Behaviour Modification

TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION AND AREAS
OF APPLICATION..............................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2: BASIC BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES: POSITIVE
REINFORCEMENT............................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 3: CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT.......................................................8
CHAPTER 4: DECREASING A BEHAVIOR WITH EXTINCTION............................10
CHAPTER 5: ELIMINATING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR THROUGH
PUNISHMENT..................................................................................................................12
CHAPTER 6: PROCEDURES BASED ON PRINCIPLES OF RESPONDENT
CONDITIONING..............................................................................................................15
CHAPTER 7: CAPITALIZATION ON EXISTING STIMULUS CONTROL................20
CHAPTER 8: INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT.......24
CHAPTER 9: DIRECT BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO RECORD AND
HOW..................................................................................................................................27
CHAPTER 10: FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE CAUSES OF PROBLEM
BEHAVIOR.......................................................................................................................29
CHAPTER 11: PLANNING, APPLYING AND EVALUATING A TREATMENT
PROGRAM........................................................................................................................31
CHAPTER 12: TOKEN ECONOMIES...........................................................................35
CHAPTER 13: HELPING AN INDIVIDUAL TO DEVELOP SELF CONTROL.........38
CHAPTER 14: SYSTEM SELF-DESENSITIZATION...................................................41
CHAPTER 15: COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION........................................43
Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION AND
AREAS OF APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION
Many of society’s best achievements, as well as some of its most pressing health and
social challenges from racism to heart disease to aids to terrorism – are family rooted in
behavior.
OBJECTIVES:
By the end of the chapter, the learner should be able to:
1. Distinguish behavioral deficit from behavioral excesses.
2. Outline misconceptions about behavior modification.
3. Explain behavior modification.
4. Define behavioral community psychology.
5. Describe areas of application of behavior modification.
6. Discuss the effectiveness of behavior therapy in clinical populations.
WHAT IS BEHAVIOUR
Essentially behavior is anything that a person says or does. Technically, behavior is any
muscular, glandular or electrical activity of an organism. The term behavior can also refer
to covert (private, internal) activities that occur within one’s skin and that therefore
require special instruments for those other than the person engaging in them to observe.
WHAT IS BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

The most important characteristics of behavior modification is its strong emphasis on
defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way, and using
changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the extent to
which the problem is being helped.
Another characteristic is that its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering
an individual’s environment to help that individual function more fully in society.
A third characteristic is that its methods and rationales can be described precisely.
A fourth characteristic of behavior modification is that the techniques of behavior
modification are often applied by individuals in everyday life.
The last characteristic is that to a large extent, the techniques stem from basic and applied
research in the psychology of learning in general, and the principles of operant and
parlovian conditioning in particular.
Thus behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning principles and
techniques to assess and improve individuals covert and overt behaviors in order to help
them function more fully in society.
WHAT IS BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT?

It involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to :

a) Identify and describe target behaviors.
b) Identify possible causes of the behavior.
c) Guide the selection of a n appropriate behavior treatment.
d) Evaluate treatment outcome.
SOME MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

1. Use of rewards by behavior modifiers to change behavior is bribery.
2. Behavior modification involves the use of drugs, psychosurgery and
electroconvulsive therapy.
3. Behavior modifications only changes symptoms, it doesn’t get at the underlying
problems.
4. Behavior modification can be applied to deal with simple problems such as toilet
training children or overcoming fear of heights but it is not applicable for
changing complex problems such as low esteem or depression.
5. Behavior modifiers are cold and unfeeling and don’t develop empathy with their
clients.
6. Behavior modifiers only deal with observable behavior; they don’t deal with
thoughts and feelings of clients.
7. Behavior modification is outdated.
EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL DEFICITS

1. A child does not pronounce words clearly and does not interact with other
children.
2. A teenager does not complete homework assignments, help around the house,
work in the yard or discuss problems and difficulties with her parents.
3. An adult does not pay attention to traffic regulations while driving, thank others
for courtesies and favors or meet his or her spouse at agreed-upon times.
EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL EXCESSES.

1. A child frequently gets out of bed and throws tantrums at bedtime, throws food on
the floor at mealtime and plays with the controls for the television set.
2. A teenager frequently interrupts conversations between his and other adults,
spends hours talking on the telephone in the evening and uses abusive language.
3. An adult watches television continuously, frequently eats candies and other junk
food between meals, smokes one cigarette after another and bites his or her finger
nails.
AREAS OF APPLICATION
1. PARENTING AND CHILD MANAGEMENT
In addition to meeting a child’s basic needs, parents are totally responsible for their
child’s initial behavior development; and they continues to share that responsibility with
teachers and others as the child matures through the early school years, adolescence and
into adulthood. There is numerous application of behavior modification to teach parents
methods to improve their child rearing practices.

Behavioral techniques have been applied to help parents more effectively teach their
children to walk, develop initial language skills, provide effective toile training and
influence their children to do household.
2. EDUCATION
Out-of-seat behavior, tantrums, aggressive behavior, excessive socializations have been
successfully dealt with in classroom settings. Other applications have been concerned
with modifying academic behavior directly including oral reading, reading
comprehension, creativity and mastering science concepts.
An important innovation in behavioral approaches to teaching is the personalized system
of instruction.
3. SEVERE PROBLEMS:DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES,

CHILDHOOD AUTISM AND SCHIZOPHRENIA
DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
One force was represented by normalization advocates, who argued that persons with
developmental disabilities should be helped to lead the most normative lives possible.
The second force was represented by civil rights advocates and parents of persons with
developmental disabilities who successfully secured the legal right of individuals with
severe handicaps to receive an education.
CHILDHOOD AUTISM
There are now an increasing number of government-funded programs providing behavior
analysis training for children with autism.
SCHIZOPRENIA
Cognitive behavioral techniques have been used effectively to reduce or eliminate
hallucinations or delusions in persons with schizophrenia.
4. CLINICAL BEHAVIOR THERAPY

By the early 1980’s, survey indicated that at least half of clinical child psychologist’s
followed a behavioral orientation and that behavior therapy had become one of the top
two orientations for psychologists treating adults.
5. SELF MANAGEMENT OF PERSOONAL PROBLEMS

Hundreds of successful self-modification projects directed at problems such as saving
money, increasing exercise behavior improving study habits and controlling excessive
gambling have been reported in the psychological literature.
6. MEDICAL AND HEALTH CARE

In the late 1960’s, psychologists working with physicians began using behavior
modification techniques to directly treat chronic headaches and other medical problems
such as seizure disorders, chronic pain, addictive disorders and sleep disorders.
7. GERONTOLOGY

Behavior techniques are being used increasingly to help the elderly and chronic-care
patients to solve problems such as anxiety on coping skills, forming new relationships
and habitual ways of performing daily routines at home.
8. BEHAVIORAL COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

By the 1970’s, important behavior modification projects were occurring in such areas as
controlling littering in public campgrounds, increasing recycling of returnable soft drink
containers, helping community boards to problem solve, promoting energy conservation
by increasing bus rider ship encouraging welfare recipients to attend self-help meetings
and helping college students live together in a cooperative housing project.
9. BUSINESS INDUSTRY AND GOVERNMENT

Behavioral techniques have been used to change behavior in ways that improve
productivity, decrease tardiness and absenteeism, increasing sales volume, creates new
business, improve worker safety, reduce theft by employees, reduce shoplifting and
improve management-employee relations.
10. SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Behavior modification techniques have effectively improved athletes’ skills and practical
strategies for applying these techniques have been described.
11. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION WITH CULTURALLY DIVERSE

INDIVIDUALS
Behavior modifiers have begun to pay more attention to issues of race, gender, ethnicity
and sexual orientation as variables that can influence the effectiveness of treatment.
CONCLUSION
The meteoric rise of behavior modification as a successful approach for dealing with a
wide range of human problems has been remarkable. Books and journals describe
behavioral procedures and research ranging from child raising to coping with old age and
from work to play. It had been used both with persons with profound handicaps and with
gifted students for self-improvement and to preserve the environment in which we live.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss how effective behavior therapy is with clinical populations.
2. Describe any five areas in which behavior modification is being applied.
3. Define behavior modification.
4. Outline misconceptions about behavior modification.
5. Explain behavior modification.
6. Distinguish behavioral deficit from behavioral excesses.

