Elementary Mathematics For Engineers
Elementary Mathematics For Engineers
Elementary Mathematics For Engineers
W J R H POOLER
ELEMENTARY
MATHEMATICS
FOR ENGINEERS
2
Elementary Mathematics for Engineers
1st edition
© 2017 W J R H Pooler & bookboon.com
ISBN 978-87-403-1694-0
Peer review by Prof. Tony Croft, Loughborough University
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Contents
CONTENTS
Foreword 6
1 Arithmetic 28
2 Algebra 37
3 Geometry 52
4 Trigonometry 68
5 Co-ordinate Geometry 78
6 Logorithms 91
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Contents
9 Series 104
10 Calculus 109
18 Graphs 150
19 Vectors 155
29 Structures 249
31 Gyroscopes 264
Index 265
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
FOREWORD
FOREWORD
This book is a record of mathematics notes made while at school, at university and after
university.
The book is an aide memoir or reference book rather than a textbook. The book begins
with a Summary to help in its use as an aide memoir. It is hoped that this will allow quick
and easy access to the main text where further study is required. The Summary of each topic
begins with definitions to help with the jargon. Some words have a special meaning in
mathematics. The main body of the text is developed from first principles so that nothing
has to be taken on trust. (An exception is Taylor’s theorem but this has limited application
and is not used again in this document).
The notes are arranged so that the minimum amount of information need be committed
to memory. In the Summary, items that could be memorised are coloured in red.
Other results follow easily from these. In the main text, all significant results are
coloured red to highlight them for easy reference whether or not they should be
memorised.
There are often several ways to tackle any problem. It is often not clear which way is best
and which ways lead to a dead ends.
The solution of Bessells equations has been covered in some depth. However it is usually
sufficient to just recognise the equation and write down the answer.
The main text contains many examples. These are included as they demonstrate how the
various results are applied to solve actual problems. The examples are in my notes. I do not
know where they came from.
John Pooler
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
SUMMARY (PART
SUMMARY (PART1 1
PURE)
PURE)
Arithmetic
Definitions;
Sum = One number plus another
Difference = One number minus another
Product = One number times another
Quotient = One number divided by another
A number is the Product of its Factors
Primes are Numbers with no Factors except 1 and itself
HCF (Highest Common Factor) = Highest Factor that is Common to all numbers of a group
LCM (Lowest Common Multiplier) = Lowest number that has all numbers of a group as Factors
Numerator is the Number at top of Fraction
Denominator is the Number at bottom of Fraction (Down below)
Reciprocal = 1 Divided by the Number
Factorial is the Product of all Numbers from 1 to the Number and is written with !
For example 4! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
Ratio is the Comparison of 2 or more Numbers. For example 15 : 5 has the same Ratio as 3 : 1
Square of a Number = Number times itself, written as N2. For example 52 = 25
Square Root of a Number times itself = The Number. Square Root is written as √N.
For example √25 = ± 5
Index, or Power = Number of times a Number is multiplied by itself.
For example 53 = 5 x 5 x 5 has the index of 3
Scientific Notation = Number expressed as a number between 0 and 10 times powers of 10
Binary = Number expressed in 2 digits (0 & 1)
Octal = Number expressed in 8 digits (0 - 7)
Hexadecimal = Number expressed in 16 digits (0 - 9 and A - F)
Algebra
Definitions;
Coefficient and Constant Term..
For example in the function 7x2 – 5x + 3, the Coefficient of x2 is 7
and the Coefficient of x is (– 5) and the Constant term is 3
Equations are statements that two functions are equal
Simultaneous equations are a set of Equations connecting two or more unknowns
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Irrational Functions are functions that contain a square root, or cube root etc.
Rationalised Functions do not contain a square root, or cube root etc.
Greek letter sigma ∑ means “Sum of Terms Like”
(– a) times (– b) = + ab
am times an = am + n
(am )n = amn
a0 = 1 and a1 = a and a– n = 1/an and a(1/n) = n√(a)
(a + b) (c + d) = a (c + d) + b (c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
To factorize ax2 + bx + c. If ac (ie a times c) is negative, look for factors of ac whose sum = b
If ac is positive, look for factors whose difference = ± b.
For example 10x2 + x – 3. ac = – 30. Factors are 6 and – 5
10x2 + x – 3 = (5x + 3)(2x – 1)
x2 – a2 = (x + a) (x – a)
(x ± a) is a factor of x3 ± a3 Put a = 1 to get (x ± 1) is a factor of x3 ± 1
a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn can be divided by b0 + b1x + b2x2 + ... + bn-rxn-r to get the Quotient
and Remainder. Method is similar to Arithmetical Long Division.
Include missing terms using zero as the coefficient.
For example (ax2 +bx +c)/(x + d) = [ax + bd – ad] + [(c – bd + ad2 )/(x + d)]
Divide F(x) by (x – a) and the Remainder is F(a)
F(x) / [(x + a1)(x + a2)(x + a3)] = A1 /(x + a1) + A2 /(x + a2) +A3 /(x + a3)
where A1 = F(– a1) / [(a2 – a1)( a3 – a1 )] etc
If the Numerator is the same or higher power than the Denominator, then first
divide the Numerator by the Denominator.
In each fraction, the Numerator contains x to one power less than the Denominator
Two equal factors F(x) / [(x + a1)2(x + a2)] = A1/(x + a1) + A2/(x + a1)2 +A3 /(x + a2)
1/(a + √b) = (a – √b)/(a2 – b) and 1/(a –√b) = (a + √b)/(a2 – b)
These put the irrational term in the numerator
i2 = – 1
(a + i b) (a – i b) = a2 + b2
Therefore 1/(a + ib) = (a – ib)/(a2 + b2) and 1/(a – ib) = (a + ib)/(a2 + b2).
These put the complex term in the Numerator.
Solution to the quadratic Ax2 + Bx +C = 0 is x = [ – B √ (B2 – 4AC)] / 2A
1 + 2 = – B/A and 1 2 = C/A where 1 are 2 are the two solutions
If 4AC > B2 then the two solutions are a conjugate pair, + i and – i
An equation has as many solutions as the highest power of x after rationalizing.
A quadratic has 2 solutions, a cubic has 3.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Geometry
Definitions;
Angles, one revolution is 360 degrees = 2 radians, a Right Angle is 90 degrees = /2 radians
Equilateral Triangle has all sides equal
Isosceles Triangle has two angles equal
Similar Triangles are Two Triangles with same angles.
The sides are in same ratio in both triangles.
Congruent Triangles are Two Triangles exactly the same
“Normal to”, “Orthogonal to” and “Perpendicular to” mean “at right angles to”
Hypotenuse is the Side of a Triangle opposite a right angle
Tangent is a line that just touches a curve and is parallel to the curve at that point.
Definition of radian. Angle in radians = Length of arc of a circle divided by radius.
For a circle, the length of arc is times the radius s = r
Conditions for congruent triangles.
Same on both either (i) 3 sides or (ii) 2 sides and the angle between them or (iii) 2 angles
and a corresponding side or (iv) hypotenuse and one other side.
Triangle Sum of angles = 1800 = radians
Area = (½) Base x Height = (½) ab SinC = √ [s(s – a)(s – b)(s – c)] where s = (½)(a + b + c)
a/SinA = b/SinB = c/SinC and c2 = a2 + b2 – 2abCosC
Pythagoras (for a Right Angled Triangle) a2 + b2 = c2
Examples 32 + 42 = 52, 62 + 82 = 102, 122 + 52 = 132
Medians meet at a point, so do Angle bisectors, so do lines from each apex perpendicular to
opposite side, so do perpendiculars from mid points of sides
Circle. Circumference = D = 2R and Area = R2 where D is the Diameter and R the Radius
Rectangle or Parallelogram Area = Base x Height (Height is measured normal to base)
Trigonometry
Sin/Cos = Tan
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Figure 2: CAST
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Co-ordinate Geometry
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Logarithms
Binominal
(x + a)n
= xn + n a xn-1 + [n (n – 1)/2!] a2 xn-2 +[n (n – 1) (n – 2)/3!] a3 xn-3...+ n!/[(n–r)! r!] ar xn-r .... + an
Put x = 1 and a = x
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + [n (n – 1)/2!] x2 + [n (n – 1) (n – 2)/3!] x3 ..... + n!/[(n–r)! r!] xr + ....xn
This is found to be valid with negative or fractional values for n provided 1> x > –1
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Matrices
Data can be displayed and manipulated in short hand in the form of Matrices.
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z + a 4 = 0 can be written in Matrix form |a1 a 2 a 3 a 4 ||x| = 0
b1 x + b 2 y + b 3 z + b 4 = 0 |b1 b 2 b 3 b 4||y |
c1 x + c 2 y + c 3 z + c 4 = 0 |c1 c 2 c 3 c 4 ||z |
|1 |
(add or subtract lines to get coefficients 2 and 3 = 0 to solve for x etc)
Determinants
|a1 b1 | = a1 b2 – a2 b1
|a2 b2 |
Series
Definitions;
Arithmetical Progression AP is a Series with the same difference between all adjacent terms
Geometrical Progression GP is a Series with the same ratio between all adjacent terms
Sum S of AP, 1st term a, difference d, n terms
Add first term to last term, 2nd term to 2nd last etc hence 2S = n[{a} + {a + (n – 1)d}]
Sum S of GP, 1st term a, ratio of terms p, n terms.
