety of materials including low
carbon steel, coated steels, stainless steel, aluminum,
nickel, titanium, and copper alloys
• Applicable to a variety of thicknesses
• A process with short cycle times
• A robust process
• Tolerant to fit-up variations
Gas Welding
There are three major processes within this group:
1- oxyacetylene welding
2- oxyhydrogen welding
3- pressure gas welding.

General Gas Welding Procedures

Oxyfuel gas welding (OEW) is a group of welding processes which
join metals by heating with a fuel gas flame or flares with or without
the application of Pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal.
Fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in the proper proportions in a

mixing chamber which may be part of the welding tip assembly.
Molten metal from the plate edges and filler metal, if used, intermix
in a Common molten pool. Upon cooling, they coalesce to form a
continuous
piece.
Brazing
Process Overview
Brazing is a group of welding processes in
which the joint is heated to a suitable
temperature in the presence of a filler metal
having a liquidus above 840 F (450 C) and
below the solidus of the base metal.
Major Considerations:
• Joint Design
• Filler Metal
• Uniform heating
• Protective or reactive shielding
Various Brazing Processes
• Torch Brazing
• Furnace Brazing
• Induction Brazing
• Dip Brazing
• Infrared Brazing
• Diffusion Brazing
Soldering
Process Overview
Soldering involves heating a joint to a suitable
temperature and using a filler metal (solder)
which melts below 840 F (450 C).
Major Considerations:
• Joint Design
• Filler Metal
• Uniform heating
• Protective or reactive shielding
Various Soldering Processes
• Dip Soldering (DS)
• Iron Soldering (INS)
• Resistance Soldering (RS)
• Induction Soldering (IS)
• Torch Soldering (TS)
• Furnace Soldering (FS)
• Infrared Soldering (IRS)
• Ultrasonic Soldering
Adhesive Bonding
Process Overview
Adhesive Bonding is a joining process which is
gaining acceptance as an assembly method for joining
metals.
Advantages:
• Minimal Training.
• Capable of joining dissimilar metals like metals to
plastics
• Bonding very thin sections without distortion
• Very thin sections to thick sections
• Joining heat sensitive alloys
• Producing bonds with unbroken surface contours.
• Low Cost
Adhesive Bonding
Dis-advantages:
• Joints produced, may not support shear or impact
loads.
• Must have adhesive layer less than 0.005 in
(0.13mm) thick.
• Joints can not sustain operational temperatures
exceeding 500 F (260 C)Surfaces to be bonded
requires special cleaning.
• Some adhesives are to be used quickly after mixing.
• NDT of adhesive joints is difficult.
Welding Processes in Descon
Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Sub-Merged Arc Welding (SAW)
Adhesive Bonding
BACK TO TOC
SECTION 2
Welding Metallurgy
OVERVIEW OF JOINING
PROCESSES
Welding Metallurgy
General Metallurgy
Understanding of welding metallurgy requires a broad knowledge

of general metallurgy.
Structure of Metals
Solid metals have a crystalline structure in which the atoms of

each crystal are arranged in a specific in a specific geometric
pattern. This orderly arrangement of the atoms, called a lattice, is
responsible for many of the properties of metals.
Welding Metallurgy
Structure of Metals
Welding Metallurgy
Solidification Process
Welding Metallurgy
Phase Transformations
Critical Temperature
A specific temperature at which metals change their
crystallographic structure.
Phase Diagram
A drawing showing metallurgical events such as phase changes
and solidification. ( Sometime referred to as an equilibrium
diagram or a constitution diagram)
Welding Metallurgy
IRON CARBON DIAGRAM