CHAPTER 2: BASIC BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES:
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter, the learner should be able to;
a) Define a positive rein forcer.
b) State the principle of positive reinforcement.
c) Outline guidelines for effective application of positive reinforcement.
d) Differentiate contingent reinforcement from non contingent reinforcement.
A positive rein forcer is an event tat when presented immediately following a behavior to
increase in frequency.
In conjunction with the concept of positive rein forcer, the principle called positive
reinforcement states that if in a given situation, somebody does something that is
followed immediately by a positive rein forcer, then that person is more likely to do the
sane thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.
For example, in a situation where the mother is busy ironing in the kitchen and her 3-year
old daughter begins playing with baby brother, mother has just completed her ironing and
sits down to play with daughter and baby brother for a brief period. In the future, the
daughter is more likely to play with baby brother when mother is not ironing because of
the attention given when she began paying with her baby brother.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF POSITIVE

REINFORCEMENT
1. Selecting the behavior to be increased

The behaviors to be reinforced must first be identified specifically. This increases the
likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied consistently.
2. Choosing rein forcers

Different individuals are frequently turned on by different things. In choosing effective
rein forcers for an individual it is often helpful to examine a list of rein forcers used by
others or to complete a rein forcer survey.
3. Establishing operations
Events or conditions such as deprivation and satisfaction that;
a) Temporarily alter the effectiveness of a rein forcer and
b) Alter the frequency of behavior reinforced by that rein forcer are called establishing
operations.
4. Rein forcer size

The optimum amount of a rein forcer to ensure its effectiveness will depend on other
factors such as the difficulty of the behavior and the availability of competing behaviors
for alternative rein forcers.

5. Rein forcer immediacy
For maximum effectiveness, a rein forcer should be given immediately after the desired
response.
6. Instructions: make use of rules.

For reinforcement to increase an individual’s behavior, it is not necessary that the
individual be able to talk about or indicate an understanding of why he or she was
reinforced .Nevertheless, instructions should generally be used.
7. Contingent versus Non contingent reinforcement.

When a behavior must occur before a rein forcer will be presented, we say that the rein
forcer is contingent upon that behavior. If a rein forcer is presented at a particular time,
irrespective of the preceding behavior, we say that the rein forcer is non contingent.
8. Weaning the student from the program and changing to natural rein forcers.
After we have strengthened a behavior through proper use of positive reinforcement, it
may then be possible for a rein forcer in the individual’s natural environment to take over
the maintenance of that behavior.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EFFECTIVE APPLICATION OF POSITIVE

REINFORCEMENT.
1. Selecting the behavior to be increased. The selected behavior should be a specific
behavior rather than a general category of behavior.
2. Selecting a reinforcer.They should be those that:
a) Are readily available.
b) Can be presented immediately following the desired behavior.
c) Can be used over and over again without causing rapid satiation.
d) Do not require a great deal of time to consume.
e) Use as many rein forcers as possible
3. Applying positive reinforcement.
a) Tell the individual the plan before starting.
b) Reinforce immediately following the desired behavior.
c) Describe the desired behavior to the individual while the rein forcer is
being given.
d) Use lots of praise and physical contact when dispensing rein forcers.
4. Weaning the student from the program.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define a positive rein forcer.
2. State the principle of positive reinforcement.
3. Differentiate contingent reinforcement from non contingent reinforcement.
4. Outline guidelines for effective application of positive reinforcement.

CHAPTER 3: CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT
OBJECTIVES
1. Explain back-up rein forcer.
2. Describe the concept of extinction of a conditioned reinforcement.
3. Outline guidelines for effective use of conditioned reinforcement.
4. Differentiate between unconditional reinforce from conditioned rein forcer.
UNCONDITIONED AND CONDITIONED REINFORCERS

We have inherited the capacity the capacity to be reinforced by some stimuli without
prior learning. Such stimuli or events which usually are important for our survival or
biological functioning are called unconditioned rein forcers. Examples include food foe
hungry person, water, warmth and sexual contact for someone who has been deprived of
such contact.
Stimuli that are not originally reinforcing can become rein forcers by being paired or
associated with other rein forcers. Stimuli that become rein forcers in this way are called
conditioned rein forcers because conditioning is needed to establish such stimuli as rein
forcers.
Examples include praise, picture of a loved one, books we like to read, our favorite TV
programs and clothes that make us look good.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENSS OF CONDITIONED

REINFORCEMENT
1. The strength of back-up rein forcers.
The reinforcing power of a conditioned rein forcer depends in part upon the reinforcing
power of the back-up rein forcer(s) on which it is based. When a stimulus becomes a rein
forcer through association with other rein forcers, the other rein forcers are sometimes
called back-up rein forcers.
2. The varieties of back-up rein forcers.

The reinforcing power of a conditioned rein forcer depends in part on the number of
back-up rein forcers available for it.
3. The schedules of paring with the back-up rein forcer.

Conditioned reinforcement is more effective if back-up reinforcement does not follow
each occurrence of he conditioned rein forcer.
4. Extinction of conditioned rein forcer.

Ceasing to provide back-up reinforcement for a conditioned rein forcer is called
extinction of a conditioned rein forcer.
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE USE OF CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT

1) A conditioned rein forcer should be a stimulus that can be managed and
administered easily in the situation in which you plan to use it.

2) Use the same conditioned rein forcers that the individual will encounter in the
natural environment.
3) Back-up reinforcement should be presented as quickly as possible after the
presentation of the conditioned rein forcer.
4) Use generalizes conditioned rein forcer whenever possible .i.e. do not just use
one.
5) When the program involves more than one individual, avoid destructive
competition for conditioned and back-up rein forcers.
6) In addition to these rules, one should follow the same rules for conditioned rein
forcers that apply to any positive rein forcer.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between unconditioned rein forcer from conditioned rein
forcer.
2. Explain back-up rein forcer.
3. Describe the concept of extinction of a conditioned rein forcer.
4. Outline guidelines for effective use of conditioned reinforcement.

CHAPTER 4: DECREASING A BEHAVIOR WITH EXTINCTION
OBJECTIVES
1. Outline the guidelines of effective use of extinction.
2. Describe general factors influencing the effectiveness of extinction.
3. Explain spontaneous recovery.
4. Explain the principle of extinction.
EXTINCTION
The principle of extinction sates that;
a) If, in a given situation an individual emits a previously response and then,
b) That person is less likely to do the same thing again when he or she next
encounters a similar situation.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTINCTION

1. Controlling rein forcers for the behavior that is to be decreased. Rein forcers
presented by other people or by the physical environment can undo your good
efforts at applying extinction
2. Extinction of behavior combined with positive reinforcement for an alternative
behavior. It is important during the application of extinction to ensure that the rein
forcers that you are with holding are the ones that were actually maintaining the
undesirable behavior.
3. The setting in which extinction is carried out. It is important to consider the
setting to minimize the influence of alternative rein forcers on the undesirable
behavior to be extinguished and also maximize the chances of the behavior
modifier persisting with the program.
4. Instructions; Make use of rules.
5. Extinction may be quicker after continuous reinforcement. Intermittent
reinforcement is reinforcing occasionally following several instances of a
behavior. When a behavior has always been reinforced and then is never
reinforced, behavior extinguishes fairly quickly.
6. Behavior being extinguishes may get worse before it gets better. If you introduce
extinction, keep with it. Things usually get worse before they get better, but hang
in there doing so will pay off in the long run.
7. Extinction may produce aggression that interferes with the program. Minimize
aggression because it could lead to giving up too soon, which will not only
reinforce the undesirable behavior on an intermittent schedule but reinforce
additional undesirable mild aggression.
8. Extinguished behavior may reappear after a delay. The reappearance of an
extinguished behavior following a rest is called spontaneous recovery.
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE APPLICATION OF EXTINCTION

1. Select the behavior t be decreased.
2. Make preliminary considerations.

3. Implement the plan.
4. Wean the student from the program.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the principle of extinction.
2. Explain spontaneous recovery.
3. Describe general factors influencing the effectiveness of extinction.
4. Outline the guideline for effective use of extinction.