Then Series - p times Series = first term + last term hence S = a (1 – pn)/(1 – p)
Sum of first n numbers is an AP = n (n + 1)/2
Sum of first n squares = (1/6)n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
Sum of first n cubes = [(n + 1) n/2 ]2
Calculus
Definitions;
The Differential of [y = f(x)] written dy/dx is the Slope of f(x) = 0.
The Integral of y (written ∫y dx) is the sum of areas of height y and width dx
d/dx[axn] = a n xn – 1
∫a xn dx = a xn+1 /(n+1) + c
Integration between limits is the value between two specified values of x.
In polar co-ordinates, dy/dx = (Sin dr/d + r Cos)/(Cos dr/d – r Sin)
In polar co-ordinates, Sum of areas = ∫(½) r2 d
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
ln is natural logarithm (ie Log to base e) where e = 1 + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + … to infinity
By definition, if ln (m) = x then ex = m
ex = 1 + x/1! + x2/2! + x2 /3! + … to infinity
d/dx (ex) = ex and ∫ (1/x) dx = ln (x) + c and d/dx [ ln (x) ] = 1/x
ax = ex ln (a)
d/dx (Sinx) = Cosx and d/dx (Cosx) = – Sinx and d/dx (Tanx) = Sec2x
d/dx {Arc Sin(x/a)} = 1/√(a2 – x2) and d/dx {Arc Cos(x/a)} = – 1/√ (a2 – x2)
d/dx {Arc Tan(x/a)} = a/(a2 + x2)
MacLaurim’s Theorem
Taylor’s Theorem
Hyperbolic Functions
Expand Cos(n + i Sin(n by MacLaurim’s Theorem and the result is the expansion of ei n
Cos(n + i Sin(n = ei n = [Cos + i Sin]n
Cos + i Sin = ei and Cos– i Sin = e– i
Cos = {ei + e– i } / 2 and Sin = {ei – e– i } / 2 i
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
By definition, Cosh and Sinh are these values of Cos and Sin without the complex number i
Cosh = {e + e– } / 2 and Sinh = {e – e– } / 2
Tanh = (Sinh ) / (Cosh ) and Sech =1/Cosh
Cosech = 1/Sinh ) and Coth =1/Tanh
Cosh – Sinh = 1
2 2
and 1 – Tanh2 = Sech2
Sinh(2 = 2 Sinh Cosh and Cosh(2 = Cosh2 + Sinh2
d/d (Sinh) = Cosh and d/d (Cosh) = Sinh
d/d (Tanh) = Sech 2
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Summary (Part 1 Pure)
Put u = x + p and r2 = q.
This leads to (1//a) ∫[1 / √(u2 ± r2)]du As above put u = r Sinh v or u = r Cosh v
Trigonometrical integrals
(i)Put in form ∫F(u) du
for example ∫F(Cos x) Sin x dx, or ∫F(Sin x) Cos x dx or ∫F(Tan x) Sec2 x dx
Similarly for hyperbolics
for example ∫Sinh3 x dx = ∫(Cosh2 x – 1) Sinh x dx = 1/3 Cosh3 x – Cosh x + constant
or (ii) Try u = Tan(x) since dx = du/(1 + u2)
or (iii) Try t = Tan(x/2) since dx = 2 dt/(1 + t2), sin(x) = 2t/(1 + t2)
and Cos(x) = (1 – t2)/(1 + t2). All have the same Denominator which may cancel.
∫[1/(a Sin x + b Cos x + c)]dx indicates the substitution t = Tan(x/2)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
1/D Method
The operator D is defined as d/dx.
D(y) = dy/dx hence (D + a)(D + b)(y) = D2(y) + (a + b)D(y) + ab y
D–1(y) = ∫y dx
Dn (ea x V) = ea x (D + a)n V
[1/F(D)] ea x = [1/F(a)]ea x
F(D2) (a Sin mx + b Cos mx) = F (– m2) (a Sin mx + b Cos mx)
∫eaxCos(bx) dx and ∫eaxSin(bx) can be integrated by the 1/D method
but it is simpler to consider the Real (or Complex) part of ∫eax[Cos(bx) + i Sin(bx)] dx
= ∫e(a+ib)xdx = [1/(a + ib)]e(a+ib)x + constant
Integration by Parts
d/dx (u v) = v du/dx + u dv/dx, therefore ∫u dv = uv – ∫v du
Use to transform the Integral of a product
example (i) ∫x Sin (x) dx Put x = u and Sin (x) dx = dv therefore v = – Cos (x) and du = dx
example(ii) ∫x ln (x) dx Put ln (x ) = u and x dx = dv therefore v = (½) x2 and du = 1/x dx
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Graphs
Vectors
Definitions;
Scalar has Magnitude but not Direction. Vector has magnitude and Direction
The Operator j rotates a vector 900 anticlockwise, j2 V = – V
therefore j = √(–1) = i, is one solution
The Operator h rotates a vector 1200 anticlockwise, hence h3 V = V and (1 + h + h2) V = 0
i, j and k are three vectors mutually at right angles each length one unit.
Shake Hands, Right Hand, Fingers point as i , Palm points as j , Thumb points as k (Go tip to
thumb)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
If a scalar value F is assigned to all points in a three dimensional volume, then by definition,
Grad F (written ∆F) at any point is a Vector normal to the surface which connects the point to
adjacent points which have the same value of F. ∆F has the magnitude equal to the differential of F
with respect to distance in this direction
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Argand Diagram
Differential Equations
Definitions;
Ordinary or Partial (2 or more variables)
Order, if highest derivative is dny/ dxn Order is n
Arbitrary Constants. Solution has as many arbitrary constants as the Order.
Constants can be evaluated by initial or final conditions.
Degree is the Index of the highest derivative when rationalised
PI is the Particular Integral
CF is the Complementary Function
Complete Primitive = PI + CF
Singular Solution is an isolated solution
Linear Differential Equation. Each term a Differential of y, all Degree one, Coefficients are
functions of x
(i) Solution of a Linear Differential Equation
Put y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2/2! + a3 x3/3! + .... + ar xr/r! + ...
Check the answer has enough arbitrary constants
(ii) Exact Equations (first order) Mdx + Ndy = 0 can be integrated immediately if
∂N/∂x = ∂M/∂y
(iii) Separate the variables to get P(x) dx = Q(y) dy
for example. f(x) dy/dx = a then y = ∫[a/f(x)]dx + c
(iv) Homogeneous Equations dy/dx = f(y/x) Put y = vx
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
(v) Linear first order dy/dx + P(x) y = Q(x) where P(x) and Q(x) are any function of x
multiply by integrating factor R = e∫ P dx
(vi) Linear, constant coefficients F(D)y = f(x) for example 7D2(y) – 3D(y) + 9y = 2 + 3x
CF Solve F(D)y = 0. Put y = A eax + Bebx + etc where A, B, etc are arbitrary constants
Special cases (a) a and b conjugate pair p iq, y = epx [A Cos (qx) + B Sin (qx)]
(b) a = b, y = A eax + Bxebx
PI Find one solution to F(D) = f(x) and add to the CF to get the complete solution
Examples to find a PI
(a) f(x) = k0 + k1x + k2x2 + etc Put y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 etc and equate coefficients of x
(b) f(x) = k sin x or k cos x Put y = a1 sin x + a2 cos x
or take real (or complex) part of y = a eibx
(vii) d y/dx2 = – A y This is SHM. Solve by multiplying by the integrating factor 2 dy/dx
2
(viii) Solution by Laplace Transform solves for f(t) and evaluates the arbitrary constants
Used for evaluating the response of a control system
If f(t) = A tn e-at then Laplace Transform F(s) = A n!/(a + s)n + 1
If f(t) = A tn Sin t or A tn Cos t then F(s) = Real or Complex part of A n!/(s - j)n + 1
Laplace Transform of d/dt [f(t)] = s F(s) – f(0)
Laplace Transform of d2/dt2 [f(t)] = s2 F(s) – sf(0) – d/dt[f(0)]
Laplace Transform of ∫f(t) dt = (1/s) F(s)
(ix) Bessell’s Eqation. x2 d2y / dx2 + x dy / dx + (x2 – n2) y = 0
where n = 0. 1, 2, 3, 4, ... etc or n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ... etc
The Solution is y = A Jn(x) + B Yn(x) where A and B are arbitrary constants
Jn(x) = [ {(–1)s (x/2) 2s+n } / { (s + n + 1) s! } ] from s = 0 to infinity
For positive integers (x) = (x – 1)! for other values, (x) = ∫t(x – 1) e-t dt from t = 0 to ∞
Yn(x) = [ Cos n Jn(x) – J-n(x) ] / Sin n
d2y/dx2 + x y = 0 can be converted to Bessell’s Eqtn by substitution
Fourier Series
Any cyclic function y = F(x) can be converted to a series of the form
y = c0 + a1 Cos x + a2 Cos 2x + .... an Cos nx + ....+ b1 Sin x + b2 Sin 2x + .... b Sin nx + ..
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Conservation of Energy
360°
Work done = F x = C
Kinetic Energy = (½) m v2 = (½) I 2
.
Potential Energy = m g h
thinking
360°
thinking . 360°
thinking .