Welding Metallurgy
Figure 1 shows the equilibrium diagram for combinations of carbon in a solid solution of iron.
The diagram shows iron and carbons combined to form Fe-Fe3C at the 6.67%C end of the
diagram. The left side of the diagram is pure iron combined with carbon, resulting in steel
alloys.
Three significant regions can be made relative to the steel portion of the diagram.
1- Eutectoid E
2- Hypoeutectoid A
3- Hypereutectoid B.
The right side of the pure iron line is carbon in combination with various forms of iron
called alpha iron (ferrite), gamma iron (austenite), and delta iron.
The black dots mark clickable sections of the diagram.
Allotropic changes take place when there is a change in crystal lattice structure.
From 2802º-2552ºF the delta iron has a body-centered cubic lattice structure.
At 2552ºF, the lattice changes from a body-centered cubic to a face-centered cubic lattice
type. At 1400ºF, the curve shows a plateau but this does not signify an allotropic change.
It is called the Curie temperature, where the metal changes its magnetic properties.
Two very important phase changes take place at 0.83%C and at 4.3% C. At 0.83%C,
the transformation is eutectoid, called pearlite.
gamma (austenite) --> alpha + Fe3C (cementite)
At 4.3% C and 2066ºF, the transformation is eutectic, called ledeburite.
L(liquid) --> gamma (austenite) + Fe3C (cementite)
Welding Metallurgy
Properties of Metals
Properties of metals can be divided into five

general groups:
• Mechanical
• Physical
• Corrosion
• Optical
• Nuclear
Welding Metallurgy
Table of Metal Properties
Welding Metallurgy
Mechanical Properties
Modulus of elasticity
A convenient way of appraising the ability of a
metal to resist stretching(strain) under stress in the
elastic range is by the ration E between the stress
and the corresponding strain.
E= Stress / Strain
Elastic Limit
Elastic behavior of a metal reaches limit at a level
of stress called the elastic limit.
Welding Metallurgy
Yield Strength
The stress level at which the metal exhibits its
specified deviation from the proportionality of
stress and strain.
Tensile Strength
The ratio of the maximum load sustained by a
tensile test specimen to the original cross-sectional
area is called the ultimate tensile strength.
Welding Metallurgy
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue fractures developed because each
application of the tensile applied stress, even at
nominal tensile stresses lower than yield point
stress, causes the tip of a crack to advance a
minute mount (stable crack growth).
Ductility
The amount of plastic deformation that an
un-welded or welded specimen undergoes in a
mechanical test carried to fracture is considered a
major of the ductility of the metal or the weld.
Welding Metallurgy
Fracture Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a metal to resist fracture
in the presence of a notch, and to accommodate
the loads by plastic deformations.
Welding Metallurgy
Physical Properties
Thermal Conductivity
The rate at which heat is transmitted through a
material by conduction is called thermal
conductivity or thermal transmittal.
Melting Temperature:
The temperature at which metal starts melting.
Thermal expansion and contraction:

Change in volume of metals when they heated and
cooled during welding.
Welding Metallurgy
Corrosion Properties
The corrosion properties of a metal determine its

mode and rate of deterioration by chemical or
electrochemical reaction in the surrounding
environment.
Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of the base metal is a
major factor in determining the choice of the
electrodes to be used for welding. The chemical
composition of the base metal influences the need
for preheating and post heating are use to
prevent the weld area from becoming brittle and
weak.
Welding Metallurgy
Type of steel Preheat
Low-Carbon Steel Room Temperature or up to 200 Degrees
Fahrenheit (93 Degrees Centigrade)
Medium-Carbon Steel 400 – 500 Degrees Fahrenheit (205–260 Degrees
Centigrade)
High-Carbon Steel 500 – 600 Degrees Fahrenheit (260–315 Degrees
Centigrade)
Low Alloy Nickel
Less than ¼” (6.4 mm) Room Temperature
thick 500 Degrees Fahrenheit (260 Degrees Centigrade)
More than ¼” (6.4 mm)
thick
Low Alloy Nickel-Chrome
Steel
Carbon content below .20% 200-300 Degrees Fahrenheit (93-150 Degrees
Centigrade)
Carbon content .20% to 600-800 Degrees Fahrenheit (315-425 Degrees
.35% Centigrade)
Welding Metallurgy
Carbon content above .35% 900-1100 Degrees Fahrenheit (480-595 Degrees
Centigrade)
Low Alloy Manganese Steel 400 – 600 Degrees Fahrenheit (205-315 Degrees
Centigrade)
Low Alloy Chrome Steel Up to 750 Degrees Fahrenheit (400 Degrees
Centigrade)
Low Alloy Molybdenum
Steel
Carbon content below .15% Room Temperature
Carbon content above .15% 400 – 650 Degrees Fahrenheit (205-345 Degrees
Centigrade)
Low Alloy High Tensile 150 – 300 Degrees Fahrenheit (66-150 Degrees
Steel Centigrade)
Austenitic Stainless Steels Room Temperature
Welding Metallurgy
Ferritic Stainless Steel 150 – 500 Degrees Fahrenheit (66-260 Degrees
Centigrade)
Martensitic Stainless Steel 150 – 300 Degrees Fahrenheit (66-150 Degrees

