Developing Composites From Waste Plastic and Sawdust
Developing Composites From Waste Plastic and Sawdust
Developing Composites From Waste Plastic and Sawdust
SAWDUST
A Project Report
Presented to the
College of Engineering
Technology, Kumasi
By
JOYCE KORANTENG
June, 2015
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work towards the MPhil and that, to
person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree of the
University, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Certified by:
Certified by:
ii
ABSTRACT
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to show her sincere appreciation to her supervisor Dr Albert
In addition, the author is equally grateful to Dr. William Owusu Oduro, Research
Scientist, Mr. Kofi Ampomah-Benefo, Research Scientist and Mr. Herbert Obiri
Director of the same Institute, CSIR IIR for encouragement and support. The author
would also like to thank the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) for
Finally, the author would like to express her gratitude to her husband Mr. Joseph. Y
Koranteng and two daughters Stephanie and Elsie whose constant patience, support
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...........................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. v
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS ..........................................................ix
v
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................... 26
3.0 Experiments ........................................................................................................... 26
3.1 Materials ................................................................................................................ 26
3.1.1 Determination of plastic and oil melting temperatures ....................................... 26
3.1.2 Sieve analysis of saw dust ................................................................................... 26
3.1.3 Preparation of plastics. ........................................................................................ 27
3.1.4 Preparation of the composite material................................................................. 27
3.1.5 Determination of sawdust particle density .......................................................... 27
3.1.6 Determination of moisture content ..................................................................... 28
3.1.7 Determination of volatile matter ......................................................................... 29
3.1.8 Determination of ash content. ............................................................................. 29
3.1.9 Selection of oil quantity ...................................................................................... 30
3.1.10 Selection of sieve size ....................................................................................... 30
3.2 Selection of Plastic loading to sawdust ratio........................................................... 31
3.2.1 Flexural strength determination .......................................................................... 31
3.2.2 Density ................................................................................................................ 32
3.2.3 Porosity ............................................................................................................... 32
3.2.4 Microscopic studies............................................................................................. 33
3.2.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) ............................................................... 34
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CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 51
5.0 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 51
5.1 Recommendation for future work ........................................................................... 52
REFERENCE .............................................................................................................. 53
vii
LIST OF TABLES
viii
LIST OF FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
ix
Figure 4.13: Effect of LDPE plastics loading on flexural strength of the composite at
10 wt. % of coconut oil. ............................................................................................. 47
Figure 4.14: SEM images(×100) of fractured surface of variation of particle size of
saw dust in the composite with 10 wt% oil concentration of coupling agent and a
plastic to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight (a) 63-90 µm (b) 90-355 µm (c) 355-500
µm (d) 500-630 µm (f) >630 µm. .............................................................................. 48
Figure 4. 15: SEM image fractured surface of varying coconut oil concentration on
composite at plastic to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight for(a) 0 % (b) 5 % (c) 10 %
(d) 15 % (e) 20 % oil .................................................................................................. 49
Figure 4.16 Fractured surface of composite with varying plastic loading of (a) 30%
(b) 35 % (c) 40 % (d) 45 % (e) 50 % (f) 55 %. .......................................................... 50
x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
accounts for 11.8 % of the 246 million tonnes of municipal solid waste generated
(USEPA, (2005). 8.25 million tonnes (39 %) of plastics were recorded in Western
Europe (plastic 2004). In New Zealand, 35,000 tonnes representing 13.48 % of the
total imported virgin plastics (Plastics, 2005). In UK, approximately 500,000 tonnes
of waste plastics from 2.8 million tonnes of waste plastics are recycled each year
(Optimat Ltd et al, 2003). Similarly, large amounts of wood waste generated at
different stages in the wood processing industries are mainly destined for landfill.
During 2002, approximately 63 million tonnes of wood waste was generated in the
US (Falk, 2004). In the UK, about 0.8 million tonnes of waste wood are Recycled
every year although 5 to 7.5 million tonnes of waste wood are produced (Optimat Ltd
et al, 2003) Researchers across the world have pursued waste plastic reinforced wood
waste in order to reduce the environmental impact and its consumption. Past studies
have demonstrated that the recycled plastics possessed similar mechanical properties
markets. It was reported that waste wood in the form of wood flour, are suitable for
reinforcement in composites (Woodhams et al, 1984). Pinus radiata wood fibers were
found to possess physical and mechanical properties suitable for the reinforcement of
plastics (Miller, 1994). Hence, increased usage of the recycled plastics and the waste
wood for composite offers the prospect of lessening waste disposal problems.
1
Recycled plastics possessed similar mechanical properties but are much cheaper than
their virgin form. WPC products will have cost-competitive advantage in the
markets.
Composites are used for decking, fencing, siding, garden furniture, exterior windows
and doors (Optimat Ltd et al, 2003). Other applications can also be found in marine
highway signs, guardrail posts, and fence posts (Youngquist et al, 1994).
It is therefore, expected that developing plastic waste composite with sawdust is one
disposal and management practices make the city centres inundated with huge
The waste plastics constitute about 18 % of 1500 tonnes of solid waste generated in
Accra, Ghana’s capital daily. (Weinaah, 2007). Most of these plastics tend to be low
The large majority of these wastes are being dumped into open areas and existing
drains. The clogging of drains has further exacerbated sewage and sanitation
2
Similarly, large amount of wood waste generated at different wood processing
industries also mainly end up on landfill. Ghana, in the West Africa sub region, is a
major exporter of timber products and at present has a forest cover of 49,400 km2
which is a little over 21.7 % of total the land mass. (World Bank indicators, 2010).
