PROBLEM 1.

KNOWN: Heat rate, q, through one-dimensional wall of area A, thickness L, thermal

conductivity k and inner temperature, T1.

FIND: The outer temperature of the wall, T2.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state conditions,

(3) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: The rate equation for conduction through the wall is given by Fourier’s law,

dT T −T
q cond = q x = q ′′x ⋅ A = -k ⋅ A = kA 1 2 .
dx L

Solving for T2 gives

q cond L
T2 = T1 − .
kA

Substituting numerical values, find

3000W × 0.025m
T2 = 415$ C -
0.2W / m ⋅ K × 10m2

T2 = 415$ C - 37.5$ C

T2 = 378$ C. <
COMMENTS: Note direction of heat flow and fact that T2 must be less than T1.
 PROBLEM 1.2
KNOWN: Inner surface temperature and thermal conductivity of a concrete wall.
FIND: Heat loss by conduction through the wall as a function of ambient air temperatures ranging from
-15 to 38°C.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3)
Constant properties, (4) Outside wall temperature is that of the ambient air.
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, it is evident that the gradient, dT dx = − q′′x k , is a constant, and
hence the temperature distribution is linear, if q′′x and k are each constant. The heat flux must be
constant under one-dimensional, steady-state conditions; and k is approximately constant if it depends
only weakly on temperature. The heat flux and heat rate when the outside wall temperature is T2 = -15°C
are

q′′x = − k
dT
=k
T1 − T2
= 1W m ⋅ K
25$ C − −15$ C
= 133.3W m 2 .
( ) (1)
dx L 0.30 m

q x = q′′x × A = 133.3 W m 2 × 20 m 2 = 2667 W . (2) <

Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), the heat rate qx can be determined for the range of ambient temperature, -15
≤ T2 ≤ 38°C, with different wall thermal conductivities, k.

3500

2500
Heat loss, qx (W)

1500

500

-500

-1500
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Ambient air temperature, T2 (C)

Wall thermal conductivity, k = 1.25 W/m.K

k = 1 W/m.K, concrete wall
k = 0.75 W/m.K

For the concrete wall, k = 1 W/m⋅K, the heat loss varies linearily from +2667 W to -867 W and is zero
when the inside and ambient temperatures are the same. The magnitude of the heat rate increases with
increasing thermal conductivity.
COMMENTS: Without steady-state conditions and constant k, the temperature distribution in a plane
wall would not be linear.
 PROBLEM 1.3
KNOWN: Dimensions, thermal conductivity and surface temperatures of a concrete slab. Efficiency
of gas furnace and cost of natural gas.
FIND: Daily cost of heat loss.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady state, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The rate of heat loss by conduction through the slab is

T −T 7°C
q = k ( LW ) 1 2 = 1.4 W / m ⋅ K (11m × 8 m ) = 4312 W <
t 0.20 m

The daily cost of natural gas that must be combusted to compensate for the heat loss is

q Cg 4312 W × $0.01/ MJ
Cd = ( ∆t ) = ( 24 h / d × 3600s / h ) = $4.14 / d <
ηf 0.9 ×106 J / MJ
COMMENTS: The loss could be reduced by installing a floor covering with a layer of insulation
between it and the concrete.
 PROBLEM 1.4

KNOWN: Heat flux and surface temperatures associated with a wood slab of prescribed
thickness.

FIND: Thermal conductivity, k, of the wood.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Subject to the foregoing assumptions, the thermal conductivity may be

determined from Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2. Rearranging,

L W 0.05m
k=q′′x = 40
T1 − T2 m2 ( 40-20 ) C

k = 0.10 W / m ⋅ K. <
COMMENTS: Note that the °C or K temperature units may be used interchangeably when
evaluating a temperature difference.
 PROBLEM 1.5

KNOWN: Inner and outer surface temperatures of a glass window of prescribed dimensions.

FIND: Heat loss through window.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Subject to the foregoing conditions the heat flux may be computed from
Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2.

T −T
q′′x = k 1 2
L

W (15-5 ) C
q′′x = 1.4
m ⋅ K 0.005m
q′′x = 2800 W/m 2 .

Since the heat flux is uniform over the surface, the heat loss (rate) is

q = q ′′x × A
q = 2800 W / m2 × 3m2
q = 8400 W. <
COMMENTS: A linear temperature distribution exists in the glass for the prescribed
conditions.
 PROBLEM 1.6
KNOWN: Width, height, thickness and thermal conductivity of a single pane window and
the air space of a double pane window. Representative winter surface temperatures of single
pane and air space.
FIND: Heat loss through single and double pane windows.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction through glass or air, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Enclosed air of double pane window is stagnant (negligible buoyancy induced
motion).
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, the heat losses are

35 $C
Single Pane: qg = k g A
T1 − T2
L ( )
= 1.4 W/m ⋅ K 2m 2
0.005m
= 19, 600 W

T −T
Double Pane: qa = k a A 1 2 = 0.024 2m2
L ( )
25 $C
0.010 m
= 120 W

COMMENTS: Losses associated with a single pane are unacceptable and would remain
excessive, even if the thickness of the glass were doubled to match that of the air space. The
principal advantage of the double pane construction resides with the low thermal conductivity
of air (~ 60 times smaller than that of glass). For a fixed ambient outside air temperature, use
of the double pane construction would also increase the surface temperature of the glass
exposed to the room (inside) air.
 PROBLEM 1.7

KNOWN: Dimensions of freezer compartment. Inner and outer surface temperatures.

