Quarter I: MUSIC OF THE 20TH CENTURY

The start of the 20th century saw the rise of distinct musical styles that reflected a move away
from the conventions of earlier classical music. These new styles were: impressionism,
expressionism, neo-classicism, avant garde music, and modern nationalism.

The distinct musical styles of the 20th century would not have developed if not for the musical
genius of individual composers such as Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel,Arnold Schoenberg, Bela
Bartok, IgorStravinsky, Sergei Prokofieff, and George Gershwin stand out as themoving forces
behind the innovativeandexperimental styles mentioned above. Comingfromdifferentnations—
France,Austria, Hungary,Russia,andthe United States— these composers clearly reflected the
growing globalization of musical styles in the 20th century.

IMPRESSIONISM

One of the earlier but concrete forms declaring the entry of 20th century music was known as
impressionism. It is a French movement in the late 19th and early 20th century. The sentimental
melodies and dramatic emotionalism of the preceding Romantic Period (their themes and
melody are easy to recognize and enjoy) were being replaced in favor of moods and impressions.
There is an extensive use of colors and effects, vague melodies, and innovative chords and
progressions leading to mild dissonances.

Sublime moods and melodic suggestions replaced highly expressive and program music, or music
that contained visual imagery. With this trend came new combinations of extended chords,
harmonies, whole tone, chromatic scales, and pentatonic scales. Impressionism was an attempt
not to depict reality, but merely to suggest it. It was meant to create an emotional mood rather
than a specific picture. In terms of imagery, impressionistic forms were translucent and hazy, as
if trying to see through a rain-drenched window.

In impressionism, the sounds of different chords overlapped lightly with each other to produce
new subtle musical colors. Chords did not have a definite order and a sense of clear resolution.
Other features include the lack of a tonic-dominant relationship which normally gives the feeling
of finality to a piece, moods and textures, harmonic vagueness about the structure of certain
chords, and use of the whole-tone scale. Most of the impressionist works centered on nature and
its beauty, lightness, and brilliance. A number of outstanding impressionists created works on
this subject.

The impressionistic movement in music had its foremost proponents in the French composers
Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Both had developed a particular style of composing adopted
by many 20th century composers. Among the most famous luminaries in other countries were
Ottorino Respighi (Italy), Manuel de Falla and Isaac Albeniz (Spain), and Ralph Vaughan Williams
(England).
CLAUDE DEBUSSY (1862–1918)

One of the most important and influential of the 20th century composers was Claude Debussy.
He was the primary exponent of the impressionist movement and the focal point for other
impressionist composers. He changed the course of musical development by dissolving
traditional rules and conventions into a new language of possibilities in harmony, rhythm, form,
texture, and color.

Debussy was born in St. Germain-en-Laye in France on August 22, 1862. His early musical talents
were channeled into piano lessons. He entered the Paris Conservatory in 1873. He gained a
reputation as an erratic pianist and a rebel in theory and harmony. He added other systems of
musical compositions because of his musical training. In 1884, he won the top prize at the Prix de
Rome competition with his composition L’Enfant Prodigue (The Prodigal Son). This enabled him
to study for two year in Rome, where he got exposed to the music of Richard Wagner, specifically
his opera Tristan und Isolde, although he did not share the latter’s grandiose style.

Debussy’s mature creative period was represented by the following works:

 Ariettes Oubliees
 Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun
 String Quartet
 Pelleas et Melisande (1895)—his famous operatic work that drew mixed extreme
reactions for its innovative harmonies and textural treatments.
 La Mer (1905)—a highly imaginative and atmospheric symphonic work for orchestra
about the sea
 Images, Suite Bergamasque, and Estampes—his most popular piano compositions; a set
of lightly textured pieces containing his signature work Claire de Lune (Moonlight)

His musical compositions total more or less 227 which include orchestral music, chamber music,
piano music, operas, ballets, songs, and other vocal music.

The creative style of Debussy was characterized by his unique approach to the various musical
elements. Debussy’s compositions deviated from the Romantic Period and is clearly seen by the
way he avoided metric pulses and preferred free form and developed his themes. Debussy’s
western influences came from composers Franz Liszt and Giuseppe Verdi. From the East, he was
fascinated by the Javanese gamelan that he had heard at the 1889 Paris Exposition. The gamelan
is an ensemble with bells, gongs, xylophone, and occasional vocal parts which he later used in his
works to achieve a new sound.