CHAPTER 5: ELIMINATING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR THROUGH
PUNISHMENT
OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss when it is necessary to use punishment.
2. Explain effects of punishment.
3. Describe different types of punishers.
4. State the principle of punishment.
5. Define a punisher.
A punisher us an event that when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the
behavior to decrease in frequency.
The principle of punishment states that if, in a given situation somebody does something
that is immediately followed by a punisher, then that person is less likely to do the same
thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.
TYPES OF PUNISHERS
1. PHYSICAL (Aversive) PUNISHERS

It includes all punishers following a behavior that activate pain receptor or other sense
receptors that typically evoke feelings of discomfort. Examples include; spankings,
pinches electric shock, ammonia vapor, cool baths, loud or harsh sounds, prolonged
tickling and hair tugging.
2. REPRIMANDS
Are strong negative verbal stimuli e.g.” NO! THAT WAS BAD!” contingent on behavior.
They also include a fixed stare and sometimes a firm grasp.
3. TIMEOUT
It involves transferring an individual from a more reinforcing to a less reinforcing
situation following a particular behavior. Exclusionary timeout consists of removing the
individual from the situation in which reinforcement is occurring for a short time e.g. 5
minutes.
Non exclusionary timeout consists of introducing into the situation a stimulus associated
with less reinforcement.
4. RESPONSE COST
It involves the removal of a specified amount of rein forcer following a particular
behavior. Examples in everyday life are library fines, traffic tickets and charges for
overdrawn checking accounts.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUNISHMENT

1. Maximizing the conditions for a desirable alternative response. You should
identify some desirable response that will compete with the undesirable
behavior to be eliminated.
2. Minimizing the cause of the response to be punished .minimizing the causes
of the undesirable behavior while maximizing the conditions for a desirable
alternative behavior may cause the latter to compete so strongly with the
former that it is greatly reduced or completely suppressed without the use of
punishment.
3. Selecting a punisher. The m ore intense or strong the punishing stimulus, the
more effective it will be decreasing the undesirable behavior.
4. Delivering the punisher. Punishment is most effective when the punisher is
presented immediately following the undesirable behavior.
5. Using rules. Appropriate use of rules will help to decrease the undesirable
behavior and increase the desirable alternative behavior more quickly.
EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT
1. It intends to elicit aggressive behavior. Experiments with animals show that
painful stimuli cause them to attack other animals even though these other
animals had nothing to do with inflicting the painful stimuli.
2. It can produce other undesirable emotional side effects such as crying and general
fearfulness.
3. Punishment may cause the situation and people associated with the aversive
stimulus to become conditioned punishers. Thus instead of helping the individual
to learn, punishment may drive him or her away from people, objects and events
associated with the learning situation.
4. Punishment does not establish any new behavior, it only suppresses old behavior.
i.e. punishment does not teach an individual what to do at best, it only teaches
what not to do.
5. Children often model or imitate adults. If adults apply punishment to children, the
children are apt to do the same to others.
6. Because punishment results in quick suppression of undesirable behavior, it can
tempt the user to rely heavily on it and neglect the use of positive reinforcement
for desirable behavior.
WHEN TO USE PUNISHMENT

a) The behavior is maladaptive and it is in the client’s best interest to bring about
rapid change.
b) The intervention has received ethical approval.
c) Punishment is applied under professional supervision.
d) The program includes safeguards to protect the client.
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE APPLICATION OF PUNISHMENT

PROCEDURES
1. Selecting a response. Punishment is most effective with specific behavior rather
than a general category of behavior.
2. Maximize the conditions for a desirable (none punished) alternative response.

3. Minimize the causes of the response to be punished.
4. Select an effective punisher.
5. Apply punishment.
6. In all programs involving punishment, careful data should be taken on the effects
of the program.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) Define a punisher.
2) State the principle of punishment.
3) Describe different types of punishers.
4) Explain effects of punishment.
5) Discuss when it is necessary to use punishment.

CHAPTER 6: PROCEDURES BASED ON PRINCIPLES OF RESPONDENT
CONDITIONING
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter, the learner should be able to;
1) Define stimulus, generalization and give an example.
2) Differentiate between stimulus generalization and response generalization.
3) Explain the causes of emotions.
4) Outline factors influencing respondent conditioning.
5) List the guidelines for programming, generality of operant behavior.
Behaviors that operate on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn
controlled by those consequences are called operant behaviors. Examples include putting
gas in your car, asking for directions, writing an exam, turning on a TV set and making
breakfast.
PRINCIPLE OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING

The respondent conditioning principle is based on the fact that certain stimuli
automatically elicit certain responses apart from any prior learning or conditioning
experience.
These automatic stimulus-response relationships are called unconditioned reflexes.
A stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning or conditioning is called an
unconditioned stimulus (US). A response elicited by such a stimulus is called an
unconditioned response (UR).
The principle of respondent conditioning states that if that stimulus e.g. the sound of
classical music is, followed closely in time by a US (e.g. food in the mouth), which elicits
a UR (salivation), then the previously neutral stimulus sound of classical music will also
tend to elicit the response of salivation in the future.
If a salivation response was in fact conditioned to the sound of classical music, the
stimulus-response relationship would be referred to as a conditioned reflex. The stimulus
in a conditioned reflex is called a conditioned stimulus (CS; e.g. sound of the classical
music) and the response in a conditioned reflex is referred to as a conditioned response
(CR; e.g. salivation to the classical music).
FACTORS INFLUENCING RESPONDENT CONDITIONING

1. The greater the number of pairings of a CS with a US the greater is the ability of
the CS to elicit CR, until a maximum strength of the conditioned reflex has been
reached.
2. Stronger conditioning occurs if the CS precedes the US by half a second, rather
than by a longer time or rather than following the US.
3. A CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if the CS is always paired with a given
US than if it is only occasionally paired with the US.
4. When several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently
associated with the US in one most likely to become a strong US.

5. Respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when the CS or
US or both are intense rather than weak.
HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING

Suppose that someone is conditioned to salivate to the sound of classical music by
following a brief presentation of classical music with food a great many times. Classical
music has become a CS. Now let’s suppose that, over several trials, just before presenting
the classical music by itself, we turn on a yellow light. The light is neutral stimulus for
salivation and is never paired with food.
However, after a number of pairings of the light with music (an established CS), the light
itself will come to elicit salivation. This procedure is known as higher order conditioning.
RESPONDENT EXTINCTION
The principle of respondent extinction involves presenting a CS while with holding the
US. After a number of such presentations, the CS gradually loses its capability of eliciting
the CR.
Lets suppose that a child reaches out to touch a large dog just as the dog barks very
loudly, scaring the child. As a function of the pairing of the loud bark with the sight of the
big dog, the sight of the big dog alone now elicits crying and trembling, a parlovian
conditioned response that we label fear. Now let’s suppose that the parent takes the child
to a dog show. Although there are lots of large dogs around, they have been trained to
walk and sit quietly while on display. Repeated contact with these dogs (without pairings
with barking) will help the child overcome fear of the sight of dogs. Sight of dogs loses
its capability of functioning as a CS to elicit the fear reaction as a CR.
COUNTER CONDITIONING
Recall from chapter 5 that operant extinction precedes more quickly and effectively if an
alternative response is reinforced.
A similar rule holds for respondent extinction: A conditioned response may be eliminated
more effectively if a new response is conditioned to the conditioned stimulus at the same
time that the former conditioned response id being extinguished. This process is called
counter-conditioning. Stated technically, a CS will lose its ability to elicit a CR if that CS
is paired with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with the CR.
APPLICATIONS OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES
1. AVERSION THERAPY
It involves the repeated pairing of an undesirable rein forcer with an aversive event. The
rationale of aversion therapy with an aversive event. The rationale of aversion therapy is
counter conditioning that is, it is assumed that the undesirable rein forcer should then
become less reinforcing because it will come to elicit a response similar to that elicited by
the aversive stimulus.
Foe example, in the treatment of alcoholism, a person may be given a drug that will make
him/her nauseous. Just before the drug takes effect, he is given a sip of an alcoholic
beverage. Thus, the sight, smell and taste of the drink is followed immediately by nausea.
This pairing of alcohol with nausea is repeated over a number of sessions. Eventually

alcohol itself should tend to elicit nausea, which may cause the individual to avoid
alcohol.
2. TREATMENT FOR CHRONIC CONSTIPATION

Quarti and Renaud had their client administer to themselves a distinctive electrical
stimulus-a mild, non painful electric current-immediately prior to defecating.
3. TREATMENT OF NOCTRUNAL ENURESIS (Bed-wetting)

A device that seems to be effective for many enuretic children consists of a bell
connected to a special pad under the bottom sheet of the child’s bed. The apparatus is
wired so that the bell sounds and awakens the child as soon as the first drop of urine
makes contact with the pad.
RESPONDENT AND OPERANT COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONS

To fully understand this subtopic, we examine the role of respondent and operant
conditioning in four areas.
a) The reaction that one feels during the experience of an emotion.
b) The way that one learns to outwardly express or disguise an emotion.
c) How one becomes aware of and describes one’s emotions.
d) Some causes of emotions.
RESPONDENT AND OPERANT COMPONENTS OF THINKING

