much more

than words

Manuka takoto, kawea ake

Whakatauki explanation
‘Manuka takoto, kawea ake’ literally means ‘to take up the challenge’. In Mäoridom, a manuka stick
placed on the ground symbolises a challenge. ‘Manuka takoto’ means ‘manuka lying’ and ‘kawea
ake’ means ‘pick up’. In the context of this resource, Much More Than Words, the challenge is
placed before the adults supporting the child to take up the resource and use it to support tamariki
(children) to develop the communication skills they will need for lifelong learning and success.

Illustrations created by Christen Stewart

Purpose of this booklet

This booklet is for supporting the communication development of young children. Family/whänau,
early childhood educators, kaiako, health professionals and others may find it useful.
It includes information about typical communication development in young children and ideas for
supporting them.

2 Much More Than Words

Contents
Introduction 4

Hearing 6

Communication development 8

Speech sound development 11

Early literacy skills 12

Stuttering 13

Voice 14

References 15

Making a referral to the Ministry of Education 16

Much More Than Words 3

Introduction
Communication is much more than words. It is the way we connect and interact with people.
It is part of our identity and culture. It helps us to learn, interact with others and to make friends.

Communication involves a range of many different skills. Children need to be able to:
• understand what people say to them • understand and use gestures, signs and body
• use words and sentences to talk to get their language
message across • look, listen and take turns in a conversation.
• speak clearly

Communication is the foundation for learning and development and is possibly the most important skill
a child will ever develop. Communication develops over time and children go through stages in their
communication; some go through these stages quickly and some will take longer.

Communication development varies across languages and cultures. Many children live in homes where
more than one language is spoken. This provides an opportunity for them to be multilingual and should
be encouraged and valued. It is important for the adults around the child to use the language that they are
most comfortable and familiar with as this will provide the best models for the child (Lowry, 2014).

Children need the adults around them to actively support and encourage their communication development. The
more we know about how to support and encourage, the more we can help children develop their communication
skills through play and social conversations in real-life situations. Te Whäriki, the New Zealand Early Childhood
Curriculum, says that:

“The relationships and environments that children experience have a direct impact
on their learning and development”
(Ministry of Education, 1996, pg 7)

4 Much More Than Words

This booklet provides information about children’s communication development so you can think about how your
child is talking and support them, using their skills and interests.

Communication is much more than words. Speech, language, social interaction and early literacy skills are all parts
of a child’s communication. These parts develop together and support each other as shown in Figure 1 below.

Much More Than Words 5

Hearing Any degree of hearing loss can make
learning to speak more difficult.

General information about young children’s hearing

Hearing is a critical part of a child’s communication development. Even a mild or fluctuating hearing loss
can affect a child’s communication development so it’s important to identify any loss as early as possible.

Hearing loss

There are two main types of hearing loss. One is temporary (conductive) and the other permanent (sensori-neural).

Temporary hearing loss can mean that the child is able to hear well one day but not the next. This is sometimes
referred to as fluctuating hearing loss, which can be difficult to identify. People may talk about the child having
‘middle ear’ problems, fluid in their ear or sometimes glue ear.

Permanent hearing loss may be in one or both ears and can be different in each ear.

Any type or degree of hearing loss can make learning to talk more difficult.

Signs of hearing difficulties include:

• not always noticing everyday sounds • unfocused attention
• needing to have volumes louder than you’d expect • difficulty waiting for and taking turns
• taking longer to learn to talk • staring at people’s mouths when they talk
• often asking others to repeat themselves • speaking very loudly.

Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s hearing?

If you have any concerns about your child’s hearing you should talk to your child’s doctor who may refer
them for a hearing test.

Hearing testing – what’s involved?

All babies in New Zealand have a hearing test soon after they are born.

Families/whänau are also offered a hearing check for their child, by nurses employed to do ‘Well Child’
checks, several times prior to them starting school. When children turn four they will be offered a hearing
test as part of their Before School Check. If there are concerns they will be referred to an audiologist,
a specialist in hearing loss, for further hearing testing.