From the visual arts, Debussy was influenced by Monet, Pissarro, Manet, Degas, and Renoir; and
from the literary arts, by Mallarme, Verlaine, and Rimbaud. Most ofhisclose friends
werepaintersand poets who significantly influenced his compositions. His role as the “Father of
the Modern School of Composition” made its mark in the styles of the later 20th century
composers like Igor Stravinsky, Edgar Varese, and Olivier Messiaen. Debussy spent the remaining
years of his life as a critic, composer, and performer. He died in Paris on March 25, 1918 of cancer
at the height of the First World War.

MAURICE RAVEL (1875–1937)

Joseph Maurice Ravel was born in Ciboure, France to a Basque mother and a Swiss father. He
entered the Paris Conservatory at the age of 14 where he studied with the eminent French
composer Gabriel Faure. During his stint with the school where he stayed until his early 20’s, he
had composed a number of masterpieces.

The compositional style of Ravel is mainly characterized by its uniquely innovative but not atonal
style of harmonic treatment. It is defined with intricate and sometimes modal melodies and
extended chordal components. It demands considerable technical virtuosity from the performer
which is the character, ability, or skill of a virtuoso—a person who excels in musical technique or
execution.

The harmonic progressions and modulations are not ony musically satisfying but also pleasantly
dissonant and elegantly sophisticated. His refined delicacy and color, contrasts and effects add
to the difficulty in the proper execution of the musical passages. Theses are extensively used in
his works of a programmatic nature, wherein visual imagery is either suggested or portrayed.
Many of his works deal with water in its flowing or stormy moods as well as with human
characterizations.

Ravel’s works include the following:

 Pavane for a Dead Princess (1899), a slow but lyrical requiem
 Jeux d’Eau or Water Fountains (1901)
 String Quartet (1903)
 Sonatine for Piano (c.1904)
 Miroirs (Mirrors), 1905, a work for piano known for its harmonic evolution and
imagination, Gaspard de la Nuit (1908), a set of demonic-inspired pieces based on the
poems of Aloysius Bertrand which is arguably the most difficult piece in the piano
repertoire.
 These were followed by a number of his other significant works, including Valses Nobles
et Sentimentales (1911)
 Le Tombeau de Couperin (c.1917), a commemoration of the musical advocacies of the
early 18th century French composer Francois Couperin
 Rhapsodie Espagnole
 Bolero
 Daphnis et Chloe (1912), a ballet commissioned by master choreographer Sergei Diaghilev
that contained rhythmic diversity, evocation of nature, and choral ensemble
  La Valse (1920), a waltz with a frightening undertone that had been composed for ballet
and arranged as well as for solo and duo piano.
 The two piano concerti composed in 1929 as well as the violin virtuosic piece Tzigane
(1922) total the relatively meager compositional output of Ravel, approximating 60 pieces
for piano, chamber music, song cycles, ballet, and opera.