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Capstan P2 = P1 e
Cantilever Beam
Gyroscopes C=XM
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ELEMENTARY
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS FOR FOR ENGINEERS
ENGINEERS Summary (Part 2 Applied)
Gyroscopes C=XM
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PART 1: PURE MATHEMATICS
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Arithmetic
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
1 ARITHMETIC
Terminology
Mathematical Symbols
Long Multiplication
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Arithmetic
Long Multiplication
Multiplication is done by calculator but it can be done manually one digit at a time, called
Long Multiplication, as follows;
12345
6789
74070 = 6 × 12345
86415 = 7 × 12345
98760 = 8 × 12345
111105 = 9 × 12345
83810205 = sum of numbers above
Long Division
Division is done by calculator but it can also be done manually, called Long Division. This is best
shown by an example. 12345 ÷ 678
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678|12345
678 = 1 × 678 enter 1 on the top line
5565 = 1234 − 678 plus 5 brought down
5424 = 8 × 678 enter 8 on the top line
141 = 5565 − 5424
Factors
If a number can be divided by another with no remainder, the second number is a factor of the first.
Example 12 = 2 × 2 × 3. Therefore 2, 3, 4 and 6 are factors of 12
Prime Numbers
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Arithmetic
Prime Numbers
Prime numbers are numbers that have no factors except 1 and itself.
Examples
123456 The last digit is 6, therefore 2 is a factor
12339 The sum of the digits is 18, therefore 3 is a factor
693 The 1st and 3rd digits add to 9. The 2nd digit is 9.
Therefore 11 is a factor
496969 4 + 6 + 6 = 16. 9 + 9 + 9 = 27. Sums of alternate
digits differ by 11, therefore 11 is a factor
The HCF of two (or more) numbers is the highest factor that is common to both (or all).
The LCM of two (or more) numbers is the lowest number that has both (or all) numbers as a factor.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Arithmetic
A fraction is a value expressed as one number divided by another. A decimal is the value expressed
in tenths, plus hundreds, plus thousandths etc.
A fraction has a Numerator and a Denomiator. ( The Numerator is above the line and the
Denominator is Down below)
The Reciprocal of a number is one divided by the number. To get the reciprocal of a fraction, the
numerator and denominator swap places.
To multiply two fractions, the numerator of the result is the product of the two numerators and the
denominator is the product of the two denominators.
To add or subtract fractions, multiply the numerator and denominator of each fraction by a factor to
bring its denominator up to the LCM of all the denominators.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Examples
Recurring Decimals
Factorials
The Factorial of a number is the product of all the numbers from 1 up to the number and is denoted
by the exclamation mark.
Thus 6 ! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 = 720
Ratios
The ratio is the relationship of two or more numbers. The numbers are written with a colon
between each
The Ratio 15 : 5 is the same as the Ratio 3 : 1 ie the first number is 3 times the second number.
If two sets of numbers have the same ratio, then the sum of multiples of each have this same ratio.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
The Square of a number is the number times itself. The Square Root of a number is the inverse of
this.
Examples
The Square of 12 is 12 × 12 = 144. This is written as 122 = 144
The Square Root of 36 is 6. This is written as 36 = 6
Similarly, the cube of a number is the number times itself and times itself again
The Cube Root is the inverse and is written 3. Thus 327 = 3
Indices
A useful value to remember is 210 = 1024. This is the number called a kB for computers.
Index value 1
Any number raised to the power of 1 has the value of the number
Example 61 = (6) = 6
Negative Indices
82 × 8 3 = (8 × 8) × (8 × 8 × 8) = 85
When two factors are the same number with indices, add the indices
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Zero Index
Fractional Indices
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Exponentials
100 = 102
1000 = 103 etc
These are called exponentials of 10
Log10 100 = 2
since 10 raised to the power of 2 equals 100
Similarly;
Log104 + Log106 = Log10(4 x 6) = Log1024
Log106 − Log104 = Log10(6 / 4) = Log101.5
Log106 − Log106 = Log10(6 / 6) Therefore Log101 = 0
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Traditional Arithmetic uses the decimal system. Computers use the binary system (switches are on
or off, only two states). Octal and hexadecimal systems are closely related to the binary system.
To convert a decimal number to octal, divide the number by 8 and the remainder is the last digit.
Divide the factor by 8 and the remainder is the next to last digit etc.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
2 ALGEBRA
2 ALGEBRA
Algebraic Symbols
Letters are used to denote unspecified values. A value can be assigned to the letter later after
calculations, or calculations can be used to find out the value of the letter.
Letters A, a, B, b etc are usually used for values which remain constant throughout the calculations
and x, y, z etc are usually used for values which may change.
a multiplied by b is written as ab
a multiplied by a = a2 (4)
am multiplied by an = am + n (5)
(a + b) (c + d) = a (c + d) + b (c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd (6)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
ax + (a + b)
x – 1 | ax2 + bx + c
ax2 – ax
(a + b) x + c
(a + b) x – (a + b)
a+b+c
Therefore;
(a x2 + b x + c) / (x – 1) = a x + a + b + (a + b + c) / (x – 1)
4x2 – 2x + 1
2x + 1 | 8x3 + 0x2 + 0x – 1
8x3 + 4x2
– 4x2 + 0x
– 4x2 – 2x
2x –1
2x + 1
–2
Factors
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Remainder
Example
Let F(x) = 7 x3 – 6x2 +8x – 9 and a = 2
F(a) = 7 x 8 – 6 x 4 +8 x 2 – 9 = 39
F(x) – F(a) = 7 x3 – 6x2 +8x – 48 = (x – 2) (7x2+8x +24)
Factorizing
Of special interest
x2 – a2 = (x – a) (x + a) Put a = 1 x2 – 1 = (x – 1) (x + 1) (11)
x3 – a3 = (x – a) (x2 + ax + a2) Put a = 1 x3 – 1 = (x – 1) (x2 + x + 1) (12)
x3 + a3 = (x + a) (x2 – ax + a2) Put a = 1 x3 + 1 = (x + 1) (x2 – x + 1) (13)
Note these all comply with (9) above
Fractions
Algebraic expressions may be fractions. For addition or subtraction, change all fractions to a
common denominator, the LCM.
Example
3/(x2 – 16) + 5/(x + 4) – 3/(x – 4)
= [3 + 5(x – 4) – 3(x + 4)]/(x2 – 16)
= (3 + 5x – 20 – 3x – 12)/(x2 – 16) = (2x – 29)/(x2 – 16)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Partial Fractions
Partial Fractions
The symbol is used to show that the expressions are equal for all values of x.
Let a x2 + b x + c A + B + C
(x + ) (x + ) (x + ) (x + ) (x + ) (x + )
a x2 + b x + c A + (x + ) [ B/(x + ) + C/(x + ) ]
(x + ) (x + )
In general;
F(x) ≡ A1 + A2 + A3 + ........
(x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3).... (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3)
Where A1 = | F( x ) |
| (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4)......... | (x + 1) = 0 (14)
This expression means put (x + 1 ) = 0, ie x = – 1 , in the expression inside the box
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
An alternative method for evaluating A1 , A2 etc is to multiply the identity by the LCM and equate
co-efficients of x, x2 etc.
If the Numerator contains x to equal or higher power than the Denominator, divide first and split
the remainder into Partial Fractions.
Splitting an expression into Partial Fractions may seem a pointless academic exercise, but we find
later that many problems can only be solved this way.
x3 + 1 x (x2 – 5 x + 6) + 5 x2 – 6 x +1
(x – 2) (x – 3) x2 – 5 x + 6
x + 5 x2 – 6 x + 1
x2 – 5 x + 6
x + 5 (x2 – 5 x + 6) + 25 x – 30 – 6 x + 1
x2 – 5 x + 6
x + 5 + 19 x – 29
x2 – 5 x + 6
x + 5 + A/(x – 2) + B/(x – 3)
If the Denominator does not factorize completely, the Partial Fraction with denominator containing
xn must have a numerator containing xn − 1 , xn − 2 ... etc
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
This is true for all values of x. Therefore the coefficients of x can be equated.
Coefficient of x2 0=A+B
Coefficient of x 0=A+C–B
Constant term 1 = A – C
If the Denominator contains two equal factors, the method fails unless the two factors are treated as
one factor.
F(x) Ax+B + C
(x – ) (x – )
2
(x – ) 2
(x – )
Ratios
Conversely
if a/b = (ma + nc)/( mb + nd) then c/d = a/b (17)
Irrational Functions
Irrational Functions are functions containing square root, cube root etc.
To move a square root from the denominator to the numerator of a fraction.
Use Eqtn (11) ie (x – a) (x + a) = (x2 – a2)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Equations
43
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
∑(1) = 1 + 2 +3
∑(12) =12 + 13 + 23
Thus the equation is A [x3 – ∑(1) x2+ ∑(12) x – 123 ] = 0
Equating coefficients;
∑(1) = – B/A
∑(12) = C/A
12 3 = – D/A
The process can be repeated for higher powers of x and the same pattern will be found.
For a quartic, there will be an additional coefficient ∑(12 3)
and the constant term will be 1 2 3 4
Equating coefficients;
∑ (1 ) = – An–1 /An (20)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
∑ ( 1 2 ) = An–2 /An
∑ (1 2 3 ) = – An–3 /An
` ∑ (1 2 3 ...... r ) = ( –1)r An–r /An (21)
12 3 ... n = ( –1)n A1/An (22)
1 2 3... n are called the roots of the equation F(x) = 0
and x = 1 , x = 2 , x = 3 etc are the solutions
Example
If , and are the roots of x3 + a x2 + b x + c = 0, find the value of 3+ 3 + 3
Graphical Solution
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Solution by Computer
It is easy to write a program that automatically chooses a value for x, calculates the value for y and
compares it with the previous value. If the sign is different, then there is a solution between the two
values. The step between the x values can be reduced and the process repeated between the two
previous values. The process can be repeated until the required accuracy is obtained for this
solution. The program should then look for another solution etc.