Audiologists mainly work in hospitals and community-based clinics. They make the experience as easy
as possible for the child, and are skilled in testing young children’s hearing from birth.

It may be necessary to get children’s hearing tested a few times, as it can be difficult to pick up a hearing loss
with the first test.

6 Much More Than Words

General strategies to support young children with identified hearing loss
Depending on the degree of hearing loss there may be a range of supports available, including access
to New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) for those with permanent hearing loss.

The strategies below are general strategies for all children with hearing loss but mainly focus
on those using spoken language:
• Gain your child’s attention before speaking • Use a clear, everyday voice. Try not to speak too
to them, eg, say their name before speaking loudly as this distorts the sound
• Try to keep background noise down when talking • Be aware of anything that can make it difficult
to them, eg, turn the TV volume down for them to see your face, eg, lighting or shadows,
• Check that your child understands any instructions hands, books
by asking a question that doesn’t require a yes/no • At the early childhood education centre,
response, eg, “What will you do now?” rather than encourage the child to sit close to the person
“Did you hear me?” or “Do you understand?” speaking, eg, if the teacher is reading a story
• Make sure your child can see your face when you then the child should be seated close to them
are talking to them so that they can hear your • Try not to exaggerate your facial expressions or
voice more clearly and see your facial expressions lip patterns.

Much More Than Words 7

Communication development
Ages and Stages
Here is some information about how children’s communication skills usually develop. We have included
some suggestions of activities to encourage communication at each age (Tips). Use the language that
you are most familiar and comfortable with.

By 1 year, most children...

• respond to common words • take turns in conversations
TIPS
such as “no!”, “bye bye” with adults by babbling,
• know the names of familiar eg, “mumma mumma” • Get face to face with your baby
things, eg, mämä, teddy • use their words and gestures • Reduce background noise when
• will show you objects to get to be social, to ask and to show playing and talking with your baby,
your attention • start to show an interest in eg, turn off the TV
• are starting to use some looking at pictures in books • Copy your baby’s babbling and take
single words • enjoy listening to songs and turns in a ‘conversation’
• enjoy repetitive games with nursery rhymes. • Talk to your baby when doing things
others, eg, ‘peek a boo’ together, eg, bath time, mealtimes.

By 18 months, most children... TIPS

• understand simple phrases, • are starting to use more than
eg, “where’s your drink?”, 20 common words, eg, “milk”, • Spend time looking at picture books
“shoes on” “daddy”, “more” and photos and talking about what
you see
• will give a toy to an adult • are starting to turn pages in
on request books and to point at pictures. • Sing and do the actions for action
songs/waiata
• repeat actions to make
someone laugh • Talk about what you see when you are
out and about, eg, shopping, in the car,
on the marae.
By 2 years, most children...
• understand instructions • enjoy pretend play with their TIPS
containing two key words, toys, eg, feeding teddy, putting
eg, “give your cup to dad” dolly to bed
• Play with your child, join in with what
• can listen to a simple story • join in with songs/waiata and they are doing or interested in
• use over 50 single words nursery rhymes with actions
• Make sure you’re face to face when
• are starting to combine words, • enjoy interactive books, playing with your child – you may need
eg, “go car”, “more drink”, eg, lift-the-flap books, such to sit on the floor. This is so you can see
“titiro päpä!” as ‘Spot’ and ‘Little Kiwi’, what your child is interested in – it also
‘Hairy Maclary’, etc. helps conversation!
• ask simple questions,
eg, “what that?”, “where ball?” • can be understood by familiar • Share your family’s stories, songs/
adults most of the time. waiata and poems.
• talk about what they can see
and hear right now