Imagery
One type of thinking appears to consist of imagining in response to words-imagining so
vividly that it can sometimes see almost like the real thing.
The internal actions that occur when we are thinking are real-we are really seeing or
feeling or hearing when we respond to the words.
Our self talk

Our verbal behavior is taught to us by others through operant conditioning. We learn to
speak because of effective consequences of doing so.
GENERALITY OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE

Training produces generality when the trained behavior transfers from the training
situation to the natural environment, when training leads to the development of new
behavior that has not been specifically trained or when the trained behavior is maintained
in the natural environment over time.
STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
It occurs when behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or
situation as a result of having been reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or
situation.
RESPONSE GENERALIZATION

This occurs when a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of a stimulus of
situation as a result of another behavior having been strengthened in the presence of that
stimulus or situation.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROGRAMMING
GENERALTY OF OPERANT BEHAAVIOR
1. Programming operant stimulus generalization.
The following should be considered:
a) Train in the target situation.
b) Vary the training conditions.
c) Program common stimuli.
d) Train sufficient stimuli exemplars.
2. Programming operant response Generalization.

a) Train sufficient response exemplars.
b) Vary the acceptable responses during training.
3. Programming operant behavior maintenance.

a) Behavior Trapping: Allow natural contingencies of reinforcement to take effect.
b) Change the behavior of people in the natural environment.
c) Use intermittent schedules of reinforcement in the target situation.
d) Give the control to the individual.
GUIDELINES FOR PROGRAMMING GENERALITY OF OPERANT

BEHAVIOR
1. Choose target behaviors that are clearly useful to the individual.
2. Teach the target behavior in a situation that is as similar as possible to the
environment in which you want the behavior to occur.
3. Vary the training conditions.
4. Establish the target behavior successfully in many situations as is feasible.
5. Program common stimuli that might facilitate transfer to novel environments.
6. Vary the acceptable responses in the training settings.
7. Gradually reduce the frequency of reinforcement in the training situation until it is
less than that occurring in the natural environment.
8. When changing to a new situation, increase the frequency of reinforcement in that
situation to offset the tendency of the individual to discriminate the new situation
from the previous training situation.
9. Make sure that sufficient reinforcement for maintaining the target behavior occurs
in the natural environment
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define stimulus generalization and give an example.
2. Differentiate between stimulus generalization and response generalization.
3. Explain the causes of emotions.
4. Outline factors influencing respondent conditioning.
5. List the guidelines for programming generality of operant behavior.

CHAPTER 7: CAPITALIZATION ON EXISTING STIMULUS CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
Treatment packages that capitalize on existing forms of stimulus control fall into the
categories of rules, goals, modeling, physical guidance and situational inducement.
All these shall be discussed in this chapter.
OBJECTIVES
1) Describe situational inducement
2) Define a rule and give an example.
3) Explain effective and ineffective goal setting.
4) List guidelines for goal setting.
5) Outline strategies that influence effectiveness of modeling as a behavior
modification technique.
RULES
A rule is a description (verbal or written) of a three term contingency of reinforcement
(antecedents-behavior-consequences). It is a statement that a specific behavior will pay
off in a particular situation.
CONTINGENCY-SHAPED VERSUS RULE-GOVENED BEHAVIOR

Contingency shaped behavior involves immediate consequences and the behavior is
typically strengthened gradually through trial and error.
Rule governed behavior on the other hand; often involves delayed consequences and
frequently leads to immediate behavior change.
WHEN ARE RULES USEFUL?

1. When rapid behavior change is desirable.
2. When consequences that you might provide for a behavior are too delayed to
directly reinforce that behavior.
3. When you would like to maintain a behavior for which natural rein forcers are
immediate but highly intermittent.
4. When a specific behavior will lead to immediate and sever punishment.
EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE RULES

1. SPECIFIC VERSUS VAGUE DESCRIPTIONS OF BEHAVIOR
A rule that describes behavior specifically is more likely to be followed than a rule that
describes abehavior vaguely.
2. SPECIFIC VERSUS VAGUE DESCRIPTION OF CIRCUSTANCES

A rule that describes specific circumstances in which the behavior should occur is more
likely to be followed than a rule that describes the circumstances vaguely or not at all.

3. PROBALBE VERSUS IMPROBABLE CONSEQUENCES
Rules are likely to be followed if they identify behavior for which the consequences are
highly probaoble, even though the consequences may be delayed.
4. SIZEABLE CONSEQUENCES VERSUS SMALL BUT CUMULATIVELY

SIGNIFICANT CONSEQUENCES
Rules that describe sizeable consequences are likely to be effective if the consequence is
quite small following each instance of rule following.
5. DEADLINES VERSUS NO DEADLINES

Braam and Malott (1990) found that with 4 year-old children rules to perform behavior
with no deadline and a one week delay of the rein forcer were relatively ineffective, while
rules to perform behavior with a deadline and a one week delay of a rein forcer were
quite effective.
GUIDELINES FOR USING RULES EFFECTIVELY

1. The rules should be within the understanding of he individual to whom they are
applied.
2. Rules should clearly identify:
a) The circumstances in which the behavior should occur.
b) The specific behavior in which the individual is to engage
c) A deadline for performing the behavior
d) The specific consequences involved in complying with the rule
e) The specific consequences involved in complying with the rule.
3. Rules should describe probable and sizeable outcomes, rather than improbable
and small outcomes.
4. Complex rules should be broken down into easy-to-follow steps.
5. Rules should be delivered in a pleasant, courteous manner.
6. Fading should be used as necessary to fade out rules if you don’t want other stimuli
that are present to take control of the behavior.
GOALS
Although goal setting might be viewed as use of rules the circumstances where one might
apply goal setting are somewhat different than those described at the beginning of thes
chapter.
EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE GOA SETTING

1. Specific goals are more effective than vague goals.
2. Goals with respect to learning of specific skills include mastery criteria.
3. Goals should identify the circumstances under which the desirable behavior
should occur.
4. Realistic, challenging goals are more effective than do your best goals.
5. Public goals are more effective than private goals.
6. Goal setting is more effective if deadlines are included.’
7. Goals setting plus feedback is more effective than goal setting alone.

8. Goal setting is more effective when individuals are committed to the goals.
GUIDELINES FOR GOAL SETTING

1. Set goals that are specific, realistic and challenging.
2. If the goals are products or outcomes, identify the specific behaviors and the
circumstances in which they should occur in order to meet the goals.
3. Be clear about the specific consequences that might occur for meeting the goal or
not meeting the goal.
4. Break longer tern goals into several shorter term goals.
5. If the goal is complex, devise an action plan for meeting it.
6. Set deadlines for goal attainment.
7. Ensure that individuals involved are committed to the goals.
8. Encourage the client to share the goals with a friendly supporter.
9. Design a system for monitoring progress towards goals.
10. Provide positive feedback as progress toward goals is achieved.
MODELLING
It is a procedure whereby a sample of a given behavior is presented to an individual to
induce that individual to engage in a similar behavior. As with rules, modeling is in such
common use by the general public that few people think of it as a behavior modification
procedure.
GUIDELINES FOR USING MODELING

1. If possible select models who are friends or peers of the client and who are seen
as competent individuals with status or prestige.
2. If possible use more than one model.
3. The complexity of the modeled behavior should be suitable for the behavioral
level of the client.
4. Combine rules with modeling.
5. Have the client watch the model performs the behavior and be reinforced.
6. If possible design the training so that correct initiation of the modeled behavior
will lead to a natural rein forcer. For the client.
7. If the behavior is quite complex then the modeling episode should be sequenced
from every easy to more difficult approximations for the individual being tested.
8. To enhance stimulus generalization, the modeling scenes should be as realistic as
possible.
9. Use fading as necessary so that stimuli other than the model can take control over
the desired behavior.
PHYSICAL GUIDANCE
It is the application of physical contact to induce an individual to go through the motions
of the desired behavior.
GUIDELINES FOR USING PHYSICAL GUIDANCE

