CONCRETE

BLOCK PAVING
Book 2 – Design Aspects

A walk-over in cost, looks and

durability for Concrete Block Paving
Concrete Block Paving
Book 2: Design Aspects
Published by the Concrete Manufacturers Association
Portland Park, Old Pretoria Road, Halfway House 1685
P.O. Box 168, Halfway House, 1685
Telephone +27 11 805 6742
Fax +27 11 315 4683
e-mail [email protected]
Web Site: http://www.cma.org.za
Fourth edition 2004
 PAVING MEMBERS (SEPTEMBER 2004)
PRODUCER MEMBERS
*Companies which hold the SABS mark

Altocrete (016) 363-0340.

Bamburi Special Products – Kenya (09254) (2)824-478
Baybrick (035) 791-1256
Bosun Brick* (011) 310-1161
Brickbuild – Botswana (09267) 241-4089
Brick & Concrete Industries – Namibia (09264) (61) 280-4103
Brickcast Industries* (031) 507-7094
Cape Brick (012) 511-2006
Cast Industries* (011) 316-2375
C.E.L. Paving Products (021) 905-5998
Columbia – DBL* (021) 905-1665
Concor Technicrete* (011) 495-2200
Consteen (011) 701-3875
Corobrik* (031) 560-3911
Deranco Blocks* (041) 463-3338
Ecco-Euro Paving (011) 786-3109
False Bay Bricks (021) 904-1620
Infraset* (012) 652-0000
(031) 705-2323
Inca Masonry Products* (043) 745-1215
Kwena Brickforce – Botswana (09267) 322-850
Mimosa (016) 362-0507
MVA Bricks* (012) 386-0050
Neat Contech* (046) 648-1359
Stanger Brick & Tile* (032) 457-0237
Vanstone* (012) 541-2056
Vibro Bricks* (012) 374-2032
White River Cement Bricks (013) 750-1271

NON-PRODUCER MEMBERS
Brick King & Associates (021) 948-6218
Inca (Cape) (021) 904-1620

CONTRACTOR MEMBERS
Daron Construction (034) 955-1333
Kay Crete (031) 765-2830
Oryan Projects (083) 327-6877
Pave Show (012) 346-6958
PYW Paving (031) 903-2104
Roadstone Civil & Paving (083) 266-3183
SA Paving, Gauteng (011) 483-1350
Sun Paving (031) 705-5123
The Paving Syndicate (011) 640-3333
Valcal International (011) 867-2771
Vesles Civils (012) 662-3030

Portland Park, Old Pretoria Road, Halfway House 1685, South Africa.
PO Box 168 Halfway House 1685
Tel +27 11 805 6742, Fax +27 11 315 4683
e-mail: [email protected] website: www.cma.org.za
CONCRETE CONCRETE CONCRETE
BLOCK PAVING B L O C K PAV I N G B L O C K PAV I N G
Book 1 – Introduction Book 2 – Design Aspects Book 3 – Specification & Installation

A walk-over in cost, looks and A walk-over in cost, looks and A walk-over in cost, looks and
durability for Concrete Block Paving durability for Concrete Block Paving durability for Concrete Block Paving

CONCRETE CONCRETE CONCRETE

BLOCK PAVING B L O C K PAV I N G B L O C K PAV I N G
Book 4 – Site management and laying Book 5 – Training Manual Book 6 – Facilitators Guide

A walk-over in cost, looks and A walk-over in cost, looks and A walk-over in cost, looks and
durability for Concrete Block Paving durability for Concrete Block Paving durability for Concrete Block Paving

Portland Park, Old Pretoria Road, Halfway House 1685, South Africa.
PO Box 168 Halfway House 1685
Tel +27 11 805 6742, Fax +27 11 315 4683
e-mail: [email protected] website: www.cma.org.za
 CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. KEY ELEMENTS OF PAVING 2
2.1 Subgrade 2
2.2 Subbase 2
2.3 Bedding sand layer 3
2.4 Concrete paving blocks 3
2.5 Jointing sand 4
2.6 Edge restraints 4
2.7 Drainage 4
3. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CBP 4
3.1 Equivalent thickness concept 6
3.2 Catalogue design method 6
3.3 Research-based method 6
3.4 Mechanistic design method 6
3.5 Lockpave 8
4. PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 9
4.1 Preliminary considerations 9
4.2 Construction 9
5. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 9
5.1 Construction of steep slopes 10
5.2 Embankments 10
5.3 Intersections 10
5.4 Airports 10
5.5 Roof decks 10
6. MAINTENANCE 10
6.1 Jointing sand 10
6.2 Weed growth 11
6.3 Abrasion 11
6.4 Settlement/subsidence 11
6.5 Reinstatement of trenches 11
6.6 Efflorescence 11
6.7 Oil Stains 11
7. CONCLUSION 11
8. CASE STUDIES 12
8.1 Richards Bay Harbour 12
8.2 Pinetown Traffic Intersection 12
8.3 Bellville Goods Yard 13
8.4 Trident Steel Maxmead Pinetown 14
8.5 Johannesburg Northern Wastewater Treatment Works 14
8.5 Pietersburg Traffic Intersection 15
8.6 Analysis of a Concrete Segmental Road Pavement 16
9. REFERENCES 16