8 Much More Than Words

By 3 years, most children... TIPS
• understand instructions • can talk about things that
containing three key words, are not present • Give your child plenty of time to speak.
eg, “get the spoon and the • take an interest in other Focus on what they are saying, not how
big cup” children’s play and sometimes they are saying it
• use a vocabulary of several join in • Have fun reading books – talk about
hundred words, including • take an interest in playing with the story and characters and make it
describing words, such as ‘fast’ words, eg, rhyming words exciting. Point to key words in the text
and ‘small’ as you read
• are starting to recognise
• can combine three or more a few letters • Involve your child with lots of everyday
words into a sentence, routines – talk about what you’re
• can be understood by
eg, “What’s daddy doing?” doing and introduce new words,
unfamiliar adults most of
• play imaginative games, eg, “sweeping” when sweeping the floor
the time, eg, the librarian or
eg, pretending a block is relatives they don’t see often. • Add extra words to your child’s
a phone sentences, eg, if he says “my car”, you
could say “that’s right – it’s a big car”.

By 4 years, most children...

TIPS
• understand more complex • know some letter names
language structures, • can recognise some printed
eg, ‘why.... because’ • When your child says something
words in the environment,
that is not clear, say it back for them
• ask lots of ‘what’, ‘where’ and eg, a stop sign
so they hear it the right way rather
‘why’ questions to find out • are attempting to write than asking them to repeat it
new information their name
• Have fun with words and sounds,
• take part in longer and more • are starting to use talking to eg, make up games about words that
complicated make-believe make friends and to solve start with the same sound, make up
play sequences with peers, problems silly words that rhyme
eg, buying a ticket, going on
• can talk about what they • Talk with your child about exciting
the bus, getting off at the
have done and what they things that are going to happen, to
right stop and then getting
might do, eg, they can tell encourage talking about the future
back on
Nana about their trip to the
• enjoy simple jokes – even • Let your child choose books to
park, then talk about what
though their jokes may not share with you
they want for dinner
make sense! • Encourage your child to join in
• can be understood by
• can recognise their own drawing and writing activities with
unfamiliar adults almost
written name you, eg, writing shopping lists,
all of the time.
making special cards.

Much More Than Words 9

 By 5 years, most children...
• understand and use • are able to ask for help TIPS
more concept words, appropriately, eg, “excuse me
such as ‘tallest’, ‘same’, can I have....?” • Look for opportunities to increase
‘bigger’, ‘medium’ • are able to adapt their the number of different words your
• can respond to instructions talking to a listener’s level child uses, particularly around new
while busy doing of understanding, eg, when experiences. Try to use a wide range
something else talking to a baby sister of naming and describing words
• generally use complete, • are able to identify first • Make your own books with your
well formed sentences sounds in words, child – write the story together
• are still developing some eg, “puku starts with p” • Play games that help with taking
aspects of more complex • are starting to link letter turns and concentrating, eg, ‘What’s
language structure, such as names with letter sounds, the time, Mr Wolf?’, hide and seek,
using irregular past tense, eg, eg, ‘s’ = ‘ssss’ snakes and ladders, memory match
they may say “runned” for ‘ran’ • can recognise some familiar • Give your child plenty of
• are able to take turns in written words opportunities to play with other
much longer conversations • can write their own name children. This is a great way to
• will ask the meanings of • can be understood by develop talking and social skills.
words, and try to use unfamiliar adults all of the
new words time. A few sounds may still
• are able to retell stories they be developing, eg, th, r, l and
have heard in the right order, some consonant blends, such
using some story phrases, eg, as string, cloud, spider, tree.
“once upon a time”, “the end”

Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s communication?

Talk to someone else who knows your child well, eg, your child’s teacher, doctor or a close family/whänau
member. If you are still concerned, call the Ministry of Education at 0800 622 222 or for your local Ministry
of Education office go to www.education.govt.nz and click on Contact Us.

10 Much More Than Words

Speech sound development
Here is a guide to how children’s speech usually develops. Speech development may vary across languages.

Early, middle and later speech sounds

This helps us think about the order that children learn to say speech sounds.