Centigrade)
Cast Irons 700 – 900 Degrees Fahrenheit (370-480 Degrees
Centigrade)
Note: The actual preheat needed may depend on several other

factors such as the thickness of the base metal, the amount of joint
restraint, and whether or not low-hydrogen types of electrodes
are used. This chart is intended as general information; the
specifications of the job should be checked for the specific preheat
temperature to be used.
Welding Metallurgy
Metallurgy of Welding
A weld joint consists of weld metal (which has been
melted), heat affected zones and unaffected base
metals. The metallurgy of each weld area is related
to the base and weld metal compositions, the
welding process and the procedures used.
When a weld is deposited, the first grains to solidify
are nucleated by the un-melted base metals, and
these grains maintain the same crystal orientation.
Depending upon composition and solidification
rates, the weld solidifies in cellular or dendritic
growth mode. Both modes cause segregation of
alloying elements. Consequently, the weld matter
may be less homogenous than the base metal.
Welding Metallurgy
Figure
Welding Metallurgy
Heat Affected Zone
• The weld heat-affected zone is adjacent to the weld metal.
• The heat-affected zone is that portion of the base metal that has
not been
melted, but whose mechanical properties or microstructure
have been altered by the heat of welding.
• The width of the heat-affected zone is a function of the heat

input.
• Heat-affected zones are often defined by the response of the

welded joint to hardness variation or micro structural changes.
Welding Metallurgy
Fusion Weld Structure
Fusion line
Weld preparation
Base Weld metal

HAZ HAZ
metal
Thermal Gradients in Haz
Temperature
Fusion line
Fusion line + 2mm
Fusion line + 5 mm
Time
Welding Metallurgy
Haz Structure
• High peak temperature
• High temperature gradient
– Variable cooling rate
• Superimposed HAZs in multipass welds
• Welding stresses affect transformation
Welding Metallurgy
Multi pass Fusion Weld
Last weld run
Previous weld run

Welding Metallurgy
Weld Properties
• Weld metal has different composition & thermal
history to base metal
• Welding heat modifies adjacent base metal (HAZ)
• Variation in strength, ductility & corrosion

resistance across welds
Welding Metallurgy
Definition of Weldability
• The capacity of a material to be welded under the

imposed fabrication conditions into a specific,
suitably designed structure & to perform
satisfactorily in intended service.
• (ANSI / AWS A3.0)

Welding Metallurgy
Factors Affecting Weldability
• WELDABILITY is often considered to be a
material property, however the effect of other
variables should not be ignored.
• Design of WELDMENT
• Its service conditions
• Choice of welding process

Welding Metallurgy
Residual Stresses
Welding Metallurgy
Residual Stress in a Butt Weld
σ
sy
σ
sx
X X σ
sx
Compression 0 Tension
σy Tension
X X
Compression
Welding Metallurgy
Heat Treatment of Metals for Welding
When a weld is made:
• the metal in and around the weld joint is heated to a
range of temperatures as the distance from the weld joint increases.
(temperature gradient)
Because of the Uneven heating, the strength, ductility, grain size and
other metal properties may vary greatly and affect the strength of the
metal in the weld area.
Welder will use, as per WPS:

• preheating
• concurrent (continuous) heating and/or
• post heating to avoid temperature

gradients in the weld area.
Welding Metallurgy
Heat Treatment of Metals
Heat-treating serves following purposes:

• Develop ductility.
• Improve machining qualities.
• Relieve stresses.
• Change grain size.
• Increase hardness or tensile strength.
• Change chemical composition of metal surface as
in case hardening.
• Alter magnetic properties.
• Modify electrical conduction properties.
• Induce toughness.
• Recrystallize metal, which has been cold, worked.
(….contd.)
Welding Metallurgy
Heat Treatment of Metals
During heat treatment there are three factors

of great importance:
1. Temperature to which the metal is heated.
2. Length of time that the metal is held at that

temperature
3. Speed of cooling (a time factor).
BACK TO TOC
Section 3
Welding Design
Welding Design
Design Basics
Weldment
A weldment is an assembly that has component
parts joined by welding. It may be a bridge, a
building frame, an automobile, a truck body, a
trailer hitch, a piece of machinery, or an offshore
tubular structure.
Basic Objectives:
1) Will perform its intended functions.
2) Will have the required reliability and safety
3) Is capable of being fabricated, inspected,
transported and placed in service at minimum
total cost
Welding Design
Knowledge & Experience required for
Designer of Weldments:
• Basic design concepts
• Cutting and shaping of metals
• Assembly of components
• Preparation and fabrication of welded joints
• Weld acceptance criteria, inspection, mechanical testing and
evaluation.ill perform its intended
• Mechanical and physical properties of metals and weldments
• Welding processes, costs and variations in welding procedures.
• Filler metals and properties of weld metals
• Thermal effects of welding.
• Effects of restraint and stress concentrations
• Control of distortion
• Communication of weldment design to the shop, including the use of
welding symbols
• Applicable welding and safety standards.
Welding Design
Design Program
• Analyses of existing design
When designing an entirely new machine or structure,
information should be obtained about similar units,
including those of other manufacturers or builders.
If a new design is to replace an existing design , the
strengths and weaknesses of the existing design should be
determined first. Following questions can help in that:
1) Hat are the opinions of customers and the sales force
about the existing products?
2) Hat has been the performance history of the existing
products?
3) What features should be retained, discarded, or added?
4) What suggestions for improvements have been made?
Welding Design
Major Design Factors
• Strengths and stiffness requirements
• Realistic Safety factor
• Good appearance
• Deep, symmetrical sections
• Rigidity
• Tubular sections or diagonal bracing
• Standard rolled sections, plate and bar
• Accessibility for maintenance
• Standard commercially available components
Welding Design
Designing the Weldment
General Pointers for effective weldemnt design:
1) Design for easy handling of materials, inexpensive
tooling, and accessibility of joints for reliable welding
2) Check with the shop for idea that can contribute cost
savings.
3) Establish realistic tolerances base on end use and
suitability for service. Excessively close tolerances
serve no useful purpose, and increase cost.
4) Minimize the no of piecers
Welding Design
Designing the Welded Joints
Definitions
• Joints - Arrangements of members being joined
– Butt, tee, lap, corner, flare
• Welds - Geometry of weld detail selected to make

the joint
– Butt, fillet, plug & slot
Welding Design
Joint Types
Butt
Tee
Edge
Lap Corner
Welding Design
Weld Types
• Butt weld
– Between mating members
– Best quality
– High weld preparation cost
• Fillet weld
– Easy preparation
– Asymmetric loads, lower design
loads
• Plug & slot welds
– Modified fillet welds in lap joints,
using holes through one member
Welding Design
Fillet Welds
• Simple & cheap to assemble & weld

• Stress concentrations at toes & root
• Notch at root (fatigue, toughness)
• Critical dimension is throat
thickness
• Root gap affects throat thickness
• Radiography & ultrasonic testing is
of limited use
• Large fillets use a lot of weld metal
& therefore are uneconomic
Welding Design
Fillet Weld Terms
Toe
Weld face
Toe
Root Throat
thickness
Gap
Apparent leg length

Welding Design
Butt Welds
• Types:
– Double welded butt
– Permanent or temporary backing
– Single welded butt
• Lower stress concentration
• Easier ultrasonic testing or radiography
• Expensive preparation
Welding Design
Butt Weld Types
Single vee
Single bevel Double vee
can be single
or double welded
Backed butt (permanent or temporary)

Welding Design
Butt Weld Terms
Fusion face Included angle
Bevel angle
Reinforcement
Toe
Root face
Root
gap
Root run Toe
Welding Design
‘J’ & ‘U’ Preparations
“U” preparation
Root radius
Land
Double “U” butt