1
 INTRODUCTION 2 KEY ELEMENTS
Concrete block paving (cbp), if properly designed and OF PAVING
constructed, will last for decades with little or no
The seven key elements of paving are:
maintenance being necessary. However, as with all
types of pavements and structures, there are certain The subgrade or natural earth material found on site
requirements regarding the design and construction, The subbase, a layer of road building material
which are important to the success of cbp. This imported when subgrade conditions are poor and/or
publication covers some of these aspects, which are traffic conditions are heavy.
critical to the successful long-term performance of A thin layer of selectively graded bedding sand
segmented paving. History of the design philosophy is
The concrete paving blocks, which form the base
also covered.
course as well as the surface wearing course
The structural design of pavements is concerned with The jointing sand that fills the gaps between every
traffic, layerwork (foundations), materials, subgrade adjacent block
soils, environmental conditions, construction details
Edge restraints, positive support placed around the
and economics. Essentially the pavement must carry
perimeter of the pavement
the traffic at an acceptable level of comfort and safety
and at an acceptable cost. This is achieved by a Drainage, both surface and subsoil, preventing the
layered structure where each layer has sufficient build-up of water in the pavement layers.
strength to cope with the induced stresses without 2.1 SUBGRADE
distress such as rutting, excessive settlement or All structures-buildings, roads and other surfaced
deflection. Figure 2 shows how the pressure exerted areas-are ultimately supported by soil or rock. It is the
by traffic dissipates under the road. designer’s responsibility to evaluate the behaviour and
Although the surfacing is subjected to the highest performance requirements of the structure to ensure
stresses, the effect of traffic (especially heavy traffic) such requirements are compatible with the soil
is felt deep into the pavement layers, sometimes up to conditions prevailing on the site. Subgrade preparation
a metre deep. The strength of these layers is as should extend to the rear face of all new edge
important to the long-term performance of the restraints.
pavement as the surface itself.

Concrete paving blocks not only provide a durable

wearing surface, but also provide a structural
component and hence contribute to the strength of the
pavement. They reduce the stresses in the layers
below. Not all pavement requirements are equal, and
every pavement should be designed and constructed to
suit the particular need.

Jointing sand
Base (consisting of blocks) Figure 2: Dissipation of traffic loading.
Kerb
Paving block 2.2 SUBBASE
Footpath Where the subgrade is of a low strength, or the traffic
Roadway
is heavy, an imported subbase layer (or two or more
layers) may be required or treatment of the subgrade
eg stabilised. The principles of design of the pavement
layers are the same as for most flexible pavements.
As the blocks perform a structural function, the
requirements for the layerworks are less than for
asphalt. In many cases the subbase course can be
2 eliminated.
Concrete bedding & backing
Subbase Where the subbase is an unbound granular layer, it may
Sand bedding layer in some cases be advisable to seal the surface if it is
Subgrade
felt that, during the early life of the pavement, a
Figure 1: Key elements of paving.
danger of water filtering through the joints and into Research shows that type S-A blocks develop the best
the subgrade exists. Sealing can be achieved by resistance to both vertical and horizontal creep and
spraying a low-durability bitumen emulsion at a rate of are generally recommended for all industrial and heavy-
approximately 0,2l /m². This is generally only a duty applications. Type S-B and S-C blocks are
temporary problem, since the joints between the units generally selected for aesthetic reasons.
eventually become clogged with road detritus and
THICKNESS
impermeable to water.
Paving block thicknesses vary between 50 – 80 mm. The
2.3 BEDDING SAND LAYER thicker the blocks the better the pavement will resist
vertical deformation and horizontal creep. However,
This is a thin (25mm ± 10mm after compaction)
there is a cost implication and thickness selection should
layer usually of coarse river sand. The purpose of
be based on application. Generally for domestic use, 50 –
this layer is to provide an even bedding for the
60 mm blocks are adequate. For industrial use an 80mm
blocks. The bedding sand is laid loose and the blocks
compacted into this layer with sand rising in the
joints between blocks. This ensures that the blocks
achieve an even support.

Generally, commercial clean river sand is satisfactory.

Crusher sand may be suitable but needs to be
evaluated for suitability.

The bedding sand pushed up into the joints between

the blocks ensures adequate joint width and results in
interlock when the joints are completely filled with
jointing sand. The bedding sand layer should be thin, Block type S-A
clean, free of silt and should not be used as a levelling
course to fill voids in the subbase surface. This will Figure 3a: Type S-A: Those blocks which allow
lead to subsequent settlement. geometrical interlock between all vertical or side faces of
adjacent blocks.
2.4 CONCRETE PAVING BLOCKS
There are a number of aspects of paving blocks
which should be considered during the design stage,
namely the strength, shape, thickness and
dimensional tolerance.

STRENGTH
Segmented paving blocks generally have an average
compressive strength of 25MPa wet strength (Class
25 SANS1058) ¹. This is significantly higher than the
strength of bricks (7 MPa). The reason for this is to Block type S-B
ensure that the blocks have adequate resistance to
traffic loading and to abrasion from traffic, both Figure 3b: Type S-B: Those blocks which allow geometrical
vehicular and pedestrian. Research carried out by interlock between some faces of adjacent blocks.
CSIR Road Research ² shows that for strengths in
excess of 25 MPa, little structural advantage is gained
by increasing strength. It is also important to note
that although the required average strength is 25
MPa, the minimum strength for individual blocks is 20
MPa. Very often it will be this lower figure that will
dictate the average strength for compliance with
Class 25 blocks. Where the quality control is poor it is
virtually impossible to satisfy this latter requirement. 3
BLOCK SHAPE
Block type S-C
Concrete paving blocks can be divided into three types Figure 3c: Type S-C: Those blocks which allow no
based on shape (see Figures 3a, 3b and 3c). geometrical interlock between adjacent blocks.
 paver is recommended. Experience has shown that
very little benefit is gained from pavers which are
thicker than 80 mm. However, such pavers can be
manufactured for special applications.

DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE
It is important for blocks to be within the required Figure 4a: Stretcher
dimensional specifications (±2mm on plan
dimensions and ±3mm on height). This is to ensure
a smooth finished surface as well as good interlock
between pavers.

CHAMFER
Chamfering of blocks improves their service
performance and appearance. Most concrete paving Figure 4b: Herringbone
blocks are chamfered.