1. Make sure the client is comfortable and relaxed while being touched and guided.

2. Determine the stimuli that you want to control the behavior so that they can be
conspicuously present during guidance.
3. Consider using rules or cue word during guidance so that they may eventually
control the behavior.
4. Reinforcement should be given immediately after the successful completion of the
guided response.
5. Guidance should be sequenced gradually from very easy to more difficult
behavior for the individual being treated.
6. Use fading as necessary so that other stimuli can take control over the behavior.
SITUATIONAL INDUCEMENT
It refers to influencing a behavior by using situations and occasions that already exert
control over the behavior.
Examples of situational inducement can be discussed conveniently under four
overlapping categories:
a) Rearranging the existing surrounding.
b) Moving the activity to a new location.
c) Relocating people and ,
d) Changing the time of the activity.
Rearranging the Surrounding
Altering the furniture and other items in one room to promote better and more persistent
studying behavior.
GUIDELINES FOR USING SITUATIONAL INDUCEMENT

1. Clearly identify the desired behavior to be strengthened.
2. Brainstorm all possible environmental arrangements in the presence of which the
desired behavior has occurred in the past of is likely to occur.
3. Identify stimuli that could be easily introduced to control the desirable behavior
and/or the undesirable behavior.
4. Arrange for the client of concern to be exposed to the stimuli way and to avoid
locations and arrangements that do no have this control.
5. Make sure that undesirable behavior never occur in the presence of situations
introduces to strengthen desirable behavior.
6. When the desirable behavior occurs in the presence of the new arrangement, be
sure that it is reinforced.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe situational inducement.
2. Outline strategies that influence effectiveness of modeling as a behavior
modification technique.
3. Define a rule and give an example.
4. Explain effective and ineffective goal setting.
5. List guidelines for goal setting.

CHAPTER 8: INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
INTRODUCTION
The behaviors to be improved in a behavior modification program are frequently called
target behaviors. Behavior assessment involves the collection and analysis of information
and data in order to identify and describe target behavior , identify possible causes of
behavior, select appropriate treatment strategies to modify the behavior and evaluate
treatment outcome.
OBJECTIVES
1. Define behavioral assessment.
2. Describe the phases of a behavior modification program.
3. Explain the types of indirect assessment procedures.
4. Outline reasons for collecting accurate data.
5. Distinguish between direct and indirect assessment procedures.
6. Discuss the differences between behavioral approaches from traditional ones.
MINIMAL PHASES OF A PROGRAM
1. SCREENING OR INTAKE PHASE

The initial interactions between a client and a practitioner or an agency are often referred
to as the intake, and a client is typically asked to complete an intake form.
Such a form requests general information such as the client’s name, address, date of birth,
marital status and also asks the client to state the reason for seeking service from that
client to state the reason for seeking service from that agency or practitioner.
2. BASELINE PHASE
The behavior modifier assesses the target behavior to determine its level prior to the
introduction of the program or treatment, and analyzes the individual’s current
environment to identify possible controlling variables of the behavior to be changed.
3. TREATMENT PHASE
A behavior modifier will design an effective treatment program to bring about the desired
behavior change.
In educational settings, such a program is typically referred to as training or teaching
program. In community and clinical settings, the program is referred to more often as an
intervention strategy or a therapy program.
4. FOLLOW-UP PHASE
This phase reflects the strong emphasis that behavior modifiers give to assessment after
the termination of the treatment or intervention phase whenever possible, because a
problem has not really been solved if the improvement is not permanent.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR BASELINE ASSESSMENT

1. Indirect Assessment Procedures
The more common among these are interviews with the clients and significant others,
questionnaires, role playing, obtaining information from consulting professionals and
client self-monitoring.
2. Direct Assessment Procedures.

The main advantage of direct assessment procedures over indirect assessment procedures
is that the former are likely to be more accurate.
3. Experimental Assessment Procedures

Are used to clearly demonstrate the antecedent events that exert control over a problem
behavior, and/or the consequences responsible for maintaining that problem behavior.
Such procedures are referred to as experimental functional analyses in that they attempt
to demonstrate that the occurrence of a behavior is a function of certain controlling
variables.
4. Computer Assisted Data Collection

Increasingly, computers are being used to facilitate data collection in behavioral
assessment. Hand-held computers have also been used to facilitate client-self monitoring.
REASONS FOR RECORDING ACCURATE DATA

1. It provides a description of the problem that will help the behavior modifier to
decide a treatment program.
2. The initial assessment process often helps the behavior modifier to identify the
best treatment strategy.
3. Accurate baseline data provide a means for clearly determining whether the
program has produced, or is producing the desired change in behavior.
4. Publicity posted results can be both prompts and rein forcers for the behavior
modifier for carrying out a program.
5. Displayed data may lead to improvements apart from any further treatment
program.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BEHAVIORAL AND TRADITIONAL

APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT
BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TRADITIONAL APPROACHES
1. Identifies behavioral excesses - Diagnoses or classify individuals.

2. Identifies causes of current problem behaviors. –Identifies intrapsychic or
trait causes of behavior.
3. Provides information that can be used directly for the design of interventions
- Provides information that may aid in the design of interventions.
4. To evaluate the effects of interventions. – To obtain information helpful for
prognosis.
5. Preference for direct observation of specific behaviors - Direct
assessment is impossible.

6. Preference for continuous assessment before, during and after application of
interventions. – Typically pre and post treatment assessments based on
standardized tests.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define behavioral assessment.

2. Describe the phases of a behavior modification program.
3. Distinguish between direct and indirect assessment procedures.
4. Explain types of indirect assessment procedures.
5. Outline reasons for collecting accurate data.
6. Discuss the differences between behavioral approaches from traditional
approaches.

CHAPTER 9: DIRECT BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO RECORD
AND HOW.
OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the topography of a response.

2. Explain sources of error in recording observations.
3. Discuss characteristics of a behavior to be recorded.
4. Differentiate the different typed of recording.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR TO BE RECORDED

1. Topography
It refers to the form of a particular response i.e. a description of the specific movements
involved. Picture prompts are sometimes useful for helping observers to identify
variations in the topography of a response.
2. Amount
Two common measures of the overall amount of a given behavior are its frequency and
its duration. Frequency refers to the number of instanced of the behavior that occurs in a
given period of time. While frequency is a common measure of the amount of behavior,
the duration of a behavior is also sometimes important in measuring amount. The
duration of behavior is the length of time that it occurs within some period.
3. Intensity
Assessment of behavior often utilizes instrumentation. For example, when voice loudness
is the behavior of concern, decibel level can be measured by a device called a voice
meter.
4. Stimulus Control
The term stimulus control is used to indicate that a certain behavior occurs in the
presence of certain stimuli (and not others). Objective Behavioral Assessment assesses
the stimulus control of basic self-care skills, social and advanced self-care skills,
sheltered domestic skills, prevocational motor dexterity skills and sheltered work
performance of persons with severe and moderate developmental disabilities.
5. Latency
This is the time between the occurrence of a stimulus and the beginning of a response.
Like duration, latency is usually assessed with stopwatches or clocks.
6. Quality
The quality of response is essentially an arbitrary designation of one or more of the
previous characteristics of behavior that is identified as having some functional value.

CONTINOUS RECORDING, INTERVAL RECORDING AND TIME SAMPLING
RECORDING
Designating a specific segment of time, such as a 1-hour training session, an afternoon, a
mealtime or a recess time and attempt to record every instance of the specified behavior
throughout an interval is called continuous recording.
An alternative strategy is interval recording. Here, a specific block of time is selected
(such as a 30- minute observation period). This time is then divided into equal intervals
of relatively short duration. A specified behavior is recorded a s occurring or not
occurring during each interval.
Another behavior observation technique used is time sampling. In time sampling
recording, a behavior is scored as occurring or not occurring during very brief
observation intervals which are separated from each other by a much longer period of
time.
Often, a recording procedure with features of both interval recording and time sampling
recording is used. An observer might watch the student for a specified interval and the
record the behavior during the next 10 seconds. This strategy of observe and record
would continue over a given period of time.
ASSESSING THE ACCURACY OF OBSERVATIONS

Hawkins and Dotson (1975) identified 5 sources of error that can affect the accuracy of
observations.
1. The response definition might be vague, subjective or incomplete, so that the
observer has problems in taking accurate observations.
2. Observational situation might be such that it is difficult for an observer to detect
the behavior because of distractions.
3. The observer might be poorly trained, unmotivated, biased or generally
incompetent.
4. Poorly designed data sheets.
5. Cumbersome recording procedures.
There are several ways of evaluating scores, but two inter-observer reliability (IOR)
procedures are more common than the others.
The first approach involves counting two totals and then dividing the smaller by the
larger and multiplying by 100% is quite common.
The second IOR procedure is used with interval recording.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the topography of a response.
2. Explain sources of error in recording observations.
3. Discuss characteristics of a behavior to be recorded.
4. Define the following :
a) Continuous recording
b) Interval recording.
c) Time-sampling.