Ghana realized 7,187,938 from the export of 21,020m³ wood product in December
% of National export revenue (Ghana Budget, 2013). The continuous rise in demand
both in domestic and international market places has a lot of strain on the nations
forest cover. Also, the activities of most saw mills in Ghana generate an average
annual wood residue of 33.3 %. (Sekyere and Okyere, .2007). The management of
this biomass waste is a source of worry for both industries and local assemblies
The problem is that not much work has been done in the country to develop sawdust
1.3 Objective
studies
3
1.4 Justification /Significance
This thesis is to help address some of the pertinent issues relating to industrial and
urban waste management in Ghana. The project proposes a key measure to prevent
these waste materials which will place a value on them. Identifying the potential use
of waste to create job and inadvertently help in shaping public attitude towards its
4
CHAPTER TWO
This chapter describes varieties of cellulose fibers that can be used to reinforce
thermoplastics. These include wood fibers, coir, pineapple leaf (palf), rice husk, and
sugarcane bagasse. These fibers are abundantly available throughout the world.
Cellulose fibers, often refers to as vegetable fibers come from a renewable resource.
The production of these fibers requires little energy with the consumption CO2.
Oxygen is given back the environment. The fibers are light in weight which results in
higher specific strength and stiffness than glass. Production is at low cost, which
makes the material an interesting product for low-wage countries. Its processing is
not harsh on the tooling equipment thus resulting in little wear, no skin irritation and
also that thermal recycling is possible. These fibers are now used to reinforce plastic
quality, restricted maximum processing temperature, lower durability and poor fire
resistance.
Pineapple is a tropical plant. Its leaf fiber is rich in cellulose, relatively inexpensive
These fibers are extracted from the leaf of the plant, Ananas cosomus belonging to
tensile behaviour, surface, and fracture morphology of palf have been reported by
5
many researchers (Muherjee et al, 1986 and Bhattacharrya et al, 1986). It has the
potential for polymer reinforcement. At present pineapple leaf fibers which are waste
Rice is one of the large groups of cereal grains that can be used to produce hull
fibers. Currently, wheat, corn, husk, oats and other cereal crops are used to produce
fibers and investigations carried out in the area of reinforced composites. Ismail et al,
(2001) studied the mechanical properties of rice husk filled polymer composites and
and hybridization effect. Other studies have focused on: flame retardant properties of
rice husk and polyethylene composites (Zhao et al, 2009 and Kim, et al 2004).
Coconut fiber is a by-product obtained from the husk of the fruit of the coconut
palm. It is found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. The
individual fiber cells are narrow and hollow, with thick walls made of cellulose.
They are pale when immature, but later become hardened and yellowed as a layer of
lignin is deposited on their walls. Each cell is about 1 mm long and 10 to 20 µm.
Fibers are typically 10 to 30 cm long (Hindu, 2009). The two varieties of coir are
brown and white. Brown coir harvested from fully ripened coconuts is thick, strong
and has high abrasion resistance. It is typically used in mats, brushes and sacking.
Mature brown coir fiber contain more lignin and less cellulose than fiber such as flax
and cotton. They are also stronger but less flexible. Coir is in abundance and its fiber
used for making a wide variety of products (Satynarayana et al, 1982). Coir has also
6
been tested as a filler or a reinforcement in different composite materials
Bagasse is the fibrous residue which remains after sugarcane stalks are crushed to
extract their juice. It is currently used as a renewable cellulose fiber for the
manufacture of composites materials. Monteiro et al, (1998) studied the possible uses
properties to enable them have practical applications. Vazquez et al, (1999) reported
fibers were with the thermoplastic matrix. The fibers were washed with alkaline
solution. The effects of the treatment reactions on the chemical structure of the fibers
Wood fiber is a plant fiber composed of elongated cells oriented in the longitudinal
direction of the stem. The stem consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.
material, such as sawdust and wood fibers, as reinforcement for thermoplastics has
7
specific gravity, high specific strength stiffness, and relatively low cost (Zadorecki,
According to Hagan, (1999) the activities of the timber and wood processing
industries generate an estimated 61,000 metric tons of wood waste annually. These
wastes are not normally properly disposed off and therefore end up in landfills. To
help put this byproduct to good use, it is being incorporated into the project as one of
the reinforcements.
Ceiba pentandra is native to the American tropics, Mexico, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil,
and West Africa. It is however known by these other common names such as
Toborochi (Bolivia) (Martin, 1980), Onyina (Ghana). The wood is soft and very light
varying in colour from white to light brown. The components of wood are cellulose
carbohydrates that occur through the woody structure of plants (Word, 1973). The
lignin gives the structural rigidity, stiffening and holding the fibers together.