Solution by the Graphical method or Computer finds all points where the curve crosses the OX axis.
This is all that is needed for practical problems. However there may be other "hidden" solutions.
The answer lies in an imaginary value, the square root of ( – 1). It does not exist in the real world.
This imaginary value is called "eye" and denoted by the lower case letter i.
Thus i2 = – 1
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Quadratic Equations
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Algebra
Inverse Functions
Simultaneous Equations
If there are two equations and two variables, they are called simultaneous equations.
F1 (x,y) = 0 and F2 (x,y) = 0 (29)
1) Graphical Solution
Plot the two curves and the intersections give the solutions.
2) Theoretical Solution
Eliminate one variable and solve for the other.
Substitute the second variable in either equation to evaluate the first variable
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ELEMENTARY
ELEMENTARYMATHEMATICS FOR FOR
MATHEMATICS ENGINEERS
ENGINEERS Algebra
Plot y = (7 – 2 x) / 3
And y = (9 – 5 x) / 2
The solution is the values of x and y where the lines (or curves) cross
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Algebra
If there are n variables and n different simultaneous equations connecting them, then there are
solutions for all the variables (although the solutions may be Complex Solutions).
If there are only n – 1 equations, then the relationship between any two variables can be plotted as
a curve.
This shows that E1 and E2 change sign between x = 0 and x = 10 and again between x = 10 and
x = 20.
There are solutions where E1 and E2 change sign
Change the first line of the program to; CLS: FOR X = -10 TO 10
Run the program again and there is a low point between –1 and 0
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Algebra
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Change the first line of the program to; CLS: FOR X = -10 TO 10
Run the program again and there is a low point between –1 and 0
and there is a solution between x = 7 and x = 8
Repeat with STEP of 0.1 and again with STEP 0.01 between ever narrower limits for x to find the
real solutions;
x = 7.53 y = 9.24
x = 16.45 y = 18.22
In addition, there is a low point at x = – 0.32 and y = 0.49 indicating complex solutions near here
This method can be used to solve simultaneous equations with two variables provided that at least
one of the variables is not higher power than 3. (Eliminate the cubic term and solve the quadratic)
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3 GEOMETRY
3 GEOMETRY
Angles, Degrees
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Angles, Radians
One Radian is the angle where the length of the arc is equal to the radius.
Circles
The circumference of a circle is proportional to the diameter. The ratio is called Pi and is denoted
by the Greek letter
Figure 17: Circumference = D
Polygons
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Properties of Angles
Angles of a Triangle
Angles A and A are alternate angles. Angles C and C are alternate angles,
It can be seen that A + B + C = 180 degrees
The Sum of the angles of any triangle equal 180 degrees (33)
Equilateral Triangle
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By symmetry, all the angles are equal. But the angles add up to 180 degrees.
Therefore each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60 degrees. (34)
If line AD is drawn perpendicular to BC then angles BAD and CAD are each 30 degrees.
Isosceles Triangles
If two of the sides of a triangle are equal, the triangle is said to be an isosceles triangle.
By symmetry, two of the angles are also equal.
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Congruent Triangles
Note that if two sides and a non included angle are equal, the triangles are not necessarily congruent.
AB = DE
BC = EF
Angle BAC = Angle EDF
Similar Triangles
If two triangles have the same angles but the sides are different, they are said to be similar. The sides
are in the same proportion on both triangles. (36)
Pythagoras's Theorem
If the triangle has a right angle, then the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
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It can be proved by Euclidian Geometry that the coloured areas of Figure 24 are equal, but the
following proof is simpler.
.
Figure 25: Pythagoras
Therefore AC / BC = DC / AC
Hence AC2 = BC x DC
Similarly AB2 = BC x BD
Add to obtain
AB2 + AC2 = BC x DC + BC x BD
= BC x (DC + BD) = BC2
Examples of Pythagoras
32 + 42 = 52
122 + 52 = 132
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Area of a Circle
If a geometric shape is cut out of heavy card of uniform thickness and density, it will balance on a
point called the Centre of Area or the Centroid.
By Symmetry;
The Centroid of a circle is the centre of a circle.
The Centroid of a rectangle or parallelogram is where the two diagonals cross.
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Therefore
GH/AG x AG/FG = DC/AD x AD/BD
GH/FG = DC/BD
But BD = DC, therefore GH = FG
Therefore the thin strip FHKI would balance on a knife edge on GJ
But the whole triangle is made up of strips that balance on the line AD
Therefore the triangle balances on a knife edge on the line AD
All three medians pass through the Centroid which is a unique point. Therefore all three medians
meet at this point.
Medians are;
AD, BE and CF
where BD = DC and AE = EC and AF = FB
The Medians (the lines from an apex bisecting the opposite side) all meet at a point
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Lines perpendicular to the side and through the opposite apex meet at a point
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Triangle CDH is similar to triangle AFH since they both contain a right angle and the vertically
opposite angles CHD and AHF.
But triangle AFH is similar to ADB since they both contain a right angle and the common angle
BAD.
Triangle BOF is congruent to triangle BOD (hypotenuse and one other side)
Angle ABO = Angle CBO
ie BO bisects Angle ABC
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Perpendiculars from the mid point of each side all meet at a point
Triangle BOF is congruent to Triangle AOF (OF is common and hypotenuse AO = BO)
Therefore BF = AF
ie OF is perpendicular to AB and passes through its mid point
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Tangent to a circle
The line is parallel to the circumference where it touches. But the circumference is perpendicular to
the radius, so the tangent is perpendicular to the radius OT
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
A sphere of any radius above a minimum can touch three points. Imagine a tennis ball or a football
balanced on three points.
Only one of the spheres can touch a fourth point that is not in the same plane.
If the four points are in the same plane, the radius of the sphere that touches them all would be
infinite.
A sphere of any radius can touch two planes ABCD and ABEF.
Its centre lies on the plane ABGH that bisects ABCD and ABEF.
If the sphere touches a third plane, its centre lies on the line where the two bisecting planes cross.
One and only one of the spheres will touch a fourth plane.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Nesting Circles
The internal angles of an equilateral triangle are all equal. They add to 180 degrees, and therefore are
each 60 degrees. Thus six triangles will exactly fit in a circle that has a radius equal to the side of the
triangles.
Thus six circles with half the radius and centres at the apexes will exactly fit round a similar circle at
the centre.
Thus seven cores of a multicore cable nest with the outer cores on a pitch circle radius 2R where R is
the radius of each core. Hence multicore cables are often seven core
A further twelve cores can be added on a pitch circle radius 4R giving a total of nineteen cores,
another popular arrangement.
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4 TRIGONOMETRY
4 TRIGONOMETRY
Definitions
Triangle ABC has a right angle at C and sides with lengths a, b and c
In the diagram;
Arc Sin (a/c) = Arc Cos (b/c) = and Arc Tan (a/b) = . (43)
Alternatively, Sin (a/c) = , Cos (b/c) = and Tan–1 (a/b) =
–1 –1
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
69
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Negative Angles
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Sin (A + B) etc
But Sin B = PQ / OP
PS = OP x (Cos A x Sin B + Sin A x Cos B)
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Put B = – C
Sin (A – C) = Sin A Cos C – Cos A Sin C
Put B = – C
Cos (A – C) = Cos A Cos C + Sin A Sin C
Tan (A + B) = Sin (A + B) / Cos (A + B)
= (Sin A Cos B + Cos A Sin B) / (Cos A Cos B – Sin A Sin B)
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Put B = A;
Sin 2A = 2 Sin A Cos A (65)
Cos 2A = Cos2 A – Sin2 A (66)
= 1 – 2 Sin2 A (67)
= 2 Cos2 A – 1 (68)
Tan 2A = 2 Tan A / (1 – Tan2 A) (69)
These results may seem pointless academic exercises, but they are used in practical applications. For
example sound or vibration can usually be expressed in the form XmaxSin (wt) so the addition of
two sources of sound or vibration is analysed by (75) above.
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1 + Cos , 1 - Cos
From (68) 1 + Cos = 2 Cos2 [(½) (82)
From (67) 1 – Cos = 2 Sin2 [(½) (83)
t = Tan (/2)
Put t = Tan (/2) then Tan = 2t/(1 – t2) (84)
Sec2 = 1 + Tan2 = 1 + 4 t2/(1 – t2)2 = (1 – 2 t2 + t4 + 4 t2 ) / (1 – t2)2
= [ (1 + t2) / (1 – t2) ]2
Thus Cos = (1 – t2)/(1 + t2) (85)
And Sin = Cos Tan = 2 t/(1 + t2) (86)
Properties of a triangle
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Sine Formula
Equating [(½) a b c]/Area;
a/Sin A = b/Sin B = c/Sin C (88)
Cosine Formula
c2 = AD2 + BD2 from Pythagoras Eqtn (37)
= ( b Sin C)2 + (a – b Cos C)2
= b2 Sin2 C + a2 – 2 a b Cos C + b2 Cos2 C
Thus c2 = a2 + b2 – 2 a b Cos C (89)
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5 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
5 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Cartesian Co-ordinates
A point on a graph is defined by its Cartesian Co-ordinates expressed as two numbers separated by a
comma and within brackets, for example (x1, y1). This means starting at 0, go x1 units in direction
0X and then y1 units parallel to direction 0Y.