Ravel was a perfectionist and every bit a musical craftsman. He strongly adhered to the classical
form, specifically its ternary structure. A strong advocate of Russian music, he also admired the
music of Chopin, Liszt, Schubert, and Mendelssohn. He died in Paris in 1937.
The creative style of Debussy was characterized by his unique approach to the various musical
elements. Debussy’s compositions deviated from the Romantic Period and is clearly seen by the
way he avoided metric pulses and preferred free form and developed his themes. Debussy’s
western influences came from composers Franz Liszt and Giuseppe Verdi. From the East, he was
fascinated by the Javanese gamelan that he had heard at the 1889 Paris Exposition. The gamelan
is an ensemble with bells, gongs, xylophone, and occasional vocal parts which he later used in his
works to achieve a new sound.
From the visual arts, Debussy was influenced by Monet, Pissarro, Manet, Degas, and Renoir; and
from the literary arts, byMallarme,Verlaine, and Rimbaud. Most ofhisclose friends
werepaintersand poets who significantly influenced his compositions.His role as the “Father of
the Modern School of Composition” made its mark in the styles of the later 20th century
composers like Igor Stravinsky, Edgar Varese, and Olivier Messiaen. Debussy spent the remaining
years of his life as a critic, composer, and performer. He died in Paris on March 25, 1918 of cancer
at the height of the First World War.
Comparative Styles of Debussy and Ravel
As the two major exponents of French Impressionism in music, Debussy and Ravel had crossed
paths during their lifetime although Debussy was thirteen years older than Ravel. While their
musical works sound quite similar in terms of their harmonic and textural characteristics, the two
differed greatly in their personalities and approach to music. Whereas Debussy was more
spontaneous and liberal in form, Ravel was very attentive to the classical norms of musical
structure and the compositional craftsmanship. Whereas Debussy was more casual in his
portrayal of visual imagery, Ravel was more formal and exacting in the development of his motive
ideas.
ARNOLD SCHOENBERG (1874–1951)
Arnold Schoenbergwas born in a working-class suburb of Vienna, Austria on September 13, 1874.
He taught himself music theory, but took lessons in counterpoint. German composer Richard
Wagner influenced his work as evidenced by his symphonic poem Pelleas et Melisande, Op 5
(1903), a counterpoint of Debussy’s opera of the same title.
===========
Although full of melodic and lyrical interest, his music is also extremely complex, creating heavy
demands on the listener. His works were met with extreme reactions, either strong hostility from
the general public or enthusiastic acclaim from his supporters.
Schoenberg is credited with the establishment of the twelve-tone system. His works include the
following: Verklarte Nacht, Three Pieces for Piano, op. 11 Pierrot Lunaire, Gurreleider
Verklarte Nacht (Transfigured Night, 1899), one of his earliest successful pieces, blends the
lyricism, instrumentation, and melodicbeautyofBrahms with the chromaticism and construction
of Wagner.
Hismusicalcompositions totalmoreor less213 which includeconcerti,orchestral music, piano
music, operas, choral music, songs, and other instrumental music. Schoenberg died on July 13,
1951 in LosAngeles, California, USAwhere he had settled since 1934.

IGOR STRAVINSKY (1882–1971)

Igor Stravinsky stands alongside fellow-composer Schoenberg, painter Pablo Picasso, and literary
figure James Joyce as one of the great trendsetters of the 20th century.
He was born in Oranienbaum(now Lomonosov), Russia onJune 17, 1882. Stravinsky’s early music
reflected the influence of his teacher, the Russian composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. But in his
first successful masterpiece, The Firebird Suite (1910), composed forDiaghilev’sRussian
Ballet,hisskillful handling of material and rhythmic inventiveness went beyond anything
composed by his Russian predecessors. He added a new ingredient to his nationalistic musical
style. The Rite of Spring (1913) was anotheroutstandingwork.Anew level ofdissonance was
reached and the sense of tonalitywas practicallyabandoned. Asymmetrical rhythms successfully
portrayed the character of a solemn pagan rite. When he left the country for the United States
in 1939, Stravinsky slowlyturned his back on Russian nationalism and cultivated his neo-classical
style.
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Stravinsky’s musicaloutputapproximates127 works, includingconcerti,orchestral music,
instrumental music, operas, ballets, solo vocal, and choral music. He died in New York City on
April 6, 1971.
OTHER MUSICAL STYLES
Primitivism Primitivistic music is tonal through the asserting of one note as more important than
the others. New sounds are synthesized from old ones by juxtaposing two simple events to create
a more complex new event.
Primitivism has links to Exoticism through the use of materials from other cultures, Nationalism
through the use of materials indigenous to specific countries, and Ethnicism through the use of
materials from European ethnic groups. Two well-known proponents of this style were Stravinsky
and Bela Bartok. It eventually evolved into Neo-classicism.

BELA BARTOK (1881–1945)