LAYING PATTERNS
Patterns are determined by performance and aesthetic
requirements. The three patterns shown (see Figures
4a,4b and 4c) are the basic patterns. Numerous other
patterns are also possible.
Figure 4c: Basket Weave
The herringbone pattern ensures the best resistance
to both horizontal and vertical deformation and is
cases. Coarse river sand is ideal for bedding, while a
generally recommended for industrial pavements.
finer plaster sand is necessary for jointing between
The introduction of coloured blocks will add another the paving blocks.
dimension to the visual effect created by concrete
Jointing sand is swept into the joints once the initial
block paving (see Book 1).
compaction of the blocks is complete. The jointing
2.5 JOINTING SAND sand should ideally contain a little clay or silt. This
helps seal the joints against water ingress.
The jointing sand plays an important role in the
performance of concrete block pavements. This sand is Cement should not be added to the jointing sand as
distinctly different from the bedding sand (see Figure this will lead to cracking and subsequent water
5) and the same sand should not be used in both ingress. Cemented joints convert a flexible pavement

SIEVE GRADING Sieve Size (by Log Scale)

0,053

0,075

0,250
0,300

0,425

0,600

1,180

1,17
2,00
2,36

4,75

6,70

9,50

13,2

19,0

26,5

37,5

53,0
63,0
75,0
(mm)
0,150

100 100

90 90
CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE PASSING

80 80

70 70

60 Jointing 60
sand
50 50

40 40

30 30
Bedding sand
envelope
4 20 20

10 10

0 0

Figure 5: Grading curves for bedding and jointing sands

into a more rigid pavement. This pavement cannot structural capacity when properly installed. For axle
accommodate flexural or thermal movement stresses loads such as those applied by trucks, the block
without distress. normally provides the principal loadbearing course in
the entire pavement. The blocks themselves are hardly
Furthermore, cement tends to discolour the paving
affected by high surface stresses. In practice, it is
and is difficult to remove afterwards.
found that, as the design load increases, block
Where there is a concentration of water such as at a pavements can offer increasingly beneficial operational
down-pipe or stormwater outlet, it is recommended to and economic advantages over other pavement types.
mix a little cement with the jointing sand in the
immediate vicinity. This will help prevent wash-out. Block pavements usually exhibit smaller permanent
Joints in cbp should be topped up when required, deformations under traffic than asphalt pavements.
typically three months after construction. However, it should be noted that the converse is often
true in the case of deflections. Because of the
2.6 EDGE RESTRAINTS articulated nature of block paving, large deflections (up
Edge restraints are an important element of segmented to 2 mm or more) have been observed under truck
paving. Edge restraints hold the pavers in position and traffic. Such large elastic movements would be
prevent horizontal creep and the opening of joints under unacceptable in other types of pavement and would
traffic with the subsequent loss of integrity of the cause cracking of the surfacing. Because concrete
pavement. All cbp must have an edge restraint (for block paving is dissected by a network of joints, large
details see Book 3). Edge restraints may be cast in situ deflections can be tolerated and, except where
or precast or could be the existing structures. stabilised bases or subbases are used, are not a
design consideration. For this reason the thickness of
2.7 DRAINAGE
unbound granular subbase needed in a block pavement
Most failures of pavements are due to ingress of
is normally less than that required in an asphalt-
water into the pavement layerwork. In order to obviate
surfaced pavement.
this problem, attention should be paid to surface
drainage and where necessary subsoil drainage. Under traffic, concrete block pavements tend to
stiffen. In some cases this can lead to the pavements
Adequate longitudinal falls and no undulations are
achieving a quasi-equilibrium or ‘lockup’ condition
necessary to prevent ponding and infiltration of water
beyond which no further deformation occurs. Often the
into the layer-works particularly in the early life of the
increase in stiffness in the block layer that
pavement. A minimum fall of 2% in any direction is
accompanies lockup is substantial and it has been
generally required. It is also important to ensure that
reported that it may be possible thereafter to increase
the paving is laid proud of (ie 5-10 mm higher than)
the loads applied to the pavement without causing
stormwater structures or channels.
damage. The development of lockup is contingent upon
Where paving is laid on a slope, water penetrating the careful control of construction standards and
paving can accumulate in the bedding sand at the low layerworks quality. For example, it has been reported
point. Where a high water table exists, subsoil that subbase layers of low bearing values do not
drainage should be installed. permit the development of interlock during the early
life of the pavement. Where conditions are favourable
3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN for achieving interlock it can be allowed to develop
OF CBP gradually under traffic or may be more rapidly induced
Under traffic, block pavements tend gradually to by proof-rolling the pavement.
accumulate rutting deformations. In this respect the A brief summary of the methods of designing of
performance of block paving is similar to that of concrete block paving is given here.
conventional flexible pavements. However, both the
amount and rate of accumulation of deformation of the The methods that are available to design block paving

pavement layers in block paving tends to be less than roads can be divided into five categories.
in flexible pavements of similar thickness. Equivalent thickness concept
The ability of blocks to spread concentrated loads over Catalogue design method
a wide area of earthworks layers is well documented.
5
Research-based design methods
This means that blocks do not merely act as a wearing
Mechanistic design methods
course, but, rather, form one of the loadbearing
Lockpave
courses. In other words the blocks have a significant
 3.1 EQUIVALENT THICKNESS In South Africa we have three design manuals based
CONCEPT on catalogue design:

Here it is assumed that the pavement can be designed by Draft UTG2. Structural design of segmental block
established flexible pavement design procedures and that pavements for southern Africa³.
the blocks and bedding sand can substitute an equivalent Guidelines for the provision of engineering services
part of the conventional design. Table 1 gives a in residential townships4.
summary of the various values of equivalent
TRH 4: Sructural design of inter-urban and rural
substitution used in Argentina, Australia, UK and
road pavements5.
USA. Adopting the item of equivalency described
In all cases, the road is classified in terms of traffic
above, it becomes a simple matter to design a block
volume (as measured by cumulative E80s), traffic type
pavement using well established flexible pavement
(residential or industrial) and climatic conditions. Once
design procedures which incorporate measure of
the road has been classified, the catalogue can be
subgrade strength such as Bearing Ratio.
used to select the pavement design. (Figure 6 is a
The various design approaches discussed above assume typical design taken from UTG2.) The material classes
that block paving responds to traffic in a manner which specified for the pavement design are as per TRH 146.
is similar to that exhibited by conventional flexible However, the catalogue method lacks flexibility (only
pavements and that, consequently, there is no subgrade strength of CBR = 10 or 15 is
impediment to the use of established design accommodated) and will often yield a less than optimal
procedures. However, this is not strictly correct. pavement design.
Consequently, a criticism of these design methods is
that they fail to recognise or exploit those advantages
3.3 RESEARCH-BASED
peculiar to block paving such as the development of DESIGN METHODS
progressive stiffening and lockup, the ability to tolerate Although many engineers have used tests of prototype
large transient deflections, and the ability to spread the interlocking concrete pavements to obtain materials
load, thus reducing the stress below the bedding sand. equivalencies or substitution ratios, only one design
method appears to be wholly based on accelerated
Country Concrete block paving is equivalent to…
trafficking tests. This is the method developed by
Argentina 2,5 times their thickness of Shackel at the University of New South Wales for the
granular subbase.
Cement and Concrete Association of Australia. This
Australia 2,1 – 2,9 times their thickness of method was first published in 1978. Subsequently,
crushed rock base. following trafficking tests in South Africa designed, in
1,1 – 1,5 times dense graded
part, to verify the procedure, the method was slightly
asphaltic concrete.
revised in 1982. The method is restricted to block
USA Corps 165mm cover. pavements subjected to highway loadings and which
of Engineers 2 – 2,85 times its thickness of
incorporate unbound granular bases.
granular base.
225 mm of soil cement. It has proved possible to use data gathered during
United
Kingdom 160 mm of rolled asphalt. accelerated trafficking tests of full-scale prototype
block pavements to develop statistically-based models to
Table 1: Summary of various factors of equivalent substitution relate, for a given subgrade strength, the block and base
thickness to such measures of performance as rut
3.2 CATALOGUE DESIGN METHOD depth. These models have been extended to cover the full
Here blocks and base thickness are selected on the range of subgrade conditions using mechanistic analyses.
basis of experience of road construction on subgrades Typical design curves are shown in Figure 7. This method
similar to that under consideration. Where the body of has been used successfully in a variety of climates since
experience is extensive, as in Europe, this simple the late 1970s but has been replaced by mechanistic
approach can yield satisfactory results. The design procedures similar to those described below.
procedures are often presented as a design catalogue,
3.4 MECHANISTIC DESIGN
which encapsulates local knowledge but which tends to
6 make little distinction between different subgrade METHODS
conditions or wheel loads. Such methods are, in Several mechanistic procedures for the design of block
general, only applicable to roads and not suitable for pavements have been developed. The first was
the design of industrial pavements. developed in South Africa. Here the block pavements
 R-roads

Climatic region Wet

Design traffic class E80s/lane over structural design period
Road ER E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
category <0,2 x 106 0,2 - 0,8 x 106 0,8 - 3 x 106 2 - 12 x 106 12 - 50 x 106

60 S-A 60 S-A 60 S-A 60-80 S-A 80 S-A

S-B S-B S-B
20 SND 20 SND
or S-C or S-C or S-C
20 SND 20 SND 20 SND 125 C4 150 C4
UB 150 G5 150 C4 150 C4
125 C4 150 C4
* * *
* *

80 S-A 60 S-A 60 S-A 60 S-A 60 S-A 60 S-A 60 S-A

S-B S-B S-B S-B S-B S-B S-B
or S-C or S-C or S-C or S-C or S-C or S-C or S-C
20 SND 20 SND 20 SND 20 SND 20 SND 20 SND 20 SND
UC
*** 100-125 G5 100 C4 100-150 G5 100-150C4 150 G5 125 C4

* * * * * *

*CBR minimum 15% **S-B or S-C may be used in some cases ***CBR minimum 10%

Figure 6: Typical catalogue design of cbp pavement (UTG 2)

550 550

500 Block thickness = 60mm 500 Block thickness = 80mm

Granular sub-base thickness (mm)

450 450
5 = Tolerable deformation (mm)
400 400
5 = Tolerable deformation (mm)
350 350
10
300 300

250 10
250

200 15 200
15
150 150

100 100
50 50
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
Subgrade CBR(%) Subgrade CBR(%)

400
Granular sub-base thickness (mm)

TYPICAL TOLERABLE DEFORMATIONS

Block thickness = 100mm
350 Road Category Tolerable deformation (mm)
5 = Tolerable deformation (mm) Residential street 10-15
300

250 Rural road 10

10
200 Collector street 7-12

City street 5-10

150 15
Bus stop 5
100
7
50
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
Subgrade CBR(%)

Figure 7: Empirical Design Curves for Road Pavements

 were analysed as homogenous isotropic flexible mats computer programme called “Lockpave”, discussed
overlying a flexible subgrade whose strength was below. The method is believed to be an advance on
defined in terms of CBR. The second mechanistic earlier mechanistic procedures in so far that it
analysis was reported in Britain in 1979. The method completely avoids the need to use concepts of axle
was based on a three-layer linear elastic analysis of load equivalency but rather analyses and designs each
the pavement and assumed that conventional criteria pavement in terms of an appropriate spectrum of axle
for relating subgrade strain to the expected life of an loads. This is of particular importance in the designing
asphaltic pavement could equally well be applied to a of industrial pavements, which often have to accept a
block pavement. very wide range of wheel loads, vehicle configurations
Recently a variety of mechanistic procedures utilising and differing load repetitions for each vehicle type.
the methodology of conventional flexible pavement Examples of design curves for both road pavements
design have been developed. Usually these analyses are and industrial hardstands proposed using this
concerned with either: methodology are given in Figures 8 and 9.

Computing the tensile strains in a bound subbase 3.5 LOCKPAVE

and thereby defining the fatigue life; or
The mechanistic design method has also been
Determining the vertical compressive strains in the developed as a computer programme Lockpave.
pavement or granular subbase and using these to Mechanistic pavement design involves the formulation
predict the rutting that will develop under traffic. and solution of a boundary value problem. This requires
By trial, the thickness of the various pavement layers the determination of the stresses and strains at
may be chosen to achieve both an adequate fatigue life critical locations throughout the pavement. These are
and tolerable levels of rut deformation. compared with the values that would, theoretically, be
predicted to cause failure of the pavement. As noted
Initially, the most effective application of mechanistic
above, failure may be the result of either excessive
methods was in the design of block pavements
rutting in the case of granular material, or, in the case
incorporating bound subbases such as lean concrete or
of bound materials, of extensive cracking leading to a
cement-stabilised granular materials. However, in
loss of both strength and stiffness. Typically, the
1985 Shackel published a comprehensive mechanistic
critical stresses and strains occur either on or near
design methodology that was suited to both bound and
the vertical load axis at the bottom of all bound
unbound subbases. This procedure was designed to be
(brittle) layers and at the top of the subgrade (see
run, in an interactive mode, on micro-or mini-
Figure 10). The fatigue life of the bound layers can be
computers. This design method is now available as a
related to the repeated tensile strains or stresses