Welding Design
Structural Tubular Connections
Tubular members are being used in structures such as

drill rigs, space frames, trusses, booms and earth
moving & mining equipment.
They have the advantage of minimizing defections under
load because of their grater rigidity when compare to
standard structural shapes.
Various types of welded tubular connections, the
component designations and nomenclature are shown in
next figure.
Welding Design
AS1101.2 Drawing Symbols
OTHER SIDE
Tail Reference line
ARROW SIDE
Arrow points to weld
location
Weld type symbol
Welding Design
Typical AS1101.2 Symbols
6mm
CJP
6
BACK TO TOC
Section 4
Welding Equipments & Consumables
Welding Equipment & Consumables
Welding Electrode
Solder Wire
Electrode Holder
Welding Equipment and Tools
CO2 Regulator Welding & Cutting Torch
Electric Welder BACK TO TOC Air Hoses

Section 5
WPS & PQR
WPS & PQR
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)
A document providing in detail the required variables

for specific application to assure repeatability by
properly trained welders.
Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)
A document used for recording the results of

qualification tests.
WPS & PQR
Welder Performance Qualification (WPQ)
Welders or welding operator’s ability to produce

welded joints that meet prescribed standards.
Certification
The results of welding procedure or performance

qualification must be certified by an authorized
representative of the organization performing the
qualified tests.
WPS & PQR
Welder Procedure Major Parts
Welding procedure consists of three parts as follows:
• A detailed written explanation of how the weld is to be

made
• A drawing or sketch showing the weld joint design
and the conditions for making each pass or bead
• A record of the test results of the resulting weld.
WPS & PQR
Why we need WPS for welding
As welding becomes a modern engineering
technology it requires that the various elements
involved be identified in a standardized way.
A welding procedure is used to make a record of all of
the different elements, variables, and factors that are
involved in producing a specific weld or weldment.
Welding procedures should be written whenever it is
necessary to:
• Maintain dimensions by controlling distortion
• Reduce residual or locked up stresses
• Minimize detrimental metallurgical changes
• Consistently build a weldment the same way
• Comply with certain specifications and codes.
WPS & PQR
Essential Variables
Essential variables are those factors which must be

recorded and if they are changed in any way, the
procedure must be retested and re-qualified.
Non- Essential Variables
Nonessential variables are usually of less importance

and may be changed within prescribed limits and the
procedure need not be re-qualified.
WPS & PQR
Essential Variables
Essential variables involved in the procedure usually
include the following:
• The welding process and its variation
• The method of applying the process
• The base metal type, specification, or composition
• The base metal geometry, normally thickness
• The base metal need for preheat or postheat
• The welding position
• The filler metal and other materials consumed in
making the weld
• The weld joint, that is, the joint type and the weld
• Electrical or operational parameters involved
• Welding technique.
WPS & PQR
Non- Essential Variables
Some specifications include nonessential variables
are following:
• The travel progression (uphill or downhill)

• The size of the electrode or filler wire
• Certain details of the weld joint design
• The use and type of weld backing
• The polarity of the welding current.
WPS & PQR
Descon Systems
MS for WPS
Formats
WPQ, WPS, PQR, WQT
WPS & PQR
Tools & Equipments
• Welding rectifier or other applied welding
equipment.
• Tong tester/Multi Meter
• Welding gauge
• Vernier caliper
• Measuring tape
• Stop watch
• Inspection torch
• Temple sticks (as required)
• Welding inspection mirror
• Desicator
• Oven
• Temperature Recorder
• White marker
WPS & PQR
Specific References from ASME Section 9
Article II Welding Procedure Qualifications

QW-200 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
QW-210 Preparation of Test Coupon . . . . 16
QW-250 Welding Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Article III Welding Performance Qualifications

QW-300 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
QW-310 Qualification Test Coupons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
QW-320 Retests and Renewal of Qualification. . . . . 51
QW-350 Welding Variables for Welders . . . . .. . . . . . 52
QW-360 Welding Variables for Welding Operators . .53
QW-380 Special Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
BACK TO TOC
Section 6
Welding Inspection & Techniques
Welding Inspection
Inspection are performed on weldments to verify that
the weld quality meets the specification and to
determine if weld quality is degraded during service.
Non-Destructive Examination
Those inspection methods that allow materials to to be
examined without changing or destroying their
usefulness.
NDE Requirements
All NDE methods must include the following to render

valid examination results:
• A trained operator
• A procedure for conducting the tests
• A system for reporting the results
• A standard to interpret the results