Early (18 mths – 3 yrs) Middle (2 – 6 yrs) Later (3 – 8 yrs)

mnybwdph t ng (talking) k g f v ch j sh zh (measure) l r s z

th (think) th (that)

The chart describes the approximate order that children’s speech sounds develop. Speech sounds develop from the
time the child starts using words until the early years at school. Although the age range extends to eight years,
most children will be using these sounds earlier than that. (Based on Shriberg, 1993)

Speech intelligibility

Children’s speech generally gets easier to understand as they get older. Here’s a guide:
• By two years of age children can be understood by • By four years of age children can be understood
familiar adults most of the time by unfamiliar adults almost all of the time
• By three years of age children can be understood • By five years of age children can be understood
by unfamiliar adults most of the time by unfamiliar adults all of the time.
(Based on Flipsen Jr, 2006)

TIPS

• Show your child that you are interested possible, eg, child says “bish” and you say
in what they say, not how they say it “yes it’s a big fish, isn’t it?”
• Help your child to learn how to say tricky sounds • Get face to face with your child so that they
by repeating them correctly as naturally as can watch the way you say words.

Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s speech?

Talk to someone else who knows your child well, eg, your child’s teacher, doctor or a close family/whänau member.
If you are still concerned, call the Ministry of Education at 0800 622 222 or for your local Ministry of Education
office go to www.education.govt.nz and click on Contact Us.

Much More Than Words 11

Early literacy skills
Communication skills are strongly linked to the development of reading and writing.

Getting ready to read and write

Literacy is part of everyday learning. Children learn best when literacy is integrated into everyday activities,
rather than isolated learning times. Use the language that you are most familiar and comfortable with.

Some of the foundation skills to support literacy are described below:

Conversation Print knowledge

A child’s ability to communicate is directly related Before your child can read or write, they must
to their literacy development. The better their understand how print works. For example, they’ll
conversational skills now, the easier it will be need to know that print is made up of letters of the
for them to understand what they read later on. alphabet, that letters combine to make words and
that print is read from left to right.
Vocabulary
The more words your child knows, the easier it is Sound awareness
for them to learn new words and to gain meaning To be ready to read, your child needs to understand
from the stories they read. that words can be broken down into syllables and
smaller sounds, and that letters correspond to
Story comprehension certain sounds.
Lots of experience listening to, and understanding,
stories will eventually make it easier for your child
to read and write stories on their own.

Your child’s early literacy skills do not develop in a specific order, one after the other. In fact, all of these
skills are developing at the same time, cf. The Hanen Centre.

TIPS

• Read to your child when they are very young so • Point out words and signs on outings. See if your
that they start to become familiar with different child can recognise familiar symbols
books, pictures, words and language • Encourage your child to join in with you in writing
• Carry on reading together as your child grows activities, eg, shopping lists, birthday cards.
• Keep them interested by choosing books they enjoy

What should I do if I want more information?

For more information go to:

www.educate.ece.govt.nz/EducateHome/learning/exploringPractice/Literacy.aspx

12 Much More Than Words

 Stuttering is different for each child.

Stuttering Stuttering may also be called

‘stammering’ or ‘dysfluency’.

What is stuttering?
Stuttering is when people seem to get stuck on, or repeat, sounds when talking. Stuttering may also be called
‘stammering’ or ‘dysfluency’.

Here are some common features that you might notice when children stutter:
• they repeat a sound (“p-p-p-please”), a syllable • they stretch out a sound, eg, “ssssss- sometimes”
(“to-to-to-tomorrow”) or a word (“my-my-my-my • they get completely stuck at the start of a word,
name is”) and no sound comes out.

Stuttering is different for each child. It can vary depending on the situation, such as what the child wants
to say, who they are talking to and how they are feeling. Stuttering can start gradually or suddenly and may
change over time.

Sometimes, a child may try to hide stuttering by avoiding talking.

Who stutters?

Stuttering can affect people of all ages and cultures. Many children stutter at some point as they learn to talk.
Stuttering is more common in boys than girls and can run in families.