Currently, the main use of Ceiba pentandra is as a source of timber as well as for
2.2 Plastics
Plastic materials are the most widely used group of synthetic polymers. They include
fluorocarbons, epoxy, phenolics, and polyesters but the most extensively used in
8
are organic polymers of high molecular mass, but contain other substances. They are
usually synthetic and are most commonly derived from petrochemicals. Plastics are
durable and degrade very slowly because they have chemical bonds that make
plastics resistant to the cellulose processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one
billion tonnes of plastics have been discarded and may persist for hundreds or even
Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their
(Alan, 2010). Thermoplastics are made up of many repeating molecular units, known
by their ability to be reshaped upon the addition of heat (above the glass transition
phase). This cycle can be carried out repeatedly. Most linear polymers are
thermoplastics.
curing which crosslink the polymer molecules. Once crosslinked, thermosets become
permanently hard and simply undergo chemical decomposition under the application
and dimensional stability over that of thermoplastic polymers, which typically have
better flexural strength properties. Thermoset polymers are generally harder and
9
stronger than thermoplastics and have better dimensional stability. Most of the
2.2.1 Polyethylene
with a density less than that of water. It is tough but has moderate tensile strength. It
polythene is the most common plastic in the world. Its primary use is within the
packaging industry (plastic bag, plastic films, containers including bottles, etc.).
their chemical formula (C2H4)nH2 which is, resistant to heat distortion; excellent
during the polymerization reaction can have drastic effects on the branching of PE
molecules. Branching is the formation of side chains off the basic polymer backbone.
These side chains are formed when the hydrogen-carbon bond is broken during the
on a PE molecule, the structure will become more amorphous and have longer,
uniform chains.
Polyethylene is classified into several different categories based mostly on its density
and branching. Examples are High density polyethylene (HDPE), linear low density
10
melting point and glass transition may be observable in its physical properties. The
temperature at which these occur varies strongly with the type of polyethylene. For
Most LDPE, MDPE and HDPE grades have excellent chemical resistance, meaning
that it is not attacked by strong acids or strong bases. It is also resistant to gentle
oxidants and reducing agents. Polyethylene burns slowly with a blue flame having a
yellow tip and gives off an odour of paraffin. The material continues burning on
removal of the flame source and produces a drip (Boedeker, 2012). Most of the
plastics used as plastic bottles, grocery bags; wrappers and water sachets are low
density polyethylene (LDPE) from petroleum and are relatively easy to recycle into
polyethylene (HDPE)
Figure 2.1 shows the chemical structure of a high density polyethylene polymer.
HDPE is the most rigid among the four common PE's and has a density ranging from
0.935-0.960 g/cm³. HDPE can be produced with the aid of chromium/silica catalysts,
11
product of limited branching that occurs when the polymerization is at low
temperatures and low pressure. The limited branching makes HDPE more crystalline
leading to the increased density. HDPE can be processed in three different ways:
slurry particle reactor, gas phase and metallocene catalyst. It has a very tight cell
structure, making it very difficult for other molecules to pass through its structure on
a microscopic level (Campo et al, 2006). HDPE is the plastic that is used in making
fuel tanks because of its low permeability and superb chemical resistance.
Waste LDPE can provide a suitable matrix for making composites with saw dust and
coir fiber. This is one of the most abundant plastics worldwide due to its low cost,
ease at processing and other desirable properties (Gómez et al, 2005). Since it is used
mainly for disposable packaging, it often finds itself in waste streams. This makes it
Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) using a high pressure process through free radical
It has a high degree of short and long chain branching as shown in Figure 2.2 which
12
means that the chains do not pack in a crystal-like structure. It has therefore, weaker
intermolecular bonds compared to HDPE and MDPE. Though more new polymers
LDPE has more branching of carbon atoms than HDPE, so its intermolecular forces
lower, and its resilience is higher. Also, its density is lower since its molecules are
less tightly packed and less crystalline. LDPE possesses the following characteristics:
very tough, weatherproof, good chemical resistance, low water absorption, semi-rigid
Polyethylene is a plastic material of choice for the composites It is one of the urban
wastes which are non degradable. Statistics gathered by Ghana Landfill Guidelines,
(2002) stated that waste plastics constitute about 18 % of the about 1500 tonnes/day
solid waste generated in Accra, Ghana’s capital. Most of these plastics tend to be low
density polyethylene (LDPE) which is used as plastic bottles, grocery bags, wrappers
13
Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)
polymerization process much like HDPE, but has more branches much like LDPE.
These branches as shown in Figure 2.3 are long enough to prevent the molecules
from being closely packed together. This results in a linear molecular structure like
HDPE, but also having a low density like LDPE. The density of LLDPE will
typically range from 0 .918-0.940 g/cm³. The LLDPE features can be achieved by
(optically) and less flexibility (Strong et al, 2000). It is "softer" and good for an
application like a self-adhesive carpet protection. The molecules all line up and
strongly hold together as the film is stretched to give the structure much more
strength and elongation than LDPE. Flexible plastic sheeting of LLDPE is most
Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) has branching which is less than that of the
HDPE. It is less notch sensitive than HDPE and has better stress cracking resistance.
14
chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler-Natta catalysts or metallocene catalysts which are
the least commonly used form of catalyst. It is used for flexible plastic sheeting. It is
stronger than LDPE, a little more chemical resistant, and has a tighter cell structure
2.2.2 Polystyrene
(C8H8). It contains the chemical elements carbon and hydrogen and it is one of the
most widely used plastics. The scale of its production is several billion kilograms per
state at room temperature but flows when heated above its glass transition
temperature (about 100oC). It becomes rigid again when cooled. It is free from odour
and taste and burns with a sooty flame. Other valuable qualities are that it is low cost,
has good mouldability, low moisture absorption, good dimensional stability, good
widely used as an injection moulding and vacuum forming material (Brydson, 1999).
The principal limitations of the polymer are its brittleness and inability to withstand
the temperature of boiling water. Discarded polystyrene does not biodegrade for
mechanical properties of polystyrene depend on the nature of the polymer (e.g. its
molecular weight), on the method of preparation of the sample for testing and on the
15
2.2.3 Polyethylene terephthalate
(Rosato, 2004).