Soaked Subgrade CBR(%)

Soaked Subgrade CBR(%) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
0
2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40
0
100 Multiple wheels
N = 4,5 x 105
80mm type S-A blocks 80mm Type S-A blocks
Max: rated wheel load (tonnes)

200
100
300 25
30
35
40
Thickness of base (mm)
Thickness of base (mm)

200 400 45
50
25
35
500 35
7
N = 10 25
300 600 45
50

700
N = 4,5 x 106
400 800
N = 1,4 x 106
900
500 Cement stabilised base
8 1000
Crushed rock base
Cement stabilised base
1100
Crushed rock base
600
1200 N = 106

Figure 8: Design Curves for Road Pavement Figure 9: Design Curves for Container-Handling Areas
(N= No. of Axles)
 The intended usage of the area to be paved
The type of paving block to be used
(interlocking etc)
The expected service life of the area
The degree of distress that can be tolerated
Blocks Maintenance
Sand
Horizontal Once these have been specified, design of the
Base tensile strain pavement may commence and the following factors
(in bound
layers only) should receive attention:
Subbase
The type of traffic expected
Vertical
compressive The imposed loads
Subgrade
strain In situ soil conditions and materials

Figure 10: Strains within the pavement The availability of materials

Climatic conditions
whilst the permanent deformation or rutting of the
Surface and sub-surface drainage
pavement is normally assumed to be a function of the
repeated vertical compressive strains at the top of the
4.2 CONSTRUCTION
subgrade. Provided the critical stresses and strains
In the construction of the paved area, it is essential
can be calculated, and Young’s modulus of elasticity
that the same criteria of ‘good practice’ in
and Poisson’s Ratio of the layerworks are known, it is
construction and control be applied to the subgrade,
possible to predict the service life of the pavement.
subbase and drainage as would apply in the case of any
Conversely, for a designated service life, it is possible
other type of pavement.
to calculate what values of stress and strain can be
tolerated and, by trial and error, to determine what It must further be noted that segmented paving
combination of layer thicknesses are required if these requires adequate edge restraint to the paved area
stresses and strains are not be exceeded. otherwise movement of blocks and loss of performance
will occur. The nature of usage will determine the
Thus, mechanistic pavement design involves first the
appropriate edge restraint to be used. For example, a
analysis of the stress and strain distributions caused
pedestrian walkway may only need a small precast
by some designated loading and, secondly, the
concrete kerb or a premix infill, where as in a high-
progressive adjustment of layer thickness until the
traffic industrial area heavy duty concrete kerbs or a
predicted stresses and strains can be deemed to be
reinforced concrete ground beam may be necessary.
insufficient to cause failure within the required service
life of the pavement. The adjustment of layer thickness Should any of the above items not be properly designed
must be done iteratively. This implies that a large and constructed, excessive maintenance may be
number of calculations will be necessary. Because of required during the life of the pavement.
this and because of the mathematical complexity of
A particularly useful feature of concrete block paving
analysing layered systems, mechanistic analyses
is that it is a ‘forgiving’ pavement. Thus, where design
normally require the use of computers.
or construction defects occur locally (such as at
Further information on the Lockpave programme can manholes, etc) repairs are not usually difficult, time
be obtained from the CMA. consuming or costly. Segmented paving also permits
easy access to underground services since the
4 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
paving blocks in the area may be removed. The
CONSIDERATIONS required work can then be undertaken and the same
In planning a cbp project consideration should be given blocks replaced.
to the following.
5 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
4.1 PRELIMINARY The method and procedure required to lay concrete
9
CONSIDERATIONS block paving for the majority of standard applications
In planning, specifying and designing a pavement, the is covered in Books 3 and 4. However, there are
following factors must be considered: certain applications where special requirements and
 attention to detail are necessary. These special 5.5 ROOF DECKS
applications are given below.
Often, concrete block paving is laid on top of a
5.1 CONSTRUCTION OF concrete slab or other impermeable layer. This is not