Non-Destructive Examination Methods
• Visual inspection, with or without optical aids (VT)

• Liquid Penetrant (PT)
• Magnetic Particle (MT)
• Radiography (RT)
• Eddy Current (ET)
• Ultrasonic (UT)
• Acoustic emission (AET)
• Heat Transfer
• Ferrite Testing
Visual inspection (VT)
• With eyes where access

• With mirror
• Illumunator
• Boroscopy
• For record keeping using the camera
References
• ASME Section I, Power Boilers

• ASME Section VIII, Divisions 1 & 2. Pressure
Vessels
• ASME B31.1, Power Piping
• API 620 & API 650, Welded Steel Tanks
Acceptance Standards
The following minimum acceptance standards
apply to visual examinations performed on all welds
during and after welding. The following indications
are unacceptable:
• All external surface cracks.
• Undercut on the surface which is greater than 1/32
inch deep or ten percent (10%) of the wall
thickness, whichever is less.
• Surface porosity.
• Lack of fusion on the surface.
• Incomplete penetration (when inside surface is
accessible for examination) except for partial
penetration welds.
Penetrant Testing (PT)
• For Open to the Surface Defects

• Pin Hole
• Under Cutting
• Cracks
• Grinding Marks etc.
Types of PT
• Solvent Remover
• Simple Method
• Penetrant
• Developer
• Cleaner
Reference Codes
ASME Sec. V
Client Specifications
Acceptance Standards
ASME VIII
Client Specifications.
MT (Magnetic Particle Testing)
• For Open to the Surface Defects

• Just below the Surface Under Cutting
• Use only for Ferro Magnetic Material
Types of MT
Visible Method (Iron Oxide Ink)

• Black & White Contrast
Fluorescent Method
• Fluorescent Magnetic Ink
• UV Light
Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment (MT)
• Hand Yoke AC & DC

• Central Conductor Unit
• Magnetizing Coil
• Prude Conductor
• Field Indicator
References Code
• ASME V
• Client’s Specifications
Equipment
• AC Hand Yoke type Equipment

Acceptable Standards
ASME VIII
Client Specifications.
Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (UT)

1) Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Machine
• Internal Defects
• Thickness Measurements
Principles
• High Frequency Sound Waves
• 0.5 MHz to 25 MHz
• Human Hearing Range 20 MHz to 20 KHz
• Scan of the Body on maximum Thickness upto 5 meters
• Depending upon Probe Capacity
• Defect Sizing
• Defect Location
• Thickness Measurement
• Permanent Record at the Shape of graph
Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (UT)
2) Vacuum Box
• Detection of leak
Vacuum Box Testing Equipment

• Vacuum Box (API 650)
• Devices (Calibrated Gauges)
Vacuum Drawn
• 3 PSIG Minimum
Vacuum Box Overlap
• 50 mm Minimum
Application
• Soap Solution
•10 ~ 50 °C
• Surface Cleaning
• Illumination Properly
• Observation not less than 10 sec.
• Marking of Leakage Portion
• Inspection Report
Radiographic Testing (RT)

1) Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Machine
• Internal Defect detection
Equipment
• Xray Machine
• Gama Rays Projector
Radio Isotope Source
• IR192\
• CO 60
• CS 137
Video
BACK TO TOC
Section 7
Welding Defects, Causes &
Remedies
Welding Defects, Causes & Remedies
Each weld should be:

• Adequately designed to meet the intended service for
the required life.
• Fabricated with specified materials and in accordance
with the design concepts.
• Operated and maintained properly.
Quality considerations are:
• Physical features, normally examined by inspectors
• Hardness
• Chemical composition
• Mechanical properties
Porosity
Slag Inclusions
Entrapped slag discontinuities typically occur only with

the flux shielded welding processes: shielded metal arc,
flux cored arc, submerged arc, and electro slag welding.
Entrapped slag is:

• A reaction product of the flux and the molten weld metal
• Oxides, nitrides and other impurities may dissolve in the

slag to refine the weld metal
Factors preventing release of slag:
• High viscosity weld metal
• Rapid solidification
• Insufficient welding heat
• Improper manipulation of the electrode
• Undercut on previous passes

Common Causes and Remedies of Porosity
Cause Remedies
Excessive hydrogen, nitrogen, or oxygen in Use low-hydrogen welding process, filler metals
welding atmosphere high in deoxidizers, increase shielding gas flow
High solidification rate Use preheats or increases heat input.
Dirty base metal Clean joint faces and adjacent surfaces.
Dirty filler wire Use special cleaned and packaged filler wire,
and stored in clean area.
Improper arc length, welding current or electrode Change welding conditions and techniques.
manipulation
Volatization of zinc form brass Use copper-silicon filler metal, reduce heat
input.
Galvanized steel Use E6010 electrodes and manipulate the arc
heat to volatize the zinc ahead of the molten
weld pool.
Excessive moisture in electrode covering or on Use recommended procedures for baking and
joint surface storing electrodes preheat the base metal.
High sulphur base metal Use electrodes with basic slagging recreations
Common Causes and Remedies of Slag Inclusions
Cause Remedies
Failure to remove slag Clean surface and previous weld bead
Entrapment of refractory oxides Power Wire brush the previous weld
bead
Tungsten in the weld metal Avoid contact between the electrode
and the work. Use larger electrode
Irnproper joint design Increase groove angle of joint
Oxide inclusions Provide proper gas shielding
Slag flooding ahead of the welding arc Reposition work to prevent loss of
slag control
Poor electrode manipulative technique Change electrode or flux to improve
slag control
Entrapped pieces of electrode Use undamaged electrodes Covering
Common Causes and Remedies of Inadequate Joint Penetration
Causes Remedies
Excessively thick root face or Use proper joint geometry
insufficient root opening
Insufficient heat input Follow welding procedure
Slag flooding ahead of welding Adjust electrode or work position
arc.
Electrode diameter too large Use small electrodes in root or increase
root opening
Misalignment of second side weld Improve visibility or back gouge
Failure to back gouge when Back gouge to sound metal if required in
specified welding procedure specification.
Bridging of root opening Use wider root opening or smaller
electrode in root pass.
Common Causes and Remedies of Cracking
Causes Remedies
WELD CRACKING
Highly rigid joint Preheat
Reliever residual stresses mechanically
Minimize shrinkage stresses using back step or
block welding
Excessive dilution Sequence
Change welding current and travel speed
Weld with covered electrode negative, butter the
joint faces prior to welding
Defective electrodes Change to new electrode, bake electrode to remove
moisture
Poor fit-up Reduce root opening, build up the edges with metal.
Small weld bead Increase electrode size, raise welding current,
reduce travel speed
Higher sulphur base metal Use filler metal low in sulphur.
Angular distortion Change to balanced welding on both sides of joint.
Crater cracking Filler crater before extinguishing the arc, use a
welding current decay device when terminating the
weld bead.
Common Causes and Remedies of Cracking
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE

Hydrogen in welding atmosphere Use low-hydrogen welding process,
preheat and hold for 2h after welding or
post weld heat treat immediately
Hot cracking Use low heat input, deposit thin layers,
change base metal.
Low ductility Use preheat anneal the base metal.
High residual stresses Redesign the weldment change welding
sequence, apply intermediate stress-relief
heat treatment.
High hartdenability room Preheat increase beat input, heat treat
without cooling to temperature.
Brittle phase in the microstructure. Solution heat treat prior to welding.
SAWAN GAS DEVELOPMENT PROJECT PROJECT No. : 6430 / 6431
Common WeldingCOMMON
Defects,
WELDINGcauses andANDcures
DEFECTS, CAUSES during
CURES DURING the OF
THE WELDING welding
D.S.S of DSS
DEFECTS CAUSES CURES
1 OXIDATION IMPROPER PURGING DO PURGING AS PER WPS