They are highly crystalline and exhibit high toughness, strength, abrasion resistance,
low friction, chemical resistance and low moisture absorption. PET has been
available for many years but mainly as a fiber (e.g. Terylene). As a moulding
material it was less attractive, due to processing difficulties but these were overcome
with the introduction of polybutylene terephthalate (PBT). PET is now renowned for
its success as a replacement for glass in beverage bottles (Crawdford, 1998). The
polar nature of the ester group leads to the resin having a higher power factor and
dielectric constant than the hydrocarbon polymers and this limits their use as high-
repeating units in the molecular chain are linked together by amide groups. Amide
groups have the general chemical formula CO-NH. There are several different types
of nylon (e.g. nylon 6, nylon 66, and nylon 11) but as a family their characteristics of
plastics (Crawdford, 1998). Typical applications for nylon include small gears,
bearings, bushings, sprockets, housing for power tools, terminal blocks and slide
16
roller. Another major application of nylon is in fiber which is strong (Crawdford,
1998).
An important design consideration is that nylon absorbs moisture which can affect its
properties and dimensional stability. Glass reinforcement reduces this problem and
substances, which are not compatible with polar (hydrophilic) substances such as
wood fibers. This therefore results in poor adhesion between the polymer and wood
fiber in the wood fiber plastic composite (WFPC) (Geottler, 1983, Klason et al,
1984). In order to improve the affinity and adhesion between wood fibers and
substances that are used in small quantities to treat a surface so that bonding occurs
between it and other surfaces. Coupling agents are classified into organic, inorganic,
amides, imides, acrylates, chlorotriazines, epoxides, and organic acids. Only a few
agents include silanes and titanates. Coupling agents can be directly mixed with
wood fiber and polymer in the melt-blending formation, such as injection moulding,
extrusion, and transfer moulding. They can also be coated or grafted on the surface
of wood fiber and polymer or both. Then the pretreated and untreated wood fiber and
17
polymer are kneaded. Usually, pretreatment of wood fiber and polymer is by coating
concentration and chemical structure of coupling agents, choice of wood fiber and
matrix (e.g. shape, size and species), ratio of wood fiber to total matrix weight,
Coconut oil is an oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconuts fruit.
coconut oil is predominantly composed of saturated fatty acids and a high proportion
of glycerides of lower chain fatty acids. The oil is highly stable towards atmospheric
high saturated fatty acids content and is a liquid at room temperatures of 27oC. It has
Figure 2.4: The chemical structure of a typical triglyceride showing the polar and
18
Figure 2.5: Schematic representation of the coupling effect of a triglyceride
molecule with cellulose fiber and plastic matrix
consists of a polar and non polar end as shown in Figure 2.24 just like other coupling
agents. This characteristic makes it possible to blend with the fibers which are polar
Izyan et al, (2008) have worked on the effect of coconut oil as a coupling agent on
tensile strength, elongation at break and Young’s modulus but reduced the water
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2.4 Cellulose fiber-reinforced plastic waste composites.
This section outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on the
(wood dust and coir) to form composites through the action of coupling agents.
Cellulose fiber-reinforced waste plastic composites have been used to develop new
value-added products such as floor carpets, flower vases, waste paper baskets, park
plastics (high density polyethylene and polypropylene) and wood fiber, coir or other
agricultural wastes as reinforcing filler. Many researchers like Chen et al, (2006),and
Lee et al, (2010), have worked on various wood-plastic ratios which typically range
2002). The higher strength and aspect ratio of natural fibers offers good reinforcing
potential in composite matrix compared to the artificial fibers (Abdul et al, 2014 and
Clemons, 2008).
The interface between the non-polar plastics and the polar cellulose fiber waste is
improved to ensure the transfer of stress between the two phases when loaded by a
coupling agent. Typical coupling agents used in the process include anhydrides or
organic acids. Fibrous composite materials typically have two or more distinct
phases, which include high strength/stiffness reinforcing fibers and the encapsulating
matrices typically fall into two categories: thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers.
20
2.4.1 Mechanical properties of cellulose fiber-plastic composites
Chtourou et al, (2009) have evaluated the mechanical properties of wood fiber–waste
plastic composites. They have investigated the use of saw dust–waste thermoplastic
composites for guard-rail posts on highways. Miller et al, (1998) have assessed the
coupling agents. Their results have shown that plastic wastes reinforced with
cellulose fiber and appropriate coupling agents can be used to make composite
materials with good mechanical strength. Lu et al, (2000) recently reviewed work
done by some researchers who examined the mechanical properties of the composites
and the effects of various coupling agents on the interfacial bonding between the
fibers and the polymer; they have stated that the presence of a suitable coupling
agent is crucial for the achievement of significant gains in the mechanical properties
been receiving considerable attention due to their low processing cost, problem-free
Monteiro et al, (2008) worked on reinforced coir fiber with polyester to form a
the coir fiber/polyester composites. Individually loose coir fibers were used in two
distinct forms: tangled or pressed in mats with a thickness of 1.0 cm. The fibers were
used untreated, except that they were dried at 50oC for 24 h. Two kinds of coir fibers,
tangled mass and pressed mats were used in this work. A commercially available
was used as matrix for the composites. After being thoroughly mixed, the resin was
21
poured into the cavity of a steel mould, which was previously filled with a suitable
amount of coir fiber. Composites with amounts of coir fibers ranging from 10 to 80
wt% were manufactured at two pressure levels, namely: 2.6 and 5.2 MPa. The cure
was done under pressure at room temperature. As the fibers in any of the two
configurations (tangled or mat) did not have a preferred orientation, the composites
specimens 122 mm long, 25 mm wide and 10 mm thick were bend tested using the
and the minimum number of specimens used for each of the test conditions and coir
fiber arrangements was 6. Before their incorporation in the composites, the coir
fibers were analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The analysis was
Their results show that random oriented coir fiber–polyester composites have
flexural strengths that enable their use as nonstructural building elements. The low
melt index 5 g/10 min; density 0.9 g/cm3) was used as matrix material. The saw dust
used as wood filler was of the following particle size range and weight: 20–30 mesh
22
1050C for 12 hr. Ethylene–vinyl alcohol (EVAL) and vinyl-acetate (VA) was of the
vinyl acetate (EVAcs). Saw dust (50 wt % of composite with the exception of
EVAL) was placed in a blender. EVAL (1–10 wt % of wood) was added and mixed
at 60 rpm for 5 min at 160oC. LLDPE was charged into the blender and mixed
continuously for 10 min at the same temperature. The kneaded samples were
moulded into films by hot-pressing with Carver Hot-Press. The samples were placed
between a pair of Teflon films with a thin spacer. The temperature of the hot press
was set at 160oC. After heating for 5 min, the samples were sustained to 3.5 MPa
pressing and allowed to stand at this pressure for 5 min. The samples were cooled to
room temperature after subsequent cold pressing at the same pressure for 1 min.