STEEP SLOPES generally a problem. However, attention should be

given to drainage, both surface and subsurface. The
There are certain considerations that must be taken
minimum required fall of 2% is still necessary to
into account during the design and construction of
remove surface water. However, because of the low
concrete block pavers on steep slopes. Refer to CMA
falls, this can result in an accumulation of water in
technical notes on steep slopes and to Book 3 for
the bedding sand. The drainage details discussed under
factors to be included in the design of steep slopes.
the section “steep slopes” should be used in the lower
These include an anchor beam at the bottom end of
end of the paving. However, because of the low falls,
the pavement as well as at certain intervals depending
additional drainage may be required at regular
on the length and gradient of the slope. Also, special
intervals. A typical herringbone drainage layout is
attention must be given to the drainage of the bedding
suggested. Alternatively, a coarse free-draining
sand layer at the lower end of the pavement against
bedding sand can be used.
the anchor beam.
As in all cases, cbp must be contained by edge
5.2 EMBANKMENTS restraints. Where a parapet wall is used as an edge
Concrete block paving is often used for erosion restraint care must be taken to ensure that the
protection of steep embankments, particularly bridge parapet wall has adequate strength to act as a
abutments. Although the slopes are generally too suitable edge restraint. Special attention should also
steep for traffic and hence the underlying soil need not be paid over movement joints in the slab and to how
be well compacted, a reasonable amount of movement is to be accommodated.
compaction is required to prevent settlement. This is
best achieved by constructing and compacting the
6 MAINTENANCE
slope proud of the final line and trimming back. It is Maintenance of a well-designed and constructed
also important that the top edge is protected to segmented pavement normally involves the
prevent stormwater undermining the paving. replacement of jointing sand, the treatment of weeds
or other growth and the correction of surface levels
5.3 INTERSECTIONS
resulting from localised construction defects.
Concrete block paving has been used successfully in
South Africa for the construction of intersections 6.1 JOINTING SAND
primarily to reduce accidents. The reduction of In areas exposed to high-speed traffic, or to wind and
accidents is due to a number of factors, namely: water erosion, some of the jointing sand between the
individual blocks may be lost during the first few
Better skid-resistance in the wet and hence
months of the life of the pavement. This problem is
shorter stopping distance
greatly reduced as the joints between the blocks
Higher luminance of the pavers
become clogged with the road detritus and other
Difference in surface noise, alerting drivers to a material. This plugging of the joints is usually well
change in situation established after about three months of pavement
Design of the pavement layers must take into account usage.
the braking, accelerating and slewing action
If there is a loss of jointing sand in the first few
experienced in intersections.
months the paving should be resanded. It is advisable
5.4 AIRPORTS for all paving contracts to include a clause on
resanding.
Concrete block paving has been used for the
construction of taxiways and aprons at a number of In areas subjected to concentrations of water, for
airports, notably Cairns in Australia, Luton in the UK, example at the outlet of a downpipe from a roof, it is
and Fort Dallas in the USA. In areas where the advisable that the jointing sand should incorporate
pavement is subjected to the immense pressure of the about 10% cement by mass to increase erosion
10 jet thrust ,which can result in the loss of jointing resistance. This should be mixed dry, brushed dry into
sand, it is important that special attention is paid to the joints, vibrated, and then given a light washing
the sealing of the joints. In the UK, specialised down with water to activate the cement. Generally
polymers are available for sealing these joints. speaking, maintenance of sand in the joints will be
greatly reduced if correctly graded sand is used. The 6.4 REINSTATEMENT OF
permeability of the joints can be reduced by the TRENCHES
addition of 10% lime, or 6-7% bentonite or some clay.
Periodically, pavements have to be dug up to access
6.2 WEED GROWTH underground services. The advantage of cbp is that
A common fallacy is the assumption that weeds or the blocks can be lifted, the trench dug, services
other vegetation growing in segmented paving originate installed or repaired, the trench refilled and paving
in the sub grade or sub-soil areas. In fact ninety per reinstated. Details of this operation are covered in
cent of vegetation growth in large paved areas is the Book 4.
result of wind blown seeds, which have germinated in 6.5 EFFLORESCENCE
the jointing sand between the blocks. This can easily
Efflorescence results when free lime in the cement is
be proved by removing some of the vegetation and
dissolved and carried by water to the surface of the
observing where the stem ends and the roots begin. In
paver and is deposited there once the water
most cases this occurs just below the surface of the
evaporates. Efflorescence results in a whitish or light
blocks and hence in the jointing sand.
colouring on the surface of the pavers. Efflorescence
Where vegetation is likely to cause a maintenance (if it does occur) generally occurs in the early life of
problem, eg Kikuyu grass growing from beneath the pavers and particularly when water is present and it is
blocks, a suitable herbicide may be mixed with the cold. Efflorescence is mostly a temporary effect and,
jointing sand or sprayed over the completed paving. given time, usually disappears of its own accord. It is
Care should however be exercised since the injudicious purely superficial and does not affect the durability or
use of poisonous substances may result in extensive strength of the concrete paving units.
damage to cultivated areas. Herbicides, having no
If immediate removal is required, the pavers can be
residual effect are available to control both annual and
given an acid wash - see technical note.
perennial weeds. They will not contaminate water
supplies or damage other vegetation when distributed 6.7 OIL STAINS
by surface run-off during rainstorms. Expert advice on
Concrete block paving is frequently used for garage
the choice of herbicides should be sought- eg. from the
forecourts, taxi and bus termini and parking areas. As
Department of Agriculture and from reputable
a result the surface is often spoilt by oil stains. The
manufacturers.
fact that cbp is not affected by this is very positive.
The use of plastic sheeting under paving blocks as an However, to remove these stains poses a problem.
inhibitor of vegetation growth due to wind-blown seeds There are proprietary products which have been
in the joints is not recommended. designed specifically for this purpose. If these are not
available then it is recommended that the paving be
6.3 ABRASION scrubbed with a strong detergent and washed down
With pavers subjected to intense trafficking, there will with water.
be a degree of abrasion with time. The extent of the
abrasion will depend on the traffic, the type of 7 CONCLUSION
aggregates used, the cement content, the ratio of Good pavement management requires that the
coarse to fine aggregates, control in manufacture and condition of pavements be consistently maintained
initial curing. above a minimum level. Visual inspections are usually

Provided the pavers are of adequate strength , the satisfactory in determining this level for segmented
abrasion does not affect the structural integrity of the pavements.
paving. Furthermore, the degree of abrasion The degree and extent of maintenance will depend on
diminishes with time. the standards and criteria required of the pavement.

6.3 SETTLEMENT/SUBSIDENCE Provided that proper design and construction

From time to time, there is settlement of the techniques are observed, and the possible problem
pavement surface. This is due to an inadequate areas discussed above are recognised and treated, a
subbase or subgrade, the presence of subsoil water, segmented concrete block pavement is indeed
‘maintenance free’.
11
overloading the pavement or a bedding sand layer
which is too thick. The benefit of cbp is that the areas
can be lifted, the problem addressed, the level
reinstated and the pavers re-laid.
 8 CASE STUDIES 80mm S-A
20 mm Bedding sand
The following pages contain a number of case studies
150 mm C1
of the design of concrete block pavements including Mass
the traffic estimates. These studies are given as a Concrete 150 mm C2
Capping
guide only and are not to be used for the design of
150 mm C3
other projects. The case studies do not include lightly-
trafficked pavements as these are generally not 170 mm G5
designed by an engineer.
Sea
150 mm G5
8.1 RICHARDS BAY HARBOUR
Port pavements are typically constructed over weak 150mm G5
subgrades on reclaimed ground, which may be subject
to long term settlement. However, the pavement must Figure 11: Typical section through pavement showing
be capable of withstanding the heaviest of wheel loads sub base design at quay side.
as well as high concentrated point loads, without
settlement is easily achieved by lifting the block
significant permanent deformation or other distress.
surface and reprofiling the pavement substrate.