Graphical representation
Any equation relating two variables can be plotted as a curve on a graph with respect to two axes
which are usually at right angles.
Any equation relating three variables can be plotted as a family of curves, choosing a value for one
of the variables for each curve and plotting the other two variables.
Alternatively, a function with three variables can be plotted as a surface in three dimensions with
axes 0X, 0Y and 0Z all mutually at right angles
An equation with four variables can be plotted as a family of graphs, each graph depicting a family
of curves.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Polar Co-ordinates
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
(p , r) Co-ordinates
Polar Co-ordinates (r , ) give simpler working for some problems but ( p , r) co-ordinates are rarely
used.
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This is the equation for a straight line, slope m through point (x1 , y1)
(iii) Let the line pass through points (x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2)
This is the equation for a line through points (x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2)
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PQ = y1 – (m x1 + c)
p = PR = PQ Cos
= PQ / Sec
= PQ /√ (1 + tan2 )
= PQ /√ (1 + m2)
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Two straight lines y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 can be represented by a single equation;
(y – m1x – c1) (y – m2x – c2) = 0 (105)
Conic Sections
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If the cone is sliced perpendicular to its axis, the shape of the section is a circle.
If the cone is sliced at an angle to the circle, the shape is an ellipse.
If the cone is sliced parallel to the edge of the cone, the shape is a parabola.
If the cone is sliced at an angle closer to the axis of the cone, the shape is a hyperbola.
Circle
Or;
x2 + y2 – 2 g x – 2 h y + k = 0 (108)
where k = g2 + h2 – a2
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Ellipse
In the diagram, the value of y is the value for a circle reduced by factor of (b/a).
Thus y2 = (b/a)2 (a2 – x2)
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Similarly
S1P = a + [x √(a2 – b2)]/a
Eccentricity of an Ellipse
By definition, eccentricity
e = S1P / PQ
A line QR can be found where the value of e is the same for all points on an ellipse.
From above;
S1P = a + [x √(a2 – b2)]/a
PQ = RO + x
e RO + e x = S1P = a + [x √(a2 – b2)]/a
This is true for all values of x, therefore coefficients can be equated
Coefficient of x
e = [√(a2 – b2)]/a = √(1 – b2 / a2) (112)
Constant term e RO = a
Therefore RO = a/e = a2/√(a2 – b2) (113)
Also S1L is called the Semi Latus Rectum and its length is given by;
S1L = b√ (1 – x2 /a2) = (b/a) √[a2 – (a2 – b2)] = b2/a (114)
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Parabola
Eccentricity of a Parabola
Therefore x + a = e RO + e x
Equating coefficients;
e = 1 (119)
RO = a (120)
The equation of a hyperbola with orthogonal asymptotes along the OX and OY axes;
x y = c2 (121)
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Similarly
BC = AD = AP = y / (2 Sin )
OB = OC – BC = x / (2 Cos ) – y / (2 Sin )
BP = AB + AP = x / (2 Cos ) + y / (2 Sin )
c2 = OB . BP = [ x / (2 Cos ) ]2 – [ y / (2 Sin ) ]2
[ x / (2 c Cos ) ]2 – [ y / (2 c Sin ) ]2 = 1
Put a = 2 c Cos and b = 2 c Sin
Thus the general equation for a hyperbola with asymptotes that are not orthogonal is;
Eccentricity of a hyperbola
P is point (x , y)
SP = e QP
Let OS = and OR =
Then SP2 = y2 + (x – )2
and QP = x –
At P x2/a2 – y2/b2 = 1
Therefore y2 = b2 [ (x/a)2 – 1]
SP2 = x2 b2 / a2 – b2 + x2 – 2 x + 2
= x2 (a2 + b2) / a2 – 2 x + 2 – b2
But SP2 = e2 QP2 = e2 x2 – 2 e2 x + e2 2
Equating coefficients;
e2 = (a2 + b2) / a2 e = √ (1 + b2 / a2) (123)
Also = e 2
and 2 – b2 = e2 2
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Then OP = e QP
r = e ( OR + r Cos )
When = /2, r = L the Semi Latus Rectum
Therefore L = e OR
r = L + e r Cos
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6 LOGORITHMS
6 LOGORITHMS
Definition of Logarithms
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Therefore x = yz or z = x / y
Put Y = log (y − b)
and X = log x
log (y - b) can then be plotted against log x. If the result is a straight line, then the relation is
confirmed and n can be measured as the slope of the line.
Graph Paper with log scales on the OX and OY axes are available, or alternatively the plotting can
be done directly by computer.
Plot log (y - q) against x and if the result is a straight line then the relation is confirmed.
The slope of the line is log a, and the intercept on the OY axis is log p
Graph Paper with a log scale on the OY axis and a linear scale on the OX axis is available or
alternatively the plotting can be done by computer.
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7 PERMUTATIONS
7 PERMUTATIONS AND
AND
COMBINATIONS
COMBINATIONS
nPr
No of ways of filling ' r ' different spaces by selecting from ' n ' different items is;
1st choice = n possibilities
2nd choice = n − 1 possibilities
3rd choice = n − 2 possibilities
r th choice = n − r + 1 possibilities
nCr
Number of ways of filling ' r ' similar spaces by selecting from ' n ' different items.
Number of ways;
nCr = Number of ways of filling r different spaces from n items
Number of ways of filling r different spaces from r items
Examples
Example 1
Suppose that there are 5 ways of going from A to B, and 3 ways of going from B to C
Number of ways of going from A to C via B is 5 times 3 = 15
Example 2
Find number of different arrangements of all four letters a, b, c and d
4 ways to fill the 1st space
3 2nd
2 3rd
1 4th
Number of ways is 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 4 !
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Example 3
A girl has 5 hats. How many ways can she wear them if she wears one on each day of the week for
seven days.
Number of ways = 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 = 57
Example 4
Number of ways of arranging n unlike objects in a row is n !
Example 5
Number of ways of arranging n unlike objects in a circle regarding clockwise and anti-clockwise
arrangements as different is (n − 1) !
ie fix one object and arrange the remainder.
Example 6
Number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle if no distinction is made between clockwise and
anti-clockwise.
Number of ways = 1/2 x Example5 = [ (n − 1) ! ] / 2
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 7
Number of ways of making a three lettered word with 26 blocks each marked with a different letter.
Number of ways of filling the 1st space = 26
Number of ways 2nd 25
Number of ways 3rd 24
Example 8
How many numbers greater than 7000 can be made from the digits 3, 5, 7, 8 and 9. if no digit is
repeated.
If the number contains 5 digits, it can be formed in 5P5 = 5 ! ways
If the number contains 4 digits, the first digit can be 7, 8 or 9 ie 3 ways
Whichever left hand digit is chosen, the arrangement can be completed in 4P3 ways
Number of ways = 5P5 + 3 x 4P3
= 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 + 3 x (4 x 3 x 2) = 120 + 72 = 192
Example 9
Number of ways or arranging n things in a row when there are p alike of one kind, q alike of
another kind r alike of another kind etc.
Hence number of ways of arranging n things in a row when there are p alike of one kind, q alike of
another kind, r alike of another kind etc = n! / (p! q! r! ......)
Example 10
Find the number of ways that a basket can be filled with r objects selected from a total of n
objects. No regard is to be paid to the order in which the objects are selected.
For any one of these ways, there are r! ways of placing the r objects in order.
Thus the required number of ways is nCr = nPr / r! = n! / [(n − r)! r! ]
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Example 11
Find the number of ways of dividing (p + q + r) unlike things into 3 unequal groups containing
respectively p, q and r things.
Example 13
Given k unlike things plus p alike things of one kind plus q alike things of another kind plus r
alike things of another kind etc, find the number of selections taking any number at a time.
Total number of ways = 2k (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) including the one case when all are rejected.
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Binominal Theorem
Therefore;
(x + a)n = xn + n a xn−1 + [n (n − 1) / 2!] a2 xn−2 + [n (n − 1) (n − 2) / 3!] a3 xn−3 ..... + ......
+ n! / [(n − r)! r!] ar xn− r + ............ + an (137)
Example
(x + a)4 = x4 + 4 a x3 + 4.3/2 a2 x2 + 4.3.2/(2.3) a x3 + x4
= x4 + 4 a x3 + 6 a2 x2 + 4 a3 x + a4
360°
provided (−1 < x < +1)
thinking .
360°
thinking . 360°
thinking .
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Example
(1 + x)−1 = 1 + (−1) x + (−1) (−2) / 2 x2 + (−1) (−2) (−3) / (2.3) x3 + .....
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 ..... to infinity
This is only true if −1 < x < +1
Put x = − 0.1
(1 + x) −1 = (1 − 0.1)−1 = 1/(0.9) = 10/9 = 1.11111 recurring
But 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 ..... to infinity = 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001 + 0.0001 + ....