The tensile properties of the composites were measured according to ASTM S 638
using an Instron tensile testing machine, model 4201 at room temperature and 50%
relative humidity. The standard General Tensile Test Program method was used to
evaluate the mechanical properties. The cross head speed was 10 mm/min and the
reported properties were measured at yield point. The results were obtained from
for wood plastic composite. The EVAL coated saw dust–LLDPE composites had the
The results indicated that EVAL played an important role in improving the
prepared from EVAL coated saw dust and LLDPE had a good mechanical strength
improved by hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups of saw dust and hydroxyl
23
groups of EVAL. The fracture surface of EVAL-coated saw dust–LLDPE
reinforcement. Before use, the fibers were ground into small 2–3 mm length pieces,
treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), dodecane bromide,
first washed with water and then kept for 48 h in a 1.6 mol/L sodium hydroxide
aqueous solution. After removal of the fibers from the NaOH solution, they were
treated with acetic acid (100 mL) to neutralize the remaining hydroxide after which
they were air-dried for 24 h. 3 ml dodecane bromide was added to 5g of coir fibers
temperature for 12 h. The coir fibers were recovered by filtration, washed thoroughly
with isopropanol and ethyl ether and then dried for 12 h at 50 oC.
prepared in acetone. The pH of the solution was adjusted to 3.5 with acetic acid, after
which the solution was stirred continuously for an additional 5 min. Fibers were
immersed in the resulting solution for 45 min, after which they were dried at 65oC
for 12 h to initiate the chemical reaction between the fibers and silane coupling
agent. The fibers were then thoroughly washed with water to remove chemical
residues until a pH value of 7 was measured. The last step involved drying the fibers
at 80 oC for 48 h.
coir fibers were blended using a heated rolls mill. Compounding of each 30 g
24
composite batch was performed at 200oC with the roll mill operating at 60 RPM for 3
min. Under these conditions, a homogeneous dispersion and distribution of the fibers
was achieved in the HDPE matrix. The neat HDPE matrix was first filled in the
heated mixing cavity while the mills were under constant rotational speed. After 30 s,
the fibers were carefully added onto the melted HDPE and mixed for 3 min. At that
point, the measured torque was found to be constant. The rolls were then stopped and
the composite removed from the heated rolls before being cut into small pieces for
hot press moulding. Hot press moulding was performed using a semi-automatic press
with both platens heated to 190oC. The sample being moulded was held for 30 s at
that temperature under compression before being cooled to room temperature. The
mould used was shaped according to (ISO 527-1 1993) for mechanical testing.
Results have shown that composites obtained with treated fibers possess better
mechanical properties than those of composites made with untreated fibers. The
calculated Young’s modulus in the composites was higher for the alkaline treated
fibers than the raw fibers. Moreover, torsional test shows that the NaOH treatment
gives more flexibility to the fibers with the silane treatment making the fibers more
rigid. A study of the plastic energy absorbed by all the composites has shown a clear
limitation of the added fibers. But the use of coupling agents such as silane increased
noticeably the stored energy when compared to composites made from raw coir or
alkali-treated fibers.
25
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Experiments
3.1 Materials
Samples of empty water sachet plastics made from low density polyethylene (LDPE)
that litter the streets of Accra since Accra was the site of execution of the project
were sampled. Saw dust from Ceiba pentandra (soft wood) whose common name is
ceiba, was obtained from Muus sawmill at Taifa in the Greater Accra region.
Unrefined coconut oil which acts as coupling agent was purchased from Madina
market in Accra.
10 g of plastic was added to varied proportion of coconut oil 0, 10, 20, 40, 50 g
stirred till it melted. The temperature was then recorded at each plastic and oil
content melted.
The procedure used was taken from ASTM C 136. The sawdust was dried at 105°C
for 12 h in a convection oven (Gallenkamp Plus Oven). The dried saw dust was
sieved using Fragtech Standard Sieves of apertures 63 µm, 90 µm, 355 µm, 500 µm
and 630 µm. At the base was a receiver. 50 g of sawdust was placed on the top sieve
Ltd model). The material on each sieve was weighed and then divided by the total
weight to give a percentage retained on each sieve. The following equation was used,
26
Where WSieve is the weight of sawdust on the sieve and WTotal is the total weight of
the sawdust.