Moreover, maintenance costs for cbp have in general

been found to be significantly lower than for other
forms of flexible and rigid pavement.

8.2 PINETOWN TRAFFIC

INTERSECTION
INTRODUCTION
One of the perennial problems faced by town councils,
municipalities and other local authorities countrywide
is the need to regularly refurbish and maintain existing
road surfaces in busy traffic intersections, A workable
solution is to replace the existing conventional road
surfacing with concrete block paving.

In addition, the pavement should remain unaffected by

spillage of hydraulic oil which is normally associated with
heavy materials handling equipment, or by environmental
effects such as high surface temperatures.

In view of its proven track record in coping with a BACKGROUND

combination of these circumstances, together with Due to the on-going deterioration of the existing road
both operational and life-cost advantages over surface as well as increasing traffic flows, the
alternative pavements, it was decided to use concrete Borough of Pinetown found it had to upgrade the
block paving in the iron and timber product handling Anderson Road/Old Main Road traffic intersection
terminal at Richards Bay. during the latter part of 1988. The scope of the
12 The project managers were well aware, in making this
project included road widening in Anderson Road and
Old Main Road, reconstruction of Anderson Road
choice, that concrete block paving (cbp) remains
South and resurfacing of the entire intersection area.
serviceable, despite the occurrence of settlement.
Should the need arise, periodic correction of Anderson Road forms the first intersection with Old
Main Road on the eastern side of the railway line, 60 mm bitumen base was included for purposes of
bordering the central area of Pinetown, and serves the levelling existing subbase layers and for trafficking
main Hill Street bus terminal to the south and during staging of the construction work, prior to laying
residential and commercial areas to the north. the blocks.

PROPOSAL Where blocks were to be laid on top of the existing

In September 1988 a proposal was put forward by road surface, and in order to accommodate original
Grinaker Precast (Natal) (Pty) Ltd to pave the kerb lines, the existing asphalt was milled by up to
intersection using interlocking concrete paving blocks. 100 mm to achieve desired levels. Roughly 40m³ of
asphalt was removed from the intersection. Premix
As considerable success had already been achieved in
was used as a levelling course to fill low points and
several similar projects carried out overseas, one of
achieve a constant crossfall, as well as being used at
the primary objectives was to provide a local research
the approaches to the intersection to ensure a smooth
project to demonstrate the benefits associated with,
transition between the existing asphalt surface and
and arising from the use of concrete block paving (cbp)
the new block paving.
in a heavily used urban traffic intersection.
SPECIFICATION OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVERS
The severe conditions, due to a daily traffic flow of
Concrete block paving is a system of individual, shaped
over 30 000 vehicles, (including 2000 buses), made
blocks arranged to form a continuous hard-wearing
this an ideal test site.
surface. The specification called for 80 mm thick
Having accepted the proposal, the Council duly blocks; shape S-A (providing positive geometric
instructed the consulting engineers, De Leuw Cather interlock along all vertical faces); class 35 (having a
Inc, to incorporate it in their overall planning. minimum compressive strength of 30 MPa) –
STRUCTURAL DESIGN ASPECTS manufactured in accordance with the standard
Based on profiles taken from test pits dug in the specification for concrete paving blocks (SANS
intersection area, it was found that the existing 1058)5. For economic reasons the colour specified
premix layer was up to 230 mm thick in places, and was natural grey.
was supported on a primary subbase of crusher-run A herringbone laying pattern was chosen to ensure
material varying in thickness from 100 mm to 320 optimal performance of the pavement under very heavy
mm. The existing overall pavement depth averaged traffic, with the added advantage of being able to
1100 mm. follow directional changes in the varying road
Had the cbp proposal not been made and accepted, the alignment without needing to break bond. The
existing road surface would have been overlaid with a interlocking block’s shape combined with this laying
40 mm premix layer. pattern facilitates even load distribution, and resists
rotation and lateral movement of individual blocks in
A traffic survey undertaken by the consulting relation to one another. Due to the pavement becoming
engineers, together with estimates of E80 axle loads ‘locked up’ horizontal creep of the overall paved
over a 20-year design period, led to the decision to opt surface is also reduced.
for a heavy duty class E4 pavement design.
8.3 BELLVILLE GOODS YARD
In areas of the intersection which were to be widened,
Bellville Goods Yard is the central handling depot for
and where new road construction was required, the
most of Transnet cargo traffic between Cape Town and
design was based on the catalogue of structural design
3
for segmental block pavements for southern Africa . A

80mm S-A Paving block

20mm SND Bedding sand
60 mm BC Bitumen base
150 mm C3 Cement stabilised crusher run subbase

150 mm C4 Cement stabilised crusher run subbase

150 mm G7 Upper selected subgrade 13

150mm G9 Lower selected subgrade

Figure 12: Detail showing typical section through new

road construction.
 the hinterland. Typical daily traffic includes ± 220 geotechnical testing it was established that considerable
thirty-ton vehicles as well as 54 fork-lifts of 10,5 and settlement in the order of 200 mm was likely. With the
14 tons. Besides the normal movements there is high load and low subgrade conditions, no cost-effective
static loading under parked vehicles. The design chosen pavement could be constructed to distribute the load
to accommodate this traffic includes 150 mm cement- further and hence reduce settlements.
stabilised crusher-run base with 80 mm grey
interlocking (type S-A) concrete block pavers laid in 80 mm Type S-A 35 MPa
herringbone pattern (see Figure 13 for details) 20mm Sand
150 mm Crusher run compacted to
36 500m² of paving was designed and installed during 98% Mod AASHTO
1987-1988. To date, there has been no maintenance 150 mm Imported G5 min CBR45 compacted
to 93% Mod AASHTO
and the paving has performed very well, as the
200 mm Imported G7 min CBR15 compacted
photograph shows. to 93% Mod AASHTO
200 mm Stabilised subgrade 4% lime compacted
80 mm Type S-A grey interlock to 93% Mod AASHTO
20 mm Sand
In situ material CBR 1-4
150 mm Cement-stabilised crusher run
Figure 14: Pavement design Trident steel.