= 1.1111 recurring
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8 MATRICES
8 MATRICES AND
AND
DETERMINANTS
DETERMINANTS
Matrices
A Scalar Matrix is a Diagonal Matrix with all the elements on the diagonal the same
eg |k 0 0 0 |
|0 k 0 0 |
|0 0 k 0 |
|0 0 0 k |
A Unit Matrix or an Identity Matrix is a Scalar Matrix with k. = 1
A Symmetrical Matrix is a Square Matrix with elements a mirror image across the diagonal
eg |a b c d|
|b e f g|
|c f h i|
|d g i j |
| a1 b1 c1 d1 | is the Transpose of | a 1 a2 a3 |
| a 2 b2 c2 d2 | | b1 b2 b3 |
| a 3 b3 c3 d3 | | c 1 c2 c3 |
| d1 d2 d3 |
ie the row and column of each element are swapped
The Transpose of a Matrix A is written as A'
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Matrix Data
100
axa_ad_grad_prog_170x115.indd 1 19/12/13 16:36
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Suppose Item P costs £2, Item Q costs £1 and Item R costs £1.5
The cost for the two days is given by the Matrices;
| 5 1 3| x | 2 | = | 5x2+1x1+3x1.5 | = | 15.5 |
| 3 2 3| | 1 | | 3x2+2x1+3x1.5 | | 12.5 |
| 1.5 |
If next week the customers buy the same every day as given by the Matrix |2 0 1|
|1 1 1|
Then for 5 days, their total purchases are | 10 0 5 |
| 5 5 5|
Thus 5 times the Matrix is a Matrix with every element multiplied by 5
If they pay full price on the Saturday but there is a Sale with 50% discount on the Sunday
the Matrices for Saturday and Sunday become;
| 2 0 1| x |2 1 | = | 5.5 2.75 |
| 1 1 1| | 1 0.5 | | 4.5 2.25 |
| 1.5 0.75 |
Thus Matrices can be multiplied provided that the number of Columns in the first Matrix is the same
as the number of Rows in the second. The result has the same number of Rows as the first and the
same number of Columns as the second Matrix
| a b c| X |g j | = | (ag+bh+ci) (aj+bk+cl) |
|| dd ee ff || || hh kk || || (dg+eh+fi)
(aj +bk+cl) (dj+ek+fl)
(dj+ek+fl) ||
|i l |
|i l|
Note that, if A and B are Matrices, then A x B does not in general equal B x A
The order cannot be changed
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Equation 1 a 1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
Equation 2 a 2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
Equation 3 a 3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
Using the rules for multiplication of Matrices, this set of equations can be written in Matrix form
| a 1 b1 c1 | | x | = | d1 | or more shortly | a 1 b1 c1 : d1 |
| a 2 b2 c2 | | y | | d2 | | a 2 b2 c2 : d2 |
| a 3 b3 c3 | | z | | d3 | | a 3 b3 c3 : d3 |
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Determinants
Determinants are a shorthand way of showing some expressions that are in regular use;
| a 1 b1 |
| a 2 b2 | = a 1 b2 - a 2 b 1
| a 1 b1 c1 |
| a 2 b2 c1 |
| a3 b3 c1 | = a1b2c3 - a1b3c2 - a2b1c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 - a3b2c1
Each term contains one element from each row and one element from each column, ie every
combination of terms containing abc and 123
With the letters in the sequence abc, terms with the numbers in the sequence 123123 are positive,
others are negative
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9 SERIES
9 SERIES
Summation of Finite Series
Sn = U1 + U2 + U3 + ..... + Ur + ..... + Un
ie Sn = r=1 to n Ur
Difference Method
Induction Method
Example.
Show that the sum of the first n odd numbers is a perfect square
This an AP with a = 1 and d = 2
The Sum = (½) n [ 2 + (n − 1) 2 ] = (½) n [ 2 + 2n − 2 ] = (½) n [ 2 n ] = n2
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S1 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + n
This is an AP, therefore S1 = n (n + 1) / 2 (141)
S2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ...... + n2
Consider r=1 to n [ (r + 1)3 − r3]
= r=1 to n [ r3 + 3 r2 + 3 r + 1 − r3]
= r=1 to n [ 3 r2 + 3 r + 1]
S3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ....... + n3
Consider f(r) = [(r − 1) r)]2
f(r + 1) − f(r) = [r (r + 1)] 2 − [(r − 1) r)] 2
= r2 [ (r2 + 2 r + 1) − (r2 − 2 r + 1) ]
= r2 [ 4 r ] = 4r3 = 4Ur
4S3 = f(n + 1) − f(1) = [(n + 1) n]2 − 0
S3 = [(n + 1) n / 2]2 (143)
Example 1
Sn = r=1 to n r(r + 1)(r + 2)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 2
Prove r=1 to n r3 = [n (n + 1) / 2]2 ie result (143)
Suppose it is true for n = k
r=1 to k r3 = [k (k + 1) / 2]2
But r=1 to k+1 r3 = r=1 to k r3 + Uk+1
= (1/4) k2 (k + 1)2 + (k + 1)3
= (1/4) (k + 1)2 (k2 + 4k + 4)
= (1/4) (k + 1)2 (k + 2)2
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example 3
Sn = r=1 to n [a + (r − 1)d] xr−1
Sn = a + (a + d) x + (a + 2d) x2 + ... + [a + (n − 1)d] xn−1
Therefore x Sn = a x + (a + d) x2 + ..... + [a + (n − 1)d] xn
Sn (1 − x) = a + d x + d x2 + ........ + d xn-1 − [a + (n − 1)d] xn
Using the result for a GP;
Sn (1 − x) = a + d x (1 − x)n−1 / (1 − x) − [a + (n − 1)d] xn
Therefore Sn = [a − {a + (n −1) d}xn ] / (1 − x) + d x (1 − xn−1) / (1 − x)2
Infinite Series
For Example
The Sum of the Series (1/r) tends to infinity as n tends to infinity
Sum to infinity of a GP
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Absolute Convergence
If U1 + U2 + U3 +...... is Convergent with all terms positive, then a Series obtained by changing any
of the signs to negative is also Convergent. The Series is called Absolutely Convergent
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10 CALCULUS
10 CALCULUS
Slope of a Curve
Consider the Curve y = f (x) passing through two points P and P' which are close together.
At P y = f(x)
At P' y + y = f(x + x)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
(144)
Example
Let y = axn
Then y + y = a(x + x)n
dy/dx = a n xn – 1 (145)
dy/dx is known as the differential of y with respect to x
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If P and P' are moved further apart, then Area A = Sum of all elemental Areas y x
This is written as A = ∫ y dx
A is called the Integral of y with respect to x (147)
But A = y x
or A/x = y
This can be written as
Therefore dA/dx = y
Thus, if y is integrated with respect to x the result is A. If A is then differentiated with respect
to x the result is again y. Thus integration is the inverse of differentiation.
∫ (n + 1) a xn dx = a xn +1 + C
∫a xn dx = a xn +1 /(n+1) + C (148)
Integration introduces an unknown constant C. In the diagram, the integral is the area A up to
point P. The value of A depends on the left hand edge which is not necessarily at the Origin.
Note also that if n = – 1 the method fails as the differential of a constant is zero.
The constant C is eliminated if both the left hand and right hand boundaries are defined. The
shaded area in the diagram has boundaries at x = x1 and x = x2
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example
Find the Area under the curve y = 5 x2 + 3 between x = 2 and x = 3
y = 5 x2 + 3
∫ y dx = 5 x3 /3 + 3x + C
3 3
A = ∫ y dx = [5 x3 /3 + 3x + C]
2 2
(iii) Let y = u / v
y = u / v = u v– 1
d(uv– 1)/dx = v– 1du/dx + u d(v– 1)/dx
= (1/v) du/dx + u [– 1 (v– 2)] dv/dx
= [v du/dx – u dv/dx ] / v 2
d(u/v)/dx = [v du/dx – u dv/dx ] / v 2 (152)
Change of variable
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Differentiation, summary
Example (i)
y = (a2 + x2)3 Find dy/dx
Put u = (a2 + x2) therefore y = u3
dy/dx = dy/du du/dx
dy/du = 3u2 and du/dx = 2 x therefore dy/dx = 6 x (a2 + x2)2
Example (ii)
y = (a2 + x2)2 (b – x) Find dy/dx
Put u = (a2 + x2)2 and v = (b – x) and w = (a2 + x2)
u = w therefore du/dx = du/dw dw/dx = 2w 2x = 4x (a2 + x2)
2
Integration, summary
Integration may or may not be possible. Considerable ingenuity may be needed to put the
expression in a form that can be integrated. Some functions cannot be integrated at all, although the
value between limits can always be found, eg by plotting the curve and measuring the area under the
curve.
Properties of e
There is a family of curves where the slope dy/dx is proportional to the value of y
dy/dx = a y (154)
The following method is one of the ways to evaluate this family of curves. The route seems
circuitous to begin with but it finally arrives.
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Thus the Limit as n → infinity of [{1 + 1/n}n ]x = 1 + x/1! + x2/2! + x3/3! + .....
Put x = 1
The Limit as n → infinity of {1 + 1/n}n = 1 + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + ....
This series is convergent and can be evaluated.
The series is called e and its value is approximately 2.718
Summarising;
e = Limit as n → infinity of {1 + 1/n}n
= 1 + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + .... (155)
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It can be seen that differentiating the series just brings each term one place to the left
Hence d/dx (ex) = ex (157)
Differentiation of eax
Put a x = u
du/dx = a
d/dx (eax) = d/dx (eu ) = d/du(eu ) du/dx = eu a
Thus d/dx (eax) = a eax (160)
Differentiation of ax
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Let y = Sin x
y + y = Sin (x + x) = Sin x Cos x + Cos x Sin x from (59)
≈{1 – (x)2/2} Sin x + x Cos x from (58) and (56)
y = x Cos x – (x)2 / 2 Sin x
y/x = Cos x – (x / 2) Sin x
Therefore dy/dx = Cos x
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11 NUMERICAL
11 NUMERICAL SOLUTION
SOLUTION OF
EQUATION
OF EQUATION
Solution by Computer
Equations of the form f(x) = 0 can be solved by a computer by trial and error. A value is assigned
to x and and the value of y = f(x) is calculated. A new value is assigned to x and the calculations
repeated. The values of y are compared and if their signs are different, then there is a solution
between them. The process is repeated with smaller steps between narrower limits. This is repeated
again and again till y is close enough to zero for the required accuracy.