The total percentage of aggregate that was retained on each sieve was added to the
The values were then plotted on a graph with cumulative percent passing on the Y
The sampled LDPE plastics were washed thoroughly with water and dried at 60ºC
The coupling agent (coconut oil) was added at varied proportion of 0,5,10,15,20 wt
beaker till melted to the molten state at 120oC. The required quantity of saw dust was
added to the melted plastic and stirred continuously until uniformly mixed at 140oC
for 10 min. The total weight of each sample was 30 g. Temperature was measured
The molten mixture was poured into a rectangular metal mould of dimension 132
using a 10 tonnes laboratory press (Apex Construction Ltd, London and Dartford).
Particle density of saw dust sample was determined by the methods employed by
(Araki et al, 2004). An empty 10 ml density flask was initially weighed and
subsequently filled to the 10 ml volume mark with sawdust. Its combined weight was
27
then recorded. The weight of the empty density flask was subtracted from the
combined weight. The density was then calculated using the formula:
Where:
The crucible was first pre-ignited by heating it to 650oC for 1h and then placing it in
a desiccator to cool to room temperature of 25oC. It was then weighed to the nearest
0.1 g. 1.0 g (W) of sawdust was accurately weighed unto a tarred ignited crucible and
placed in an electric oven (Gallenkamp Plus Oven) at 105oC till constant weight (D)
was achieved. The moisture content was then calculated using the following
equation:
28
3.1.7 Determination of volatile matter
crucible was weighed (A) and then covered with a lid and reweighed (B) to the
nearest 0.1 g. 1g of sawdust was then placed in a pre-ignited covered crucible and
weighed (C). The covered crucible was then placed in a furnace and heated to 950oC
for 7 minutes. The crucible was then removed and placed in a desiccator to cool to
room temperature (25oC). The crucible with the cover was weighed to the nearest 0.1
Where:
The ash content was also determined using ASTM method D2866 (1999) by first
igniting the crucible at 650oC for 1h. The crucible was then placed in a desiccator to
cool to room temperature (25oC).1 g of sawdust was weighed and placed into an
ignited crucible and placed in the furnace at 650oC for 3h till constant weight was
achieved. The crucible was removed and placed in the desiccator and allowed to cool
29
Where:
in literature by Sark et al, (1997). The remainder of the proportion was equally split
between sawdust to plastic ratio. The material preparation is referred according to the
process detailed in section 3.1. The density, porosity and flexural strength were
An oil content of 10 wt % was maintained, and particle size varied according to sieve
size 63 µm, 90 µm, 355 µm, 500 µm and 630 µm. The sawdust to plastic ratio was
maintained at a 50:50 ratio for the various particle sizes. The total weight of this
30
formulation was 30 g. The samples prepared were tested for flexural strength,
porosity and density. Table 3.2 shows the composition for the particle size selection.
Upon determining the optimum oil ratio, 10 % oil composition was used. Plastic
loading was varied at 30,35, 40, 45, 50, and 55 wt %.The particle size of the sawdust
used was 90-355 µm. Table 3.3 shows the composition used for these experiments.
(ASTM) D790-03 Procedure A, three bend point set up was used to determine the
The dimensions of each test specimen were kept at approximately 127 × 127 × 5
mm. The length of support span was 80 mm, and the loading nose had a radius of
6.75 mm. The Flexural yield was estimated by the following equation.
Where, σ is the flexural yield, P is load at the fracture point, L is the length of the
31
Figure 3.1: Representation of three-point bend test from (ASTM) D 79-03
3.2.2 Density
The density of the composite material at 25oC was also determined by the
displacement method, ASTM D792-00 test method A, by weighing the sample in air
and attaching a sinker to it and weighing it again in deionized water. The density of
apparent mass of material and sinker completely immersed and of the wire partially
3.2.3 Porosity
The water absorption of the fractured samples from flexural strength testing was
determined according to the ASTM D570-98. The sample was sawn to smoothen the
fractured surface of the specimen. It was then conditioned by drying in an oven for
32
24 h at 50 oC before cooling in a desiccator with silica as desiccant. The sample was
immediately weighed upon removal from the desiccator. The conditioned specimen
temperature of 25oC for 24 h. After the 24 h immersion period the sample was
removed from the water and all surface water wiped off with a dry cloth and
immediately weighed on balance scale. The porosity was determined using equations
7, and 8.
Ws Wd
Pore Vol . (V p ) --------- (7)
f
Where Ws is the sample core weight, Wd is the dry core weight and ρf is the density
Vp
porosity (%) 100 ( 8 )
V
b
Where Vb is obtained by measuring the dimension of the sample using a Hilka digital
The morphology of the surface that explains the activity of the plastic melt before the
addition of coconut oil and sawdust from Ceiba Pentandra particles sizes were
studied using a Bresser LCD Micro digital electronic microscope. A thin film of
LDPE sample was placed on the microscopic slides and examined at 40X
magnification. The micrograph was then compared with a thin film of melted plastics
at 110oC. With a surface active ingredient (coconut oil) at different percentages (0,
33
10, 20, 30, 40, 50 %) serving as a coupling agent, was examined under the same
The fractured surfaces of the flexural test specimens were characterized using
34
CHAPTER FOUR
The result as shown on Figure 4.1 indicates that melting temperature of LDPE
decreased from 110oC to 85oC as the percentage of coconut oil in the matrix
increased from 0 % to 50 %. The coconut oil also prevented lump forming when the
plastics were heated to 110oC by isolating smaller polyethylene particles through the
formation of a sol-gel emulsion. The heating process breaks the intermolecular bond
of the LDPE film and small individual polyethylene fragments as shown in Figure
4.2.