In situ material STATIC DYNAMIC

2 m coils x 1 m long, 18 tons Steel coils delivered by
each, max 162 tons per road vehicles with a
stack. maximum load of 45 tons
per truck and 12 to 15
Figure 13: Pavement design - Bellville Goods Yard. vehicles per day.

8.4 TRIDENT STEEL

MAXMEAD PINETOWN
The Trident Steel site is situated in the industrial
township of Maxmead in Pinetown. The earthworks on
the 10 000 m² area, consisted of an engineered cut to Figure 15: Static and dynamic loading on factory floor
fill of clay having a CBR of between 1% and 4%. The in
situ material was stabilised with lime to provide a 8.5 JOHANNESBURG
working platform and three imported layers, as NORTHERN WASTEWATER
detailed, were constructed. The main structural steel TREATMENT WORKS
building is founded on augured friction piles to a depth
Concrete block paving was used to pave 90 000m ²
of between 8m and 12m.
at the Johannesburg Northern Wastewater
Treatment Works. Roadways accounted for 25000m²,
terraces 40 000m² and the embankments 25 000m².
The pavement design for the various applications is
given below.

14

A box culvert traversed the site 10 m below the final

surface to collect the natural stormwater run-off. From
 Traffic counts of the order of 21 000 vehicles per 12-
60 mm Interlocking block (charcoal)
hour period have been recorded, of which over 20% are
20 mm Bedding sand
heavy vehicles. With the expected increase in traffic to
125 mm Cement-stabilised layer
Louis Trichardt, Messina and Zimbabwe it was critical
150 mm Granular soil compacted to that this intersection, as the principal thoroughfare,
93% Mod AASHTO should be able to withstand this increase, particularly
150 mm Granular soil compacted to with regard to heavy vehicles.
90% Mod AASHTO
In situ material compacted to 90% Mod AASHTO TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Consideration of such factors as the importance of the
Figure 16a: Pavement design – Roadways
intersection, slow-moving heavy vehicle traffic and
slewing movements, as well as the expected growth in
traffic volumes, led the consulting engineers to use the
layer design based on a B category road and E3 traffic
class. (See figure 17a) The total paved area of 4950 m²
was hand packed in a period of less than three weeks.

One of the most critical aspects of the construction

process was to ensure complete accuracy of
construction in the final earthworks layer. The
thickness of the bedding sand layer should not be
varied to make up for inaccuracies in the surface of
60 mm Rectangular blocks (grey) the layer below as such practices can lead to the
20 mm Bedding Sand
pavement sagging. A mixture of sand and cement was
125 mm Cement-stabilised layer used to correct any minor inaccuracies.
150 mm Granular soil compacted to
93% Mod AASHTO
150 mm Granular soil compacted to
90% Mod AASHTO
In situ material compacted to 90% Mod AASHTO

Figure 16b: Pavement design – Terraces

80 mm S-A blocks
25 mm Bedding sand
150 mm C3-Cement-stabilised
subbase: upper
150 mm C4-Cement-stabilised
subbase: lower
150 mm G7 – Selected layer

60mm Rectangular blocks (grey)

20 mm Bedding sand
Figure 17a: Pietersburg intersection road-profile.
150 mm Granular soil compacted to
93% Mod AASHTO
In situ material compacted to 90% Mod AASHTO

Figure 16c: Pavement design – Embankments

8.5 PIETERSBURG TRAFFIC

INTERSECTION 15
BACKGROUND
The Pietersburg intersection of Hoof Street and Iran Figure 17b: Plan-view of intersection showing junction
Avenue carries a high volume of heavy vehicle traffic. with adjacent asphalt roads.
 8.6 ANALYSIS OF A CONCRETE 9 REFERENCES
SEGMENTAL ROAD PAVEMENT 1 SANS 1058- 1985, Standard specification for
CMA Lockpave Version 10.8 concrete paving blocks, Pretoria: South African
Job name: Design Aspects Manual Bureau of Standards, 1985.
Client: CMA 2 Shackel, B.A pilot study of the performance of
Area of Job: 1000 sq m block paving under traffic using a heavy vehicle
Analyst: John Cairns simulator, CSSA symposium on precast concrete
Date: 4/7/1999 block paving, Johannesburg, Nov. 1979.
Time: 16:14:10
3 Committee of Urban Transport Authorities,
PAVEMENT ANALYSIS ASSUMPTIONS
Structural design of segmental block pavements
Layer Thickness E Mu Materials for southern Africa, Pretoria: NITRR, SCIR, 1987,
No (mm) (MPa) Type (draft UTG 2)
1 60 3200 .3 Pavers
4 Guidelines for the provision of engineering services
2 25 200 .35 Bedding sand
and amenities in residential township development,
3 100 2300 .35 Cement-stablised base
rev. ed. Pretoria: Boutek, CSIR,1994
3 ? 250 Gravel
5 Semi-Inf E-varies .4 Subgrade 5 Structural design of interurban and rural road
pavements, Pretoria: NITRR, CSIR, 1985.
Drainage Factor for unbound materials: .85
(Technical Recommendation for Highways TRH 4)
TRAFFIC DATA 6 Guidelines for road construction materials,
Road class: Arterial Pretoria: NITRR, CSIR, 1985. (Technical
Average Traffic Daily: 7 500 Recommendations for Highways TRH 14).
Growth rate: 3% PA
FURTHER READING
Analysis period: 20 YEARS
Directional split: 50% Shackel, B. Design and construction of interlocking
Proportion of trucks: 10% concrete block pavements, London: Elsevier, 1990.
Total number of ESALs in whole life: 2 263 371 SANS 1200MJ 1984, Standard specifications for
PAVEMENT COMPRISES civil engineering construction. Part MJ, Segmented
Surface: 80mm Type S-A Pavers laid in herringbone paving, Pretoria: South African Bureau of
bond Standards, 1984.
Sand: 25mm of bedding sand
Base: Cement-stablised granular compacted to
96% modified MDD
Subbase: Gravel compacted to 95% modified MDD
Subgrade:See Table below for Soaked CBR values
Drainage: Stated to be average – Subsoil drainage
should be considered

CBR % Thickness of subbase mm

1 465
3 225
5 130

16