¬ ¬
2 ARC DESTABILIZATION IMPROPER POINTING OR GRINDING USE PROPERLY PREPARED AND
¬ OF TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE ¬ SHARP TIPPED TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
EXCESSIVE ARC LENGTH CURRENT AND VOLTAGE SHOULD
¬ ¬ BE AS PER WPS
HIGH HEAT INPUT MAINTAIN TRAVEL SPEED AS PER
¬ ¬ WPS
3 POOR PENETRATION IMPROPER TRAVEL SPEED MAINTAIN TRAVEL SPEED AS PER
¬ ¬ WPS
POOR JOINT DESIGN ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS AS
¬ ¬ PER WPS
IMPROPER ROOT GAP PROPER ROOT GAP TO BE
¬ ¬ MAINTAINED
4 WELDING DISTORTION IMPROPER TACK WELDING AND / TACK WELD PARTS WITH
¬ OR FAULTY JOINT PREPARATION ¬ ALLOWANCE FOR DISTORTION
IMPROPER BEAD SEQUENCE USE PROPER BEAD SEQUENCE
¬ ¬
IMPROPER SET UP AND FIXTURING TACK OR CLAMP PARTS SECURELY
¬ ¬
5 CONTAMINATION WITH C.S. POOR SHOP DISCIPLINE USE SEPARATE CONSUMABLES /
¬ ¬ TOOLS FOR C.S. AND D.S.S.
6 DECREASE IN CORROSION RESISTANCE CHROMIUM DEPLETION MAINTAIN INTERPASS
¬ ¬ TEMPERATURE AS PER WPS
FORMATION OF CHROMIUM MAINTAIN ELECTRICAL
¬ NITRIDES ¬ CHARACTERISTICS AS PER WPS
HEAT INPUT AS PER WPS
¬
Useful Web Sites
Useful Web Sites
• http://www.aws.org/ American Welding Society

• http://www.ewi.org/ Welding and Joining Information Network
• http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/tc/9-237/toc.htm Welding
Theory and Application, Department of the Army, Washington, DC,
7 May 1993
• http://www.lincolnwelding.com Lincon Electric (welding supply co.)
• http://www.weldingengineer.com/ Welding Procedures and
Welding Techniques
• http://www.cigweld.com.au/litPocketGuide.asp Welding
Consumables & Equipments

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Welding

1. Section 1 Fundamentals of Welding

Welding is a complex, metallurgical process involving

Welding is the joining of multiple pieces of metal by the

Arc Welding Processes

• Sub-merged arc welding (SAW)

• Gas metal arc and flux cored arc welding (GMAW)

• Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)

• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

• plasma arc welding (PAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Tools & Equipment

SUB-MERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Tools, Equipment & Materials

• Used for all grade of carbons, low alloy and alloy

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

Tools, Equipment, Material

• Minimal cleaning of surface before weld

FLUXED CORE ARC WELDING (FCAW)

Tools, Equipment, Material

• Minimal cleaning of surface before weld

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

– The processes include:

3- pressure gas welding.

General Gas Welding Procedures

Fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in the proper proportions in a

Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Understanding of welding metallurgy requires a broad knowledge

Solid metals have a crystalline structure in which the atoms of

IRON CARBON DIAGRAM

Properties of metals can be divided into five

Thermal expansion and contraction:

The corrosion properties of a metal determine its

Martensitic Stainless Steel 150 – 300 Degrees Fahrenheit (66-150 Degrees

Note: The actual preheat needed may depend on several other

• The weld heat-affected zone is adjacent to the weld metal.

• The width of the heat-affected zone is a function of the heat

• Heat-affected zones are often defined by the response of the

Base Weld metal

Last weld run

Previous weld run

• Welding heat modifies adjacent base metal (HAZ)

• Variation in strength, ductility & corrosion

• The capacity of a material to be welded under the

• (ANSI / AWS A3.0)

• Its service conditions

• Choice of welding process

Welder will use, as per WPS:

• concurrent (continuous) heating and/or

• post heating to avoid temperature

Heat-treating serves following purposes:

During heat treatment there are three factors

1. Temperature to which the metal is heated.

2. Length of time that the metal is held at that

3. Speed of cooling (a time factor).

• Welds - Geometry of weld detail selected to make

• Simple & cheap to assemble & weld

Apparent leg length