Figure 4.1: Melting temperature changes of plastic with varying coconut oil
content
The contrasting white and dark patches as shown in Figure 4.2, reveals the surface
topography of the coupling agent and plastic interaction. The darker areas of the
image represent those areas of the sample that coconut oil breaks the intermolecular
bond of the LDPE film. The focal light therefore passes through the sample without
35
reflection on the objective lens to produce the white patches. From Figure 4.2, dark
areas increased as oil content increased from 0 % to 50 %. This indicates that small
fragments are prevented from migrating to nearby particles to form a sintered lump.
Figure4.2: Micrograph of melted plastic with and without coconut oil at 40x
magnification for (a)0 (b)10% oil (c) 20%oil (d) 30% oil € 40% oil (f)
50%oil.
The size of the fiber in wood plastic composites has been demonstrated in literature
materials (Bouafif et al, 2009). The sieve analysis in Figure 4.3 showed that 60 % of
the particles are retained by the mesh of size 630 microns which implies the particles
had a diameter greater than 630 microns. 39.5 % of the wood-dust particles fell
within the size range of between 63 µm and 630 µm and still a fewer particles (0.5
36
Figure 4.3: Size distribution of wood dust from a typical sawmill
sawdust shown Figure 2.3 suggested a fibrous morphology rather than rounded
particles for all the different sizes. On the average a relatively high length to diameter
material fell within the domain of the wood dust 90-355 µm size which has the
tendency to enhance surface activity and blends with the plastic-coupling agent gel
matrix.
37
Figure 4.4: Micrograph of the saw dust particles at 40x magnification for (a) <
63µm (b) 63µm-90 (c) 90µm-355 (d) 355µm-500 (e) 500µm-630 (f)
>630µm.
as shown in Figure 4.5. This observation is attributed to the fact that a compact or
high adhesion comes to a head when the amount of coupling agent, coconut oil is 10
are loosely held to the particles as well as to itself resulting in the creation of further
38
Figure 4.5: Effect of varying coconut oil concentration on porosity of composite
at plastic to wood ratio of 50/50 by weight.
4.3.2 Porosity of composite prepared with wood dust of different particle sizes
The porosity of the composite was found to be dependent on the fiber particle size as
shown in Figure 4.6. The larger the particle size, the higher the porosity which was in
good agreement with previous report (Steckel et al, 2007). Larger particles led to
greater hydrophilic-exposed surfaces; and poor adhesion between wood particles and
39
Figure 4.6: Variation of the porosity of the composite with particle size of
sawdust at 10 wt% oil concentration of coupling agent and a plastic
to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight.
The porosity of the composite increased from 12.6 % to 35.5 % as the plastic loading
Figure 4.7. Higher water resistance of composites with the increasing plastic content
can be attributed to the hydrophobic character of plastics. The wood used is a soft
wood. Soft wood has lower density by virtue of the greater amount of pores in the
wood due to this reason porosity increased as sawdust content increases. Similar
result for this increasing pattern were also reported by (Chen et al, 2006) for the
40
Figure 4.7: Variation in porosity of composite with 10 wt% coconut oil and
plastic to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight.
Lightweight materials with very strong mechanical properties are most desirable in
the design of new materials for architectural purposes (Sales et al, 2010 and Wu et al,
weight-to-cost ratios (ASTM 792-00). Increasing the percentage of coconut oil in the
decreasing. This trend is in agreement with the decline in porosity with the minimum
porosity occurring at the 10 wt % content of oil. This shows that, properties in the oil
41
Figure 4.8: Variation in density of the composite with coconut oil composition at
a plastic to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight
4.3.5 Density of composite prepared with wood dust of different particle sizes
Figure 4.9 shows a decrease in density from 0.97 to 0.75 as sawdust particle size
increased. It is well documented in literature that raw material particle size influences
the density of composites. Small particles give a higher density (Travnicek, 2011).
Also, bigger particles can create bigger pores in the composites leading to reduced
composite density.
42
Figure 4.9: Variation of density of the WPC with particle size of wood dust in
the composite at 10 wt% oil concentration of coupling agent and a
plastic to wood ratio of 50/50 by weight.
Increasing the plastic loading in the composite increased the density as shown in
Figure 4.10. Density of LPDE is 0.910-0.940 g/cm³ which is much higher than Ceiba
sawdust density of 0.409 g/cm³ and hence increasing the ratio of plastic in the
43
Figure 4.10: Effect of varying plastic loading on density of composite at 10wt %
coconut oil
According to Klyosov, (2007) the International Code Council (ICC) can pass a
material for construction if it has a flexural strength of 0.012 MPa. The flexural
strength of the composite with 50/50 plastic to wood ratio using different ratios of
coconut oil as coupling agent is presented in Figure 4.11. The results showed an
increase in the flexural strength from 3.3 MPa to 6.1 MPa as coconut oil ratio
increased from 0 to10wt %. It then decreased from 6.1 MPa to 2.2 MPa as coconut
groups in the molecular structure of coconut oil which act as the coupling agent. This
enhanced interaction with both the hydrophobic plastic and the hydrophilic wood
from 0-10 wt % allowing for the distribution of stress on both the plastic and the
wood particles in the composite. Beyond 10 wt % of coconut oil the flexural strength
drops as a result of the increased porosity of the material from the dilute dispersion
44
Figure 4.11: Flexural strength variations with varying concentrations of
coupling agent (coconut oil) with 50/50 LDPE plastics to saw dust
ratio.