TIPS

• Show your child that you are interested in what • Be supportive if your child gets upset about
they say, not how they say it. Maintain natural eye their speech. You could say, “Talking is tricky
contact and don’t ask them to say words again sometimes when you’re still learning”.
• Let them finish their sentences rather than
finishing them for them

Who should I talk to if I am concerned that my child may be stuttering?

If you think your child may be stuttering or if there is a family/whänau history of stuttering, seek advice from
the Ministry of Education as soon as you can. Call 0800 622 222 or for your local Ministry of Education office
go to: www.education.govt.nz and click on Contact Us.

Much More Than Words 13

Voice
What is a voice problem?

A child may have difficulty with their voice when it frequently sounds:
• rough or hoarse • nasal (like they are talking through their nose)
• husky • unusual or different to their friends’ voices.

Some children may lose their voice completely at times.

TIPS

• Try to reduce situations where your child is • Try to reduce situations where your child is talking
yelling, eg, try not to yell across a room or over the top of noise, eg loud music
playground, instead encourage them to walk • Encourage periods of quiet activities to give the
over to talk to someone voice a rest, eg looking at books or doing
a construction or craft activity.

Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s voice?

If you have any concerns about your child’s voice talk to your child’s doctor who may refer your child to a
specialist or a Speech-Language Therapist.

14 Much More Than Words

References
Action for Stammering Children, information sheets www.stammeringcentre.org

British Stammering Association, information for parents www.stammering.org

Flipsen, P., Jr (2006). Measuring the speech intelligibility of conversational speech in children.
Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, (20) 4, 303-312.

Linguisystems, Inc. (2008). Guide to Communication Milestones. East Moline, Illinois, USA.

Lowry, L. (2014). Intervening with Dual Language Learners. The Hanen Centre, Toronto, Canada.

McLeod, S. & Bleile, K. (2003). Neurological and developmental foundations of speech acquisition.
American Speech-Language Hearing Association Convention.

Ministry of Education (2000). Much More Than Words. Reprinted in 2008. Wellington: Learning Media.

Ministry of Education (1996). Te Whäriki. Wellington: Learning Media.

Shriberg, L.D. (1993). Four new speech and prosody-voice measures for genetics research and other studies
in developmental phonological disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, (36), 105-140.

Shriberg, L.D., Kwiatkowski, J. & Gruber, F.A. (1992). Short-term and long-term normalization in developmental
phonological disorders. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Speech-Hearing Association,
San Antonio, Tx.

St. Gabriel’s Curriculum (2005). St Gabriel’s Auditory-Verbal Early Intervention Centre –

A Curriculum, Jan Tuohy, Jackie Brown, Charmaine Mercer-Moseley, Leonie Walsh, © Trustees of the Christian Brothers
t/as St. Gabriel’s School for Hearing Impaired Children, NSW Australia, 2005.

Speech Pathology Australia, stuttering advice sheet www.speechpathologyaustralia.org.au

Stuttering Treatment And Research Trust (START) www.stuttering.co.nz

The Communication Trust (2011). Small Talk www.thecommunicationtrust.org.uk

The Hanen Centre – Early Literacy Development www.hanen.org/Guidebooks---DVDs/Parents/Im-Ready!.aspx

Much More Than Words 15

Making a referral to the
Ministry of Education
Making a referral to the Ministry of Education

When?
• Have you talked to someone else who knows your child well and tried some of the recommended tips?
• Are you still concerned?

What?
• Think about your child’s communication skills, eg, speech, language, social interaction.
• Think about the impact on their daily activities and social interactions at home and in the early
childhood education setting.
• Are they having significant difficulties understanding or communicating with other children
or adults a lot of the time?
• Are they becoming withdrawn or showing different behaviours to communicate their needs
and wants a lot of the time?

How?
• If you answered ‘yes’ to the above questions then contact your local Ministry of Education office to
discuss your concerns or make a referral.

For your local Ministry of Education office, go to www.education.govt.nz and click Contact Us
or call the Ministry of Education on 0800 622 222.