Simultaneous Equations
The values are assigned in steps to all variables except y in nested loops.
The value of y = f(x1, x2, x3, etc) is evaluated for each equation. The process is repeated with smaller
steps till values are found for all variables that satisfy the equations to the required accuracy.
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Newton's Approximation
However if the function y = f(x) is differentiated, the solution can be obtained more quickly.
Therefore;
A closer approximation is xn+1 = xn − [ f(xn)/( dy/dx)n]
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12
12 EXPANSION
EXPANSIONINTO A SERIES
INTO A SERIES
MacLaurim's Theorem
MacLaurim's theorem,
f( x) = f(0) + f1(0) x /1! + f2(0) x 2/2! + f3(0) x 3/3! + .... + fr(0) x r/r! + (169)
By Maclaurim's theorem;
Sin x = 0 + x / 1! + 0 − x 3 / 3! + 0 + x 5 / 5! + ............
Sin x = x/1! − x 3/3! + x 5/5! − x 7/7! etc (170)
Similarly
Cos x = 1 − x 2/2! + x 4/4! − x 6/6! etc (171)
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By Binominal Expansion;
(1 + x)− 1 = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + x 4 − .... provided −1 < x < 1 (172)
(1 − x) − 1 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + .... provided −1 < x < 1 (173)
(1 + x 2)−1 = 1 − x 2 + x 4 − x 6 + x 8 − .. .provided −1 < x < 1 (174)
(1 + x) − 1 (1 − x) − 1 = (1 − x 2)−1 = 1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 6 + ... provided −1 < x < 1 (175)
Multiply (173) by x
x /(1 − x) = x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + ... (176)
Integrating (172)
ln(1 + x) = x − x 2/2 + x 3/3 − x 4/4 .... provided −1 < x <= 1 (177)
Integrating (173)
ln(1 − x) = − x − x 2/2 − x 3/3 − x 4/4 − .. provided −1 < x < 1 (178)
Integrating (174)
Arc Tan x = x − x 3/3 + x 5/5 − x 7/7 + ... provided −1 < x < 1 (179)
Putting x = 0 shows that the constant of integration is zero in (177), (178) and (179).
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Taylor's Theorem
If f(x) and all its derivatives f1(x) , f2 (x) etc are all continuous in some range of x near x = a,
then in this range;
f(x) = f(a) + (x − a) f1 (a) + .... + {( x − a)r / r!} fr (a) + ....
(182)
(183) becomes;
(184)
Putting a = 0 in (182) gives Maclaurim's Theorem.
Thus MacLaurim's Theorem is a particular case of Taylor's Theorem.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Hyperbolic Functions
13 HYPERBOLIC
13 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
Properties of Cos + i Sin
Therefore
Cos n + i Sin n = 1 + (in)/1! + (in)2/2! + (in)3/3! + (in)4/4! + (in)5/5! + .
Therefore from (156)
Cos n + i Sin n = ei n
Hyperbolic Functions
By definition Sinh and Cosh are the same as Sin and Cos but without the complex number i
Sinh = {e – e– } / 2 = /1! + 3/3! + 5/5! + .... (191)
(usually pronounced Shine)
Cosh = {e + e– } / 2 = 1 + 2/2! + 4/4! + .... (192)
Tanh = (Sinh ) / (Cosh ) = {e – e– } / {e + e– } (193)
(usually pronounced Than)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Similarly
Cosh – Sinh = e– (198)
Sinh2 = (1/4) (e2 – 2 e e– + e– 2 )
= (1/4) (e2 – 2 + e– 2 )
Similarly
Cosh2 = (1/4) (e2 + 2 + e–2 )
Therefore
Cosh2 – Sinh2 = 1` (199)
Divide by Cosh2
1 – Tanh2 = Sech2 (200)
Also
Sinh i = {e i – e – i } / 2 = i Sin (201)
Cosh i ={e i + e – i } / 2 = Cos (202)
Put i = x
Sinh x = i Sin (x/i ) = – i Sin (i x) (203)
Cosh x = Cos (x/i) = Cos (i x) (204)
Tanh x = – i Tan (i x) (205)
Similarly
Sinh (A + B) = Sinh A Cosh B + Cosh A Sinh B (210)
Cosh (A + B) = Cosh A Cosh B + Sinh A Sinh B (211)
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d/dx [Arc Sinh (x/a)] = dy/dx = 1/(a Cosh y) = 1/[a √(1 + Sinh2 y)]
= 1/√ (a2 + x 2) (215)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
14 METHODS
14 METHODSFOR
FORINTEGRATION
INTEGRATION
Integration by Standard Form
If the Integral can be written in the form of any of the expressions in the first or second column, it
can be integrated at once.
y dy / dx ∫ y dx
n
ax n a xn–1 a xn+1 /(n + 1)
a/x – a / x2 a ln x
Sin (x) Cos (x) (–1/) Cos ( x)
Cos ( x) – Sin ( x) (1/ ) Sin ( x)
Tan ( x) Sec2 ( x) – (1/ ) ln [Cos ( x)]
Sec x tan x Sec x ln (Sec x + Tan x)
Cosec x – Cot x Cosec x ln (Cosec x – Cot x)
Cot x – Cosec2 x ln (Sin x)
Arc Sin (x /a) 1 /√ (a2 – x 2) x Arc Sin (x /a) + √ (a2 – x 2)
Arc Cos (x /a) – 1 /√ (a2 – x 2) x Arc Cos (x /a) – √ (a2 – x 2)
Arc Tan (x /a) a / (a2 + x 2) x Arc Tan (x/a) – a ln√(a2 + x2)
eax a eax (1/a) eax
ax ax ln(a) ax/[ln (a)]
ln (a x) 1/x x ln (a x – 1)
Loga x (1/x) Loga e x Loga (x/e)
Sinh x Cosh x Cosh x
Cosh x Sinh x Sinh x
Tanh x Sech2 x ln (Cosh x)
Arc Sinh (x /a) 1/√ (a2 + x 2) x Arc Sinh (x/a) – √(a2 + x 2)
Arc Cosh (x/a) 1/√ (x 2 – a2) x Arc Cosh (x/a) – √(x 2 – a2)
Arc Tanh (x/a) a/(a2 – x 2) x Arc Tanh (x/a)+ a ln√(a2 – x 2)
(218)
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Change of variable
Examples
I = ∫ F(a x + b) dx Put u = a x + b Therefore du = a dx and I = (1/a) ∫F(u) du
I = ∫ F(a x 2 + b) x dx Put u = a x2 + b Therefore du = 2ax dx and I = (1/2a) ∫F(u) du
I = ∫ [F(x2)]/ x dx = ∫ [F(x2 ) / x 2 ] x dx Put u = x2 and I = ∫ [F(u)] /u du
Partial Fractions
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example (i)
I = ∫[ 1/(x2 – a2 )] dx
Put into Partial Fractions 1/(x2 – a2 ) = A/(x + a) + B/(x – a)
Multiply by (x – a)
1/(x + a ) = A(x – a)/(x + a) + B
This is true for all values of x, put x = a and B = 1/2a. Similarly A = 1/2a
I = ∫[1/(x 2 – a2)] dx
= ∫[(1/2a)/(x – a)]dx – ∫[(1/2a)/(x + a)]dx
= (1/2a)[ln (x – a) – ln (x + a)] + constant (221)
Example (ii)
I = ∫[ 1 / (a2 – x2 ) ] dx
Put into Partial Fractions A/(a + x) and B/(a – x) (222)
Trigonometry Substitutions
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∫[1/√(ax2 + bx + c)]dx
Remove the x term, Put a[(x + p)2 + q] = ax2 + bx + c
a[x2 + 2px + p2 + q] = ax2 + bx + c
Equate coefficients to solve for p and q
p = b/2a and q = c/a – p2
Put u = x + p and r2 = q
This leads to I = (1/√a) ∫[1/√(u2 ± r2)]dx
As above, if denominator is √(u2 + r2)] then put u = r Sinh v (227)
If denominator is √(u2 – r2)] then put u = r Cosh v (228)
If r = 0, then the integral = (1/√a)log u + constant (229)
For example
I = ∫(Sinh3 x) dx = ∫(Cosh2 x – 1) Sinh x) dx = 1/3 Cosh3 x – Cosh x + c
For example
I = ∫ [1 / (a2 Cos2 x + b2 Sin2 x )] dx
Put u = Tan x therefore du = Sec2 x dx and dx = Cos2 x du
I = ∫ [1 / (a2 Cos2 x + b2 Sin2 x)] Cos2 x du
=∫ [1 / (a2 + b2 Tan2 x)] du
=∫ [1 / (a2 + b2 u2 )] du
Put u = (a/b) Tan v therefore du = (a/b) Sec2 v dv
I = ∫ [ 1/{a2 (1 + Tan2 v)}] (a/b) Sec2 v dv = (1/ab) ∫dv = (1/ab) v + const
I = (1/ab) Tan−1 [(b/a) Tan x] + const
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∫(Sin2 x) dx and ∫(Cos2 x) dx indicate the substitution u = 2x since from equation (68)
Cos2(x) = ½ [Cos (u) + 1] and dx = ½ du
For example ∫a2 Sin2 (x) dx = a2 ∫[1 – Cos2 (x)] dx = a2 ∫[1 – ½ {Cos (u) + 1}] ½ du
= ¼ (a2 u) – ¼[a2 Sin (u)] + constant
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Integration by Parts
1/D method
This gives a simpler solution than Integration by Parts for some expressions, such as eax f(x)
Thus D satisfies most or the rules of algebra except that the order of D and a variable cannot be
changed.