Bela Bartok was born in Nagyszentmiklos, Hungary(nowRomania) on March 25, 1881, to musical
parents. He started piano lessons with his mother and later entered Budapest RoyalAcademyof
Music in1899.Hewas inspiredby the performance of RichardStrauss’s Also Sprach Zarathustra to
write his first nationalistic poem, Kossuth in 1903. He was a concert pianist as he travelled
exploring the music of Hungarian peasants.
In 1906, with his fellow composer Kodaly, Bartok published his first collection of 20 Hungarian
folk songs. For the next decade, although his music was being badly received in his country, he
continued to explore Magyar folk songs. Later, he resumed his career as a concert pianist, while
composing several works for his own use.
As a neo-classicist, primitivist, and nationalist composer, Bartok used Hungarian folk themes and
rhythms. He also utilized changing meters and strong syncopations. His ---------------------- Six
String Quartets (1908–1938). It represents the greatest achievement of his creative life, spanning
a full 30 years for their completion. The six works combine difficult and dissonant music with
mysterious sounds.
The Concerto for Orchestra (1943), a five-movement work composed late in Bartok’s life, features
the exceptional talents of its various soloists in an intricately constructed piece. The short and
popular Allegro Barbaro (1911) for solo piano is punctuated with swirling rhythms and percussive
chords, while Mikrokosmos (1926–1939), a set of six books containing progressive technical
piano pieces, introduced and familiarized the piano student with contemporary harmony and
rhythm.
His musicalcompositionstotal moreorless695 whichincludeconcerti,orchestral music, piano
music, instrumental music, dramatic music, choral music, and songs. In 1940, the political
developments in Hungary led Bartok to migrate to the United States, where he died on
September 26, 1945 in New York City, USA.
Neo-Classicism Neo-classicism was a moderating factor between the emotional excesses of the
Romantic period and the violent impulses of the soul in expressionism. It was, in essence, a partial
return to an earlier style of writing, particularly the tightly-knit form of the Classical period, while
combining tonal harmonies with slight dissonances. It also adopted a modern, freer use of the
seven-note diatonic scale. Examples of neo-classicism are Bela Bartok’sSong of the Bagpipe and
Piano Sonata. In this latter piece, the classical three-movement format is combined with ever-
shifting time signatures, complex but exciting rhythmic patterns, as well as harmonic dissonances
that produce harsh chords. The neo-classicist style was also used by composers such as Francis
Poulenc, Bela Bartok, Igor Stravinsky, Paul Hindemith, and Sergei Prokofieff.
SERGEI PROKOFIEFF (1891–1953)
Sergei Prokofieff is regarded today as a combination of neo-classicist, nationalist, and avant garde
composer. His style is uniquely recognizable for its progressive technique,----------------------------
continued to followhis stylistic path as he fled to other places for hopefully better acceptance of
his creativity.
His contacts with Diaghilev and Stravinsky gave him the chance to write music for the ballet and
opera, notably the ballet Romeo and Juliet and the opera War and Peace. Much of Prokofieff’s
opera was left unfinished, due in part to resistance by the performers themselves to the
seemingly offensive musical content. He became prolific in writing symphonies, chamber music,
concerti, and solo instrumental music. He also wrote Peter and the Wolf, a lighthearted
orchestral work intended for children, to appease the continuing government crackdown on
avant garde composers at the time.
He was highlysuccessful in his piano music, as evidenced bythe wide acceptance of his
pianoconcertiandsonatas,featuringtoccata-likerhythmsandbitingharmonicdissonance
withinaclassicalformandstructure. OthersignificantcompositionsincludetheSymphony no. 1 (also
called Classical Symphony),his most accessibleorchestral work linked to the combined styles of
classicists Haydn and Mozart and neo-classicist Stravinsky. He also composed violin sonatas,
some of which are also performed on the flute, two highly regarded violin concerti, and two string
quartets inspired by Beethoven.
Prokofieff’s musical compositions includeconcerti, chamber music, film scores, operas, ballets,
and official pieces for state occasions. He died in Moscow on March 15, 1953.

FRANCIS POULENC (1899–1963)

One of the relativelyfew composers born into wealth and a privileged social position, the neo-
classicist Francis JeanMarcel Poulencwasamemberof thegroup ofyoung French composers
known as “Les Six.” He rejected the heavy romanticism of Wagner and the so-calledimprecision
of Debussy andRavel. His compositions had a coolly elegant modernity, tempered by a classical
sense of proportion. Poulenc was also fond of the witty approach of Satie, as well as the early
neo-classical works of Stravinsky.
Poulenc was a successful composer for piano, voice, and choral music. His output included the
harpsichord concerto, known as Concert Champetre (1928); the Concerto for Two Pianos (1932),
which combined the classical touches of Mozart with a refreshing mixture of wit and exoticism
in the styleof Ravel; and aConcerto forSolo Piano(1949) written fortheBoston
SymphonyOrchestra. Poulenc’svocaloutput,meanwhile,revealed hisstrengthasa lyrical ------------
harmony, and startling dissonance; and Stabat Mater (1950), which carried a Baroque solemnity
with a prevailing style of unison singing and repetition. Poulenc’s musical compositions total
around 185 which include solo piano works, as well as vocal solos, known as melodies, which
highlighted many aspects of his temperament in his avant garde style. He died in Paris on January
30, 1963.
Other members of “Les Six”
Georges Auric (1899–1983) wrote music for the movies and rhythmic music with lots of energy.
Louis Durey (1888–1979) used traditional ways of composing and wrote in his own, personal way,
not wanting to follow form. Arthur Honegger (1882–1955) liked chamber music and the
symphony. His popular piece Pacific 231 describes a train journey on the Canadian Pacific
Railway. Darius Milhaud (1892–1974) was a very talented composer who wrote in several
different styles. Some of his music uses bitonality and polytonality (writing in two or more keys
at the same time). His love of jazz can be heard in popular pieces like Le Boeuf sur le Toit which
he called a cinema-symphony. Germaine Tailleferre (1892–1983) was the only female in the
group. She liked to use dance rhythms. She loved children and animals and wrote many works
about them. She also wrote operas, concerti, and many works for the piano.