CHAPTER 10: FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE CAUSES OF PROBLEM
BEHAVIOR
OBJECTIVES
1) Define sensory extinction.
2) Explain causes of problem behaviors.
3) Describe limitations of experimental functional analysis.
4) Differentiate functional assessment from experimental functional analysis of a
problem behavior.
5) Discuss factors to consider in assessing causes of problem behavior.
APPROACHES TO FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT

1. Questionnaire Assessment
One way to discover antecedents and consequences that control problem behavior is to do
a questionnaire analysis in which people familiar with the client are asked a series of
relevant questions. For example, Matson and Vollmer (1995) devised a questionnaire
called Questions about Behavioral Function to help staff determine whether problem
behavior of persons with developmental disabilities was maintained by attention from
other, escape from aversive conditions, sensory feedback or tangible rein forcers.
2. Observational Assessment
Another way to discover controlling variables is to do an observational or a descriptive
analysis in which one carefully observes and describes the antecedents and immediate
consequences of the problem behavior in its natural settings.
3. Experimental Functional Analysis

A third way to discover controlling variables is to directly assess their effects on the
problem behavior of an individual which is referred to as an experimental functional
analysis.
CAUSES OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS

1. Problem behaviors maintained by attention from others (Social Positive
Reinforcement). Indicators that the behavior is maintained by attention include:
a) Whether attention reliably follows the behavior.

b) Whether the individual looks at or approaches a care-giver just before
engaging in the behavior and
c) Whether the individual smiles just before engaging in the behavior.
2. Problem behaviors maintained by self-stimulation (Internal Sensory Positive
Reinforcement) Behaviors are often reinforced by some form of sensory
stimulation from our bodies. For example, massaging ones scalp produces an
enjoyable tingling sensation.
3. Problems behavior maintained by environmental consequences (External Sensory
Positive Reinforcement).Some problem behavior might be maintained by
reinforcing sights and sounds from the nonsocial external environment for an

indicator that a particular problem behavior is being reinforced by non social
external sensory stimulation, note whether the individual continues the behavior
undiminished even though it appears to have no social consequences over
numerous occasions.
4. Problem behavior maintained by escape from demands.(Social Negative
Reinforcement) Many of our behaviors are maintained by escape from aversive
stimuli such as squinting in the presence of bright light or covering your ears to
escape a loud sound. Escape from aversive stimuli can also cause problem
behaviors. The problem behavior may be away of escaping from demands being
placed on that individual.
5. Elicited (Respondent) Problem Behaviors. Aggression can be elicited by aversive
stimuli of by the withholding of a rein forcer following a previously reinforced
response.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN ASSESSING CAUSES OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

1. General setting.
2. Organismic variables e.g. State of health, motivational state and emotional state.
3. Task variables.
4. Specific antecedents.
5. Specific consequences e.g. escape from demands, sympathy.
GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING A FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT

Define the problem behavior in behavioral terms.
Identify antecedent events that consistently precede the problem behavior.
Identify consequences that immediately follow the problem behavior.
Consider health /medical/personal variables that might contribute to the problem.
Form hypotheses about the consequent events that maintain the problem behavior.
Take data on the behavior, its antecedents and consequences in its natural setting.
Develop and carry out a treatment program based on the hypothesis that is most likely
to be correct.
If the treatment is successful, accept the causal analysis as confirmed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
a) Define sensory extinction.
b) Explain causes of problem behaviors.
c) Describe limitations of experimental functional analysis.
d) Differentiate functional assessment from experimental functional analysis of a
problem behavior.
e) Discuss factors to consider in assessing causes of problem behavior.

CHAPTER 11: PLANNING, APPLYING AND EVALUATING A TREATMENT
PROGRAM
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides general guidelines that should be followed when designing a
behavioral program. The situation is one in which you, the behavior modifier or a
mediator would be largely responsible for carrying out the program.
OBJECTIVES
1) Outline questions to ask when designing a program.

2) Discuss how to select and implement an assessment procedure.
3) Explain strategies of program design and implementation.
4) Describe how a behavior modifier evaluates the importance of a problem.
The following questions should be identified and asked during the screening and intake
phase of behavioral assessment.
1) Was the problem referred primarily for the benefit of the client?
2) Can the problem and the goal be specified such that you are dealing with a
specific behavior or set of behaviors that can be counted, timed or measure in
some way?
3) Is the problem important to the client or to others?
4) Have you eliminated the possibility that there are complications involved in this
problem that would necessitate referring it to another specialist?
5) Is the problem one that would appear to be easily manageable? To answer this
question, you might consider the following: If the problem is to decrease an
undesirable behavior, has the behavior been occurring for a short time, under
narrow stimulus control and with few instances of inter-mittent reinforcement
6) If the goal is reached, might it be easily generalized and maintained
7) Can you identify significant individuals who might help to record observations
and manage controlling stimuli and rein forcers?
8) If there are individuals who might hinder the program, can you identify ways of
minimizing their potential interference?
9) On the basis of your tentative answers to these eight questions, do your training
qualifications, daily schedule and available time seem adequate for you to
participate in the program?
SELECTING AND IMPLEMENTING AN ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE

1. Define the behavioral handicap in precise behavioral terms.
2. Select an appropriate baseline procedure that will enable you to:
a) Monitor the problem behavior.
b) Identify its current stimulus control.
c) Identify the maintaining consequences of the problem behavior.

d) Monitor relevant medical/health/personal variables.
e) Identify an alternative desirable behavior.
3. Design recording procedures that will enable you to log the amount of time
devoted to the project by the professionals working on it.
4. Ensuring that the observers have received appropriate training in identifying
critical aspects of the behavior, applying the recording procedures and
graphing data.
5. If the baseline is likely to be prolonged, select a procedure for increasing and
maintaining the strength of the record keeping behavior of the data recorders.
6. Select a procedure for ensuring the reliability of the baseline observations.
7. After beginning to collect baseline data, analyze those data carefully to select
an appropriate intervention strategy and decide when to terminate the baseline
phase and begin intervention phase.
Some additional considerations include;

a) What daily times can the mediator(s) schedule for this project?
b) Will others in the situation help or hinder your data collection?
c) What is the nature of the existing behavior?
d) Will the surroundings help or hinder your assessment?
e) How rapidly should the behavior change?
STRATEGIES OF PROGRAM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

1. Define the goal and identify the target behaviors and their desired amount and
stimulus control. The following questions should be asked:
a) Is the description precise?
b) On what grounds was the goal chosen, and how is that in the client’s best
interest?
c) Has the client bee given all possible information about the goal?
d) Have steps been taken to increase the client’s commitment to accomplish
the goal?
e) What are potential side effects of accomplishing the goal, for both the
client and others?
f) Do the answers to these questions suggest that you should proceed? If so,
then continue.
2. Identify individuals who might help to manage controlling stimuli and rein
forcers. Also, identify individuals who might hinder the program.
3. Examine the possibility of capitalizing on existing stimulus control. Can you use:
Rules, goal setting, modeling, physical guidance, and situational inducement?
4. If you are developing a new behavior, will you use shaping, fading, or chaining?
5. If you are changing the stimulus control of an existing behavior, can you select
the controlling cue such that they :
a) Are different from other stimuli on more than one dimension,
b) Are encountered mainly in situations in which the desired stimulus control
should occur?
c) Evoke attending behavior?
d) Do not evoke undesirable behavior?

6. If you are decreasing a behavioral excess:
a) Can you use DRL, DRO or DRI
b) Should punishment be used?
7. Specify the details of the reinforcement system by answering these questions:
a) How will rein forcers be selected?
b) What rein forcers will be used?
c) How will rein forcer effectiveness be continually monitored, and by whom?
d) How will rein forcers be stored and dispensed, and by whom?
e) If a token system is used, what are the details of its implementations?
8. Specify the training setting.
9. Describe how you will program generality of behavior change.
10. Specify the details of the daily recording and graphing procedures.
11. Collect the necessary materials.
12. Make checklists of rules and responsibilities for all participants in the program.
13. Specify the dates for data and program reviews and identify those who will attend.
14. Identify some contingencies that will reinforce the behavior modifiers and
mediators.
15. Review the potential cost of the program as designed and judge its merits against
cost.
16. Sign a behavioral contract.
17. Implement the program.
PROGRAM MAINTENANCE AND EVALUATION

1. Monitor your data to determine whether the recorded behaviors are changing in
the desired direction.
2. Consult the people who must deal with the behavioral handicap and determine if
they are satisfied with the progress.
3. Consult behavioral journals, professional behavior modifiers or others with
experience in using similar procedures on similar problems to determine if your
results are reasonable.
4. If the results are satisfactory, proceed directly to number 8.
5. If results are unsatisfactory, answer the following questions and make appropriate
adjustment for any yes answer.
a) Have the rein forcers that are being used lost their appeal?
b) Are the procedures being applied incorrectly?
c) Is there outside interference that is disrupting the program?
d) Are there any subjective variables that might be affecting the program?
6. If none of the answers to these four questions is yes, check to see if additional
programming steps need to be added or removed.
7. If the results are now satisfactory, proceed to number 8.
8. Decide how you will provide appropriate program maintenance until the
behavioral objective is reached.
9. Following attainment of behavioral goal, outline an appropriate arrangement for
assessing social validity.
10. Determine the costs for the behavior changes that occurred.