The flexural strength of the composite prepared from 50:50wt % plastic: saw dust
ratio with 10 wt % coconut oil and also using varying wood particle sizes (63,
90,355,500 and 630 µm) is shown in Figure 4.12. The maximum flexural strength
(6.1 MPa) was obtained by composite material formulated with wood particles
This was because particles retained in the 90-355 microns had particle length to
diameter ratio (see Figure 4.4b). The small particle diameter offers more surface area
of contact with the plastic-coupling agent matrix than bigger ones. Also, bigger
particles can create bigger flaws in the composites contrary to smaller flaws created
by smaller particles, thus reducing composite strength ( Leidner et al, 1974). Fracture
surface area increases with increasing particle size. As a result, less energy is
required to break a specimen containing larger particles (Stark et al, 1997). The
deviation of 63µm is related to the fact that powdery morphology of the particles
45
Figure 4.12: Behaviour of flexural strength of composite material with saw dust
particle size with 10 wt% oil and plastic to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by
weight.
Results as depicted in Figure 4.13 indicated that an increase in plastic loading of the
Plastic loading increased with decreased sawdust content. It appeared that the
binding capacity of the plastic gradually decreased with increasing sawdust content.
lignocellulosic materials dispersed in the polymeric matrix (Chen et al, 2006, Raj et
al, 1989).
46
Figure 4.13: Effect of LDPE plastics loading on flexural strength of the
composite at 10 wt. % of coconut oil.
bonding between the matrix and fiber are shown in Figure 4.14 to 4.16. The
surfaces by variation of particle size of saw dust in the composite with 10 wt % oil as
coupling agent and a plastic to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight 63-90, 90-355, 355-
Figure 4.14 (a) (c) (d) and (e) exhibited a considerable amount of fiber pullout and
voids as particle size of sawdust increases indicating that interfacial bonding was
lowered. The fracture surface of the composite with higher saw dust content appears
to be dominated by voids.
47
The sample containing 90-355µm particle size in Fig.4.14 (b) fractured was without
signs of fibers being pulled out, indicating good interface bond meaning that the
interfacial bonding between the filler and the matrix polymer was strong.
Figure 4 15(a) to 4 15(e) shows the SEM images of fractured surfaces of the
sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight for (a) 0 % (b) 5 % (c) 10 % (d) 15 % (e) 20 % oil.
The images revealed relatively no fiber pullout and less voids at oil content of 10 %
48
Figure 4. 15: SEM image fractured surface of varying coconut oil concentration
on composite at plastic to sawdust ratio of 50/50 by weight for(a) 0 %
(b) 5 % (c) 10 % (d) 15 % (e) 20 % oil
SEM image from Figure 4.16(a) to 4.16(f) were made of varying plastic and saw dust
in the composite at 10 wt % oil. Plastic loading was varied at 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 and
55. Fractured samples shows systematic close matrix-fiber surface without any sign
of pullout from Figure 4.16 (a) to (f) and more compact surface at Figure 4.16(d) to
49
(f),This is because composite filled with more plastic have less void
Figure 4.16 Fractured surface of composite with varying plastic loading of (a)
30% (b) 35 % (c) 40 % (d) 45 % (e) 50 % (f) 55 %.
50
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusions
The composite panels for partitioning room samples were formulated from sawdust,
low density polyethylene (LDPE) and coconut oil as coupling agent using the Melt
and Stir method. Composites were prepared with different plastic sawdust ratios,
varying coconut oil content and particle sizes. Each composite sample was then
tested for porosity, density and flexural strength. Microstructure of the fractured
samples was examined using scanning electron microscope. Melted plastic with
weight and 90-355 µm exhibited lower water absorption at value 17.82 %. Porosity
increased from 14.8 to 26.9 % with increasing sawdust particle size of 63, 90, 355,
500, 630µm.
composite showed a decrease in density from 0.75 to 0.97 g/cm³ as sawdust particle
size increased. Increasing the plastic loading in the composite increased the density.
Flexural strength evaluation suggested that increasing plastic loading improves the
strength from 6.2 to 5.1 Mpa. Increasing sawdust particles content improves stiffness
The flexural strength showed that 90-355 micron sieve size with the polymer 13.5 wt
% and sawdust 13.5wt % was the best in terms of flexural strength. All the composite
51
samples exceed the minimum ICC standard of 0.012 MPa (250 Ib/sq ft) for flexural
strength.
SEM images of fractured surfaces of the composites made of varying coconut oil
concentration revealed relatively no fiber pullout and less voids at composite with 10
wt % oil. Fractured surfaces of varying particle size of saw dust in the composite
voids as particle size of sawdust increases indicating that interfacial bonding was
lowered. There are small discontinuities and a reasonably uniform distribution of saw
dust particles in the LDPE matrix with samples containing 90-355 µm particles
indicating good interfacial bonding between the filler and the matrix polymer. The
increases.
The experimental results provided in this study will help the development of a
composite material from plastic waste, sawdust and coconut oil, but there is still
composite material alone is not enough to promote its use. However, other oils like
palm oil, palm kernel oil, and almond oil as coupling agents should be further
52
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