Avant Garde Music Closely associated with electronic music, the avant garde movement dealt
with the parameters or the dimensions of sound in space. The avant garde style exhibited a new
attitude toward musical mobility, whereby the order of note groups could be varied so that
musical continuity could be altered. Improvisation was a necessity in this style, for the musical
scores were not necessarily followed as written. For example, one could expect a piece to be read
by a performer from left to right or vice versa. Or the performer might turn the score over, and
go on dabbling indefinitely in whatever order before returning to the starting point.
From the United States, there were avant garde composers such as George Gershwin and John
Cage with their truly unconventional composition techniques; Leonard Bernstein with his famed
stage musicals and his music lectures for young people; and Philip Glass with his minimalist
compositions. Through their works, these composers truly extended the boundaries of what
music was thought to be in earlier periods.
The unconventional methods of sound and form, as well as the absence of traditional rules
governing harmony, melody, and rhythm, make the whole concept of avant garde music still so
strange to ears accustomed to traditional compositions. Composers who used this style
includeOlivier Messiaen,John Cage,Phillip Glass,Leonard Bernstein, George Gershwin, and Pierre
Boulez.

GEORGE GERSHWIN (1898–1937)

George Gershwinwas born in NewYork to Russian Jewishimmigrants.His older brother Ira was his
artistic collaborator who wrote the lyrics of his songs. His first song was ===============
repertory of this genre. In spite of his commercial success,Gershwinwasmore fascinatedwith
classical music.HewasinfluencedbyRavel, Stravinsky, Berg, and Schoenberg, as well as the group
of contemporary Frenchcomposers knownas“LesSix” that would shape the character of his major
works— half jazz and half classical.
Gershwin’s melodic gift wasconsideredphenomenal,asevidencedbyhisnumeroussongs of wide
appeal. He is a true“crossover artist,” in the sense that his serious compositions remain highly
popular in the classical repertoire, as his stage and film songs continue to be jazz and vocal
standards. Considered the “Father ofAmerican Jazz,” his “mixture of the primitiveand
thesophisticated” gavehis musican appeal that has lasted longafterhis death.
Hismusicalcompositions totalaround369whichincludeorchestralmusic,chamber music,
musicaltheatre,film musicals,operas,andsongs. He died in Hollywood,California, U.S.A. on July 11,
1937.