11. Analyze you data and communicate your procedures and results to other behavior
modifiers and interested professionals.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe how a behavior modifier evaluates the importance of a problem?
2. Outline questions to ask when designing a program.
3. Discuss how to select and implement an assessment procedure?
4. Explain strategies of program design and implementation?

CHAPTER 12: TOKEN ECONOMIES
INTRODUCTION
A program in which a group of individuals can earn tokens for a variety of desirable
behaviors and can exchange tokens earned for backup rein forcers is called a token
economy.
Conditioned rein forcers such as money, endure and can be accumulated until they are
exchanged for backup rein forcers, such as food. Conditioned rein forcers of this kind are
called tokens.
OBJECTIVES
1) Define token economy.

2) Explain advantages of using token rein forcers.
3) Discuss settings where tokens have been used.
4) Describe initial steps in setting up a token economy.
5) Outline the characteristics of a token.
INITIAL STEPS IN SETTING UP TOKEN ECONOMY

1. Deciding on the Target Behaviors.
The target behaviors will be determined largely by the type of individuals with whom you
are working, by the short range and long-range objectives you wish to accomplish with
those individuals and by specific behavioral problems you are encountering that interfere
with the realization of those objectives.
2. Taking Baselines
After the program has been started, comparing the data with the baseline data will enable
you to determine the effectiveness of the program.
3. Selecting Back-up Rein forcers

A token system will generally increase the variety of practical rein forcers that you can
use, because they need not be limited to those that can be delivered immediately
following a desired response.
4. Selecting the types of tokens to use.

Tokens should be attractive, lightweight, portable, durable, easy to handle and not easily
counterfeited.
5. Identifying available help

Help from other individuals may not be essential in a small token economy, such as a
classroom, but is certainly to be desired especially in the initial stages of the program.
6. Choosing the Locations

This depends on the type of token under considerations
SPECIFIC IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURES

a. Keeping Data
Here we are concerned with what sort of data sheets should be used, who is to record the
data and when the data are to be recorded.
b. The Reinforcing Agent

Who is going to administer reinforcement, and for what behaviors?
c. Number Or Frequency Of Tokens To Pay

Stainback and colleagues (1973) recommended that 25 to 75 tokens per child is not
excessive on the first day of a token economy in a classroom. They recommended further
that the number be decreased gradually to 15 to 30 each day.
d. Managing the Backup Rein Forcers

How frequently backup rein forcers will be available to be purchased.
e. Possible Punishment Contingencies

The use of tokens provides the possibility of using fines as punishment for inappropriate
behavior.
f. Supervision of Staff
Staff members must receive frequent reinforcement for appropriate behavior and their
inappropriate behavior must be corrected if the token economy is to function effectively.
g. Handling Potential Problems

Some problems include: Staff shortages, clients playing with tokens and manipulating
them in a distraction way and failure to purchase back rein forcers.
PREPARING A MANUAL
Manual is a written set of rules describing exactly how the economy is to run. This
manual should explain in detail what behaviors are to be reinforced, how they are to be
reinforced with tokens and backup rein forcers, the times at which reinforcement is to be
available, what data are to be recorded, how and when they are to be recorded and the
responsibilities and duties of every staff member.
Each rule should be reasonable and acceptable to clients and staff. The manual should
include definite procedures for evaluating whether or not the rules are being followed
adequately and procedures for ensuring that they are.
Advanced notification of impending rule changes should be given to all concerned and
revisions and additions to the manual should be explained, discussed, justified, put in
writing and disseminated prior to being put into effect.
There are two general ways of weaning a client from tokens.
One is to eliminate them gradually.
The second is to decrease their value gradually.

The first alternative can be accomplished by gradually making the schedule of token
delivery more and more intermittent, by gradually decreasing the number of behaviors
that earn tokens or by gradually increasing the delay between the targets or by gradually
increasing the delay between the target behavior and token delivery.
The second alternative can be accomplished by gradually decreasing the amount of back-
up reinforcement that a given number of tokens can purchase or by gradually increasing
the delay between token acquisition and the purchase of back-up rein forcers.
Gradually transferring control to the clients themselves so that they plan and administer
their own reinforcements in another step in preparing clients for the natural environment.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define token economy.
2. Explain advantages of using token rein forcers.
3. Discuss setting where tokens have been used.
4. Describe initial steps in setting up a token economy.
5. Outline the characteristics of a toke.

CHAPTER 13: HELPING AN INDIVIDUAL TO DEVELOP SELF CONTROL
Many problems of self-control involve self-restraint such as excessive smoking, eating,

drinking, and TV watching. Other problems of self control require behavioral change in
the opposite direction such as studying, exercising, being assertive and performing
household chores.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter, the leaner should be able to:
1) Define behavioral contract.
2) Explain the steps in a self control program.
3) Discuss the self control model.
4) Outline the model of self management.
5) Describe the causes of self control problems.
CAUSES OF SELF CONTROL

1. Problems of Behavioral Excesses
This is doing too much of something. Examples are overeating excessive TV watching,
drinking too much coffee etc. All such behavioral excesses lead to immediate rein forcers
e.g. good taste of food, enjoyable scenes on TV etc.
2. Problems Of Behavioral Deficiencies
Another type of self control problem consists of responses that need to be increased such
as flossing your teeth, taking good lecture notes and exercising regularly. Such behaviors
usually lead to small, immediate punishers and even though there may be positive
outcomes if the behaviors occur or major negative outcomes id the behaviors don’t occur,
both of these outcomes are often ineffective.
SELF CONTROL MODEL

The model has two parts. The first part requires clear specifications of the problem as a
behavior to be controlled. The second part requires that you apply behavioral techniques
to manage the problem in essence, it means emitting a controlling behavior to effect a
change in a behavior to be controlled. Consider the model below:
Antecedents----------Behavior to be controlled (e.g. studying) -----------Consequences
(E.g. posting the data of your next exam (E.g. watching a rental movie after
in a conspicuous place reminding yourself studying, asking your friends to take
that you need A’s to get into graduate school you to the bar only after meeting, your
etc) study goals, etc

Controlling behavior
STEPS IN SELF CONTROL
1. Specify the problem and set goals. What is it that you would like to change? How
will you know if you have succeeded? Many problems of self-control can be
easily specified in quantitative terms.
2. Make commitment to change. This refers to your statements or actions that
indicate that it is important to change your behavior, that you will work toward
doing so and that you recognize the benefits of doing so. For you to achieve this,
you must:
a) Make a list of the benefits for changing your behavior.
b) Make your commitment to change public.
c) Rearrange your environment to provide frequent reminders of your
commitment and your goal.
d) Invest considerable time and energy in planning your project initially.
e) Plan ahead for various ways to deal with any temptations.
3. Take data and analyze causes. When, where and how often does the behavior
occur?
4. Design and implement a program.
a) Manage the situation. Capitalize on the stimuli that control your responses
when planning self control programs. These may include instructions,
modeling, physical guidance, our immediate surroundings other people
and time of the day.
b) Manage the behavior. Techniques may include: mastery
criteria(performance requirements for practicing a skill that if the criteria
are met, the behavior has been learnt), shaping (your ultimate goal
involves a large behavior change from your starting point)
c) Manage the consequences. Eliminate certain rein forcers that may
inadvertently. Strengthen a particularly undesirable behavior in a
particular situation. Self recorded and self graph the target behavior.
Arrange for specific rein forcers to be earned by you for showing
improvement or even for just sticking to the program.
5. Prevent relapse and make your gains last. A strategy in preventing relapses is to
recognize their possible causes and to take steps to minimize them. A particularly
effective strategy is to sign a behavioral contract is a clear, written statement of
what behaviors of what individuals will produce what rewards and who will
deliver those rewards.
The following questions may help you spot the problems in your contracting system.
1) Was the target behavior specified clearly?
2) Were specific deadlines identified for the target behavior?
3) Was the contract phrased in a positive way?
4) Did the mediator understand the contract?
5) Is a new mediator required?
6) Are the data accurate?
7) Do you need to improve on your data collection system?