FIND: Thickness of styrofoam insulation needed to maintain heat load below prescribed
value.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Perfectly insulated bottom, (2) One-dimensional conduction through 5

2
walls of area A = 4m , (3) Steady-state conditions, (4) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Using Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2, the heat rate is

∆T
q = q ′′ ⋅ A = k A total
L

2
Solving for L and recognizing that Atotal = 5×W , find

5 k ∆ T W2
L =
q

L=

( )
5 × 0.03 W/m ⋅ K 35 - (-10 ) C 4m 2
500 W

L = 0.054m = 54mm. <

COMMENTS: The corners will cause local departures from one-dimensional conduction
and a slightly larger heat loss.
 PROBLEM 1.8
KNOWN: Dimensions and thermal conductivity of food/beverage container. Inner and outer
surface temperatures.
FIND: Heat flux through container wall and total heat load.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Negligible heat transfer through bottom
wall, (3) Uniform surface temperatures and one-dimensional conduction through remaining
walls.
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2, the heat flux is
$
T2 − T1 0.023 W/m ⋅ K ( 20 − 2 ) C
′′
q =k = = 16.6 W/m 2 <
L 0.025 m
Since the flux is uniform over each of the five walls through which heat is transferred, the
heat load is
q = q′′ × A total = q′′  H ( 2W1 + 2W2 ) + W1 × W2 

q = 16.6 W/m2  0.6m (1.6m + 1.2m ) + ( 0.8m × 0.6m ) = 35.9 W <
COMMENTS: The corners and edges of the container create local departures from one-
dimensional conduction, which increase the heat load. However, for H, W1, W2 >> L, the
effect is negligible.
 PROBLEM 1.9

KNOWN: Masonry wall of known thermal conductivity has a heat rate which is 80% of that
through a composite wall of prescribed thermal conductivity and thickness.

FIND: Thickness of masonry wall.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Both walls subjected to same surface temperatures, (2) One-
dimensional conduction, (3) Steady-state conditions, (4) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: For steady-state conditions, the conduction heat flux through a one-dimensional
wall follows from Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2,

∆T
q ′′ = k
L

where ∆T represents the difference in surface temperatures. Since ∆T is the same for both
walls, it follows that

k1 q ′′
L1 = L2 ⋅ 2.
k2 q1′′

With the heat fluxes related as

q1′′ = 0.8 q ′′2

0.75 W / m ⋅ K 1
L1 = 100mm × = 375mm. <
0.25 W / m ⋅ K 0.8

COMMENTS: Not knowing the temperature difference across the walls, we cannot find the
value of the heat rate.
 PROBLEM 1.10
KNOWN: Thickness, diameter and inner surface temperature of bottom of pan used to boil
water. Rate of heat transfer to the pan.
FIND: Outer surface temperature of pan for an aluminum and a copper bottom.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction through bottom of pan.

ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer by conduction through the bottom
of the pan is

T −T
q = kA 1 2
L

Hence,

qL
T1 = T2 +
kA

where A = π D2 / 4 = π (0.2m ) / 4 = 0.0314 m 2 .

2

600W ( 0.005 m )
T1 = 110 $C + = 110.40 $C
( )
Aluminum:
240 W/m ⋅ K 0.0314 m 2

600W (0.005 m )
T1 = 110 $C + = 110.25 $C
( )
Copper:
390 W/m ⋅ K 0.0314 m2

COMMENTS: Although the temperature drop across the bottom is slightly larger for
aluminum (due to its smaller thermal conductivity), it is sufficiently small to be negligible for
both materials. To a good approximation, the bottom may be considered isothermal at T ≈
110 °C, which is a desirable feature of pots and pans.
 PROBLEM 1.11

KNOWN: Dimensions and thermal conductivity of a chip. Power dissipated on one surface.

FIND: Temperature drop across the chip.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform heat
dissipation, (4) Negligible heat loss from back and sides, (5) One-dimensional conduction in
chip.

ANALYSIS: All of the electrical power dissipated at the back surface of the chip is
transferred by conduction through the chip. Hence, from Fourier’s law,

∆T
P = q = kA
t
or

t ⋅P 0.001 m × 4 W
∆T = =
kW 2 2
150 W/m ⋅ K ( 0.005 m )

∆T = 1.1$ C. <
COMMENTS: For fixed P, the temperature drop across the chip decreases with increasing k
and W, as well as with decreasing t.
 PROBLEM 2.9
KNOWN: Plane wall with prescribed thermal conductivity, thickness, and surface temperatures.
FIND: Heat flux, q ′′x , and temperature gradient, dT/dx, for the three different coordinate systems
shown.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional heat flow, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) No internal
generation, (4) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The rate equation for conduction heat transfer is
dT
q ′′x = − k , (1)
dx
where the temperature gradient is constant throughout the wall and of the form

=
 $ $
dT T L − T 0
. (2)
dx L
Substituting numerical values, find the temperature gradients,

(a)
dT T2 − T1
= =

600 − 400 K $
= 2000 K / m <
dx L 0.100m

(b)
dT T1 − T2
= =

400 − 600 K $
= −2000 K / m <
dx L 0.100m

(c)
dT T2 − T1
= =

600 − 400 K $
= 2000 K / m. <
dx L 0.100m
The heat rates, using Eq. (1) with k = 100 W/m⋅K, are
W
(a) q ′′x = −100 × 2000 K / m = -200 kW / m2 <
m⋅ K
W
(b) q ′′x = −100 ( −2000 K / m) = +200 kW / m2 <
m⋅ K
W
(c) q ′′x = −100 × 2000 K / m = -200 kW / m2 <
m⋅ K