Philharmonic Orchestra in a concert on November 14, 1943. The overnight success of this event
started his reputation as a great interpreterof the classics as well as of themore complex works
of Gustav Mahler.
Bernstein’s philosophy was that the universal language of
musicisbasicallyrootedintonality.Thiscameunder firefrom the radical young musicians who
espoused the serialist principles of that time. Although he never relinquished his musical values
as a composer, he later turned to conducting and lecturing in order to safeguard his principles as
to what he believed was best in music. He achieved pre-eminence in twofields:
conductingandcomposingforBroadwaymusicals, dance shows, and concert music.
Bernstein is best known for his compositions for the stage. Foremost among these is the musical
West SideStory(1957),an AmericanversionofRomeo andJuliet, which displays a tuneful,off-beat,
andhighly atonal approach to the songs. Otheroutputs includeanother Broadwayhit
Candide(1956) and the much-celebratedMass (1971), which he wrote for the opening of the John
F. Kennedy Center for the PerformingArts in Washington, D.C.
He composed the music for the film On the Waterfront (1954). As a lecturer, Bernstein is fondly
remembered for his television series “Young People’s Concerts” (1958–1973) that demonstrated
the sounds of the various orchestral instruments and explained basic music principles to young
audiences, as well as his “Harvardian Lectures,” a six-volume set of his papers on syntax, musical
theories, and philosophical insights delivered to his students at Harvard University. His musical
compositions total around 90. He died in New York City, USA on October 14, 1990.
PHILIP GLASS (1937– )
One of the most commercially successful minimalist composer is Philip Glass who is also an avant
garde composer. He explored the territories of ballet, opera, theater, film,
andeventelevisionjingles. Hisdistinctivestyleinvolvescell-likephrasesemanating from bright
electronic sounds from the keyboard that progressed very slowlyfrom one pattern to the next in
a veryrepetitious fashion. Aidedbysoothingvocal effects andhorn sounds, his music is often
criticized as uneventful and shallow, yet startlingly effective for its hypnotic charm.
Born in NewYork, USAof Jewish parentage, Glass became an accomplished violinist andflutist at
theageof15. In Paris, he became inspired by the music of the renowned Indian sitarist Ravi
Shankar. He assisted Shankar in the soundtrack recording for Conrad Rooks’ film Chappaqua. He
formed thePhilipGlassEnsembleand producedworks suchasMusic
he combined his signature repetitive and overlapping style with theatrical grandeur on stage. His
musical compositions total around 170.Today, Glass lives alternately in Nova Scotia, Canada and
New York, USA.

Modern Nationalism Alooser form of 20th century music development focused on nationalist
composers and musical innovators who sought to combine modern techniques with folk
materials. However, this common ground stopped there, for the different breeds of nationalists
formed their own styles of writing.
In Eastern Europe, prominent figures included the Hungarian Bela Bartok and the Russian Sergei
Prokofieff, who were neo-classicists to a certain extent. Bartok infused Classical techniques into
his own brand of cross rhythms and shifting meters to demonstrate many barbaric and primitive
themes that were Hungarian—particularly gypsy—in origin. Prokofieff used striking dissonances
and Russian themes, and his music was generally witty, bold, and at times colored with humor.
Together with Bartok, Prokofieff made extensive use of polytonality, a kind of atonality that uses
two or more tonal centers simultaneously. An example of this style is =============

21ST CENTURY MUSIC TRENDS Music scholars predict that the innovative and experimental
developments of 20th century classical music will continue to influence the music of the 21st
century. With so many technical and stylistic choices open to today’s composers, it seems there
is no obstacle to their creativity and to the limits of their imagination. And yet, this same freedom
that has allowed such varied musical experimentation in recent years has also caused
contemporary classical music—or music utilizing the classical techniques of composition—to lose
touch with its audience and to lose its clear role in today’s society. Presently, modern technology
and gadgets put a great impact on all types of music. However, what still remains to be seen is
when this trend will shift, and what the distinct qualities of emerging classical works will be.
SUMMARY The early half of the 20th century also gave rise to new musical styles, which were
not quite as extreme as the electronic, chance, and minimalist styles that arose later.
==================
Expressionism revealed the composer’s mind, instead of presenting an impression of the
environment. It used atonality and the twelve-tone scale, lacking stable and conventional
harmonies. It served as a medium for expressing strong emotions, such as anxiety, rage, and
alienation.
Neo-classicism was a partial return to a classical form of writing music with carefully modulated
dissonances. It made use of a freer seven-note diatonic scale.
Theavant garde style was associated with electronic music and dealt with the parameters or
dimensions of sound in space. It made use of variations of self-contained note groups to change
musical continuity, and improvisation, with an absence of traditional rules on harmony, melody,
and rhythm.
Modern nationalism is a looser form of 20th century music development focused on nationalist
composers and musical innovators who sought to combine modern techniques with folk
materials.

A number of outstanding composers of the 20th century each made their own distinctive mark
on the contemporary classical music styles that developed. Claude Debussy and Maurice
Ravelwere the primary exponents of impressionism, whileArnold Schoenberg was the primary
exponent of expressionism, with the use of the twelve-tone scale and atonality. Bela Bartokwas
a neo-classical, modern nationalist, and a primitivist composer who adopted Hungarian folk
themes to introduce rhythms with changing meters and heavy syncopation. Igor Stravinsky was
also an expressionist and a neo-classical composer. He incorporated nationalistic elements in his
music, known for his skillful handling of materials and his rhythmic inventiveness.