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the causes of self control problems.
2. Outline the model of self management.
3. Discuss the self control model.
4. Explain the steps in a self control program.
5. Define behavioral contract.

CHAPTER 14: SYSTEM SELF-DESENSITIZATION
OBJECTIVES
1) Define a fear hierarchy.
2) Describe characteristics of an anxiety disorder.
3) Discuss the main phases of systematic desensitization.
4) Differentiate systematic desensitization from systematic self desensitization.
BEHAVIORAL TREATMENTS OF SIMPLEL PHOBIAS

A simple phobia is a persistent, irrational fear of a circumscribed stimulus.
1. Flooding- with this approach the therapist tries to get the client in the presence of
the feared stimulus very early during therapy, to maintain exposure for long
periods of time and to prevent avoidance or escape response. The goal is to elicit
intense levels of anxiety by the conditioned stimulus so that respondent extinction
will occur.
2. Participant modeling-The therapist models for the client approaches to the feared
stimulus. This is done in a graded fashion.
3. Systematic desensitization- The therapist first helps the client to construct a fear
hierarchy with those that elicit the most amount of fear at the top. Next, the client
learns a deep muscle relaxation procedure that requires him to tense and then
relax a set of muscles. Finally, actual therapy begins.
SYSTEMATIC SELF DESENSITIZATION

It is essentially the same procedure as systematic desensitization except that the client
progresses through thee various desensitization stages by himself. It takes you through
the following phases.
a) Consulting A Fear Hierarchy

List from 10 to 30 fear producing situations related to your undesirable fear. Then arrange
these situations in order, starting with the situation that causes the least fear and ending
with the situation that causes the most fear.
b) Learn deep muscle relaxation

After you have constructed your hierarchy, you should next learn to relax all your
muscles completely and to recognize when they are relaxed. Do this by alternately
tensing and relaxing your muscles while attending closely to the internal activities and
sensations you are feeling at the time.
c) Implementing the self-desensitization program.

This is done according to the following steps.
I. Find a quiet, private place free from distractions.
II. Place your stack of cards containing the fear items within easy reach.
III. Take several minutes and relax completely.

IV. When in a state of complete relaxation take the card on top of the deck and
look at the brief phrase that characterizes the situation that would normally
cause some slight anxiety.
V. Now pick up the same card again and close your eyes and imagine the
situation for at least 10 seconds.
VI. If you have difficulty in imagining a scene, immediately stop imagining and
induce deep muscle relaxation for a minute or two.
VII. If step 6 doesn’t work, go back to the previous item and imagine that item
for 20 seconds on two successive presentations of the item.
VIII. If you still have problems with a particular item, try to construct three new
items with smaller steps between them to correct the difficulty encountered
with that item.
IX. You should be able to proceed through one to four items per session.
X. Each session should begin with an item that was completed successfully in
the previous session.
XI. Sessions should not last more than about 20 minutes.
WHEN TO SEEK PROFESSIONAL ASSISTANCE

1) Uncomfortable anxiety during the creation of the hierarchy.
2) Overlapping hierarchies.
3) Inability to produce vivid imagery.
4) Inability to control the beginning or ending of an image.
5) Inability to desensitize high enough on the hierarchy to meet your goals.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) Describe characteristics of an anxiety disorder.
2) Discuss the main phases of systematic desensitization.
3) Differentiate systematic desensitization from systematic self desensitization.
4) Define a fear hierarchy.

CHAPTER 15: COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
The word cognition means belief, thought, expectancy, attitude or perception. Cognitive
therapists regard their approach to be primarily that of unproductive, debilitating thoughts
or beliefs and adopting more constructive ones.
OBJECTIVES
1) Outline assumptions of cognitive behavioral procedures.
2) Explain steps I n problem solving methods.
3) Define cognition.
4) Describe rational emotive behavior therapy.
5) Discuss cognitive restructuring methods.
SOME COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR PROCEDURES

Assumptions
1. Individuals interpret and react to events in terms of their perceived significance.
2. Cognitive deficiencies can cause emotional disorders. The techniques for
changing faulty thinking can be described in three general classes: cognitive
restructuring methods, self instructional coping methods and problem-solving
strategies.
Cognitive Restructuring Methods

Irrational thoughts can cause anxiety, sadness, anger or other troublesome emotions. This
approach to therapy is to help people identify such irrational ideas or beliefs and to
replace them with realistic statements about the world. Approaches that focus on
substituting rational thought and appraisal of information for irrational or dysfunctional
thinking are referred to as cognitive restructuring methods.
Elli’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy was based on the premise that most everyday
emotional problems stem from irrational statements that people make to themselves when
events in their lives are not the way they would like them to be.
Self Instructional Coping Methods

Donald Meichenbaum approach is to help the client identify certain internal stimuli
produced by the situation and by negative statements the client makes to him or herself.
Through modeling and behavioral rehearsal, the client learns self-talk to counteract
negative statements in the presence of the stressful situation.
The client is then taught to self-instruct the steps for taking appropriate action and finally,
the client is instructed to make self-reinforcing statements immediately after he has
successfully coped with the stressful situation.
Problem Solving Methods

It focuses on correcting faulty reasoning by teaching people hoe to proceed through
logical reasoning to satisfactory solutions to personal problems.
It has the following steps:

1) General orientation-The client is encouraged to recognize problems and to realize
that it is possible to deal with them by acting systematically rather than
impulsively.
2) Problem definition.
3) Generation of alternatives.
4) Decision making.
5) Verification.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define cognition.
2. Describe rational emotive behavior therapy.
3. Discuss cognitive restructuring methods.
4. Explain steps in problem solving methods.
5. Outline assumptions of cognitive behavioral procedures.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION AND AREAS

CHAPTER 2: BASIC BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES: POSITIVE

CHAPTER 3: CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT.......................................................8

CHAPTER 4: DECREASING A BEHAVIOR WITH EXTINCTION............................10

CHAPTER 5: ELIMINATING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR THROUGH

CHAPTER 6: PROCEDURES BASED ON PRINCIPLES OF RESPONDENT

CHAPTER 7: CAPITALIZATION ON EXISTING STIMULUS CONTROL................20

CHAPTER 8: INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT.......24

CHAPTER 9: DIRECT BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO RECORD AND

CHAPTER 10: FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE CAUSES OF PROBLEM

CHAPTER 11: PLANNING, APPLYING AND EVALUATING A TREATMENT

CHAPTER 12: TOKEN ECONOMIES...........................................................................35

CHAPTER 13: HELPING AN INDIVIDUAL TO DEVELOP SELF CONTROL.........38

CHAPTER 14: SYSTEM SELF-DESENSITIZATION...................................................41

CHAPTER 15: COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION........................................43

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 1

WHAT IS BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

WHAT IS BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT?

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 3

SOME MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL DEFICITS

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL EXCESSES.

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 4

3. SEVERE PROBLEMS:DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES,

4. CLINICAL BEHAVIOR THERAPY

5. SELF MANAGEMENT OF PERSOONAL PROBLEMS

6. MEDICAL AND HEALTH CARE

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 5

8. BEHAVIORAL COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

9. BUSINESS INDUSTRY AND GOVERNMENT

10. SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

11. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION WITH CULTURALLY DIVERSE

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 6

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF POSITIVE

1. Selecting the behavior to be increased

2. Choosing rein forcers

4. Rein forcer size

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 7

6. Instructions: make use of rules.

7. Contingent versus Non contingent reinforcement.

GUIDELINES FOR THE EFFECTIVE APPLICATION OF POSITIVE

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 8

UNCONDITIONED AND CONDITIONED REINFORCERS

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENSS OF CONDITIONED

2. The varieties of back-up rein forcers.

3. The schedules of paring with the back-up rein forcer.

4. Extinction of conditioned rein forcer.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE USE OF CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 9

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 10

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTINCTION

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE APPLICATION OF EXTINCTION

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 11

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 12

1. PHYSICAL (Aversive) PUNISHERS

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUNISHMENT

Kenya Institute of Studies in Criminal Justice 13

WHEN TO USE PUNISHMENT