Write (D + 2)y to mean D(y) + 2 y = dy/dx + 2 y
(D – 3)y D(y) – 3 y = dy/dx – 3 y
(D – D – 6) y = D (y) – D(y) – 6 y = d2y/dx2 – dy/dx – 6 y
2 2
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Consider I = ∫ eax V dx
I = D–1 (ea x V )
Example
I = ∫ea x (ax2 + bx + c) dx
= (1/a) ea x (1 – (D/a) + (D/a)2 – (D/a)3 + ......) (a x2 + b x + c)
= (1/a) ea x [(a x2 + b x + c) – (1/a) (2 a x + b) + (1/a)2 (2a) ]
= ea x (a2 x2 + a b x + a c – 2 a x - b + 2) / a2
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If the theorems still hold with D in the denominator, then from (240)
[ 1 / F (D) ] [ea x V] = ea x [1/ F (D + a)] V (242)
Putting V = 1;
[ 1 / F (D) ] ea x = [1 / F (a) ] ea x (243)
Example
I= ∫[ea x {A Sin (mx) + B Cos(mx)}] dx
= ea x (D + a)–1 (A Sin mx + B Cos mx)
= ea x (D – a) (D – a)–1 (D + a)–1(A Sin mx + B Cos mx)
= ea x (D – a) (D2 – a2)–1 (A Sin mx + B Cos mx)
= ea x (D – a) (– m2 – a2)–1 (A Sin mx + B Cos mx)
= − (ea x ) / (m2 + a2) (D – a) (A Sin mx + B Cos mx)
= − (ea x )/(m2 + a2) (Am Cos mx – Bm Sin mx – aA Sin mx – aB Cos mx)
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CiS(x) method
Irrational Functions
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S = 0 if x = 0, and C = 0 if x = /2
Therefore
And
(248)
Similarly
(249)
Example
Integrate
∫[sinm (x) cosn (x)] dx = [(m – 1)/(m + n)] ∫[sinm−2 (x) cosn (x)] dx – [1/(m + n)]( sinm–1 cosn+1 ) (251)
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15 FUNCTIONS
15 FUNCTIONS OF
OFTIME
TIMEAND
AND
OTHER VARIABLES
OTHER VARIABLES
Functions of time
Let x = F(t) be the distance of an object from a fixed point at time t
Then dx / dt = v the velocity away from the fixed point (252)
And d2x / dt2 = a the acceleration away from the fixed point (253)
dx/dt, the velocity, is sometimes written as x dot X
d2x/dt2 , the acceleration, is sometimes written as x double dot X
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
x = ∫v dt + c (255)
v = ∫a dt + c (256)
= ∫ dt + c (260)
Example
Simple Harmonic Motion x = A Sin ( t)
Find the velocity when x = 0 and the acceleration when x = A
Velocity v = dx / dt = A Cos ( t)
x = 0 when ( t) = 0. Therefore when x = 0, the velocity = A
Acceleration a = dv / dt = − A 2 Sin ( t)
x = A when ( t) = / 2.
Therefore when x = A, the acceleration = − A 2
At point P V = F(x,y)
At point P’ V + V = F(x +x, y + y)
therefore V = F(x +x, y + y) − F(x,y)
= F(x +x, y + y) − F(x,y + y) + F(x,y + y) − F(x,y)
= F due to x with y kept constant at y + y
+ F due to y with x kept constant at x
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Similarly, if V = F(x,y,z)
δV = ∂V δx + ∂V δy + (∂V δz (262)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2F = ∂2F
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x (263)
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16 AREAS
16 ANDVolumes
Areas and VOLUMES
Areas and Volumes
Figure 78: Area of elemental strips in Cartesian and in Polar Co-ordinates. (264)
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Area of an Ellipse
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Consider a pyramid with the base any shape and base area A.
Let the height of the apex be h perpendicular to the plane of the base.
Let a plate parallel to the base, distance x from the apex have thickness x
The volume V = A (x/h)2 x
Hence the volume of the pyramid
h h
V = ∫ [A( x2/ h2 ]dx = (A/h2) [ x3/3] = A h /3
0 0
Volume of a pyramid with base any shape = (1/3) (Base Area) ( height) (266)
Volume of a Tetrahedron
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PD = √(a2 – h2)
AE = (√3/2) a and ED = (√3/2) a
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Volume of Revolution
The Volume of Revolution is the volume obtained by rotating the curve y = f (x) about the X axis.
Volume of a Sphere
The Curve is x2 + y2 = a2 therefore y2 = (a2 – x 2 ) from – a to + a
a a
V = ∫ y2 x = ∫ (a2 – x 2 ) x
–a –a
a
V = [ (a x – (1/3)x 3 ) ] = (4/3) a3
2
–a
The Sphere can be considered to be made up of many small pyramids each with height a and base
area A
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This is the same as the Curved Surface Area of a Cylinder that exactly fits over the Sphere.
Alternatively, the Surface Area can be obtained by rotating the elemental arc s about the X axis
r=a
y = r Sin = a Sin
s = r = a
A = 2y = 2a Sin s
= 2a2 Sin
Integrate from 0 to
A = [– 2a2 Cos ] from 0 to
= − 2 a2 ] [– 1 – 1] = 4 a2
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Maxima and Minima
The maximum and minimum values of a function can be found by the use of Calculus.
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Let y = f (x)
Example
An open water tank is to be made from a sheet of metal length a and width b
The shaded parts are to be cut out and the sides bent up.
Find the value of x for the tank to hold the maximum amount of water.
The + ive sign gives a negative value of V, therefore, neglecting the value with the +ive sign;
x = [ (a + b) – √(a2 – ab + b2) ] / 6
At this value, d2V / dx2 = – 4(a + b) + 4(a + b) – 4/(a2 – ab + b2) = – 4/[(a – b)2 + ab] which is
negative
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As above, ∂F/∂x = 0 and ∂F/∂y = 0 are conditions for a maximum or minimum point.
Although these conditions are necessary for maximum and minimum points, they are not enough
without the additional condition. [∂2F/∂x2] [∂2F/∂y2] > [∂2F/∂x ∂y]2
see “Advanced Calculus” by A E Taylor or “Advanced Calculus” by Sokolnikoff.
If this condition is met, then ∂2F/∂x2 and ∂2F/∂y2 must both be the same sign.
Saddle Point
If ∂F/∂x = 0 and ∂F/∂y = 0
and [∂2F/∂x2] [∂2F/∂y2] < [∂2F/∂x ∂y]2 then the point is a Saddle Point (278)
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Example
A ring with centerline in the plane x = y,
has the ring thickness 2a and radius b where a<<b
∂F/∂x = 1/[2 √{a2 – (y – x)2 }].[– 2(y – x)(-1)] + 2x/b = (y – x) /[ √{a2 – (y – x)2 }] + 2x/b
∂F/∂y = – (y – x) /[ √{a2 – (y – x)2 }]
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Numerical solution
For practical applications, it is easy to write a program that finds the maximum or minimum value of
a function f(x,y) by numerical analysis.
Values are assigned to x and y by nested “FOR TO” loops and the maximum or minimum
value selected.
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18 GRAPHS
18 Graphs
Length of Arc
(279)
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Example
Find the length of a catenary chain given by y = c [Cosh (x/c) −1] between x = 0 and x = a
y =c [Cosh (x/c) – 1]
dy/dx = c [Sinh (x/c)] (1/c) = Sinh (x/c)
s = ∫ √[ 1 + Sinh2 (x/c) ] dx
s = ∫ √ [Cosh2 (x/c) ]dx =∫ Cosh (x/c) dx = c Sinh (x/c) from x = 0 to x = a
s = c Sinh (a/c)
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Radius of Curvature
= 2 − 1
Tan = (Tan 2 − Tan 1) / (1 + Tan 1 Tan 2 )
= (dy/dx) / [1 + (dy/dx) { dy/dx + (dy/dx) } ]
is small therefore = Tan
But = s
Therefore ( )2 = s2 = x2 + y2
2 ( d/dx)2 = 1 + (dy/dx)2
Therefore
2 = {1 + (dy/dx)2 } / ( d/dx)2
= {1 + (dy/dx)2 } { 1 + ( dy/dx)2 }2 / {d2y/dx2 }2
= { 1 + ( dy/dx)2 }3 / { d2y / dx2 }2
(281)
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Example
Find the radius of curvature of an ellipse x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1 at (0, b) and at (a , 0)
Tangent to a Curve
The Tangent is the line through point (x1 , y1) with slope F1(x , y)
y – y1 = [F1(x , y)] (x – x 1)
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Example
The Tangents to an ellipse x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1 pass through an external point (x2 , y2)
Find the values of x1 and y1 for the points of contact with the elipse
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19 VECTORS
19 VECTORS
Definitions of Scalar and Vector quantities
A Vector has both Magnitude and Direction, for example Velocity. You cannot say where you will
be when you have flown for one hour from London at 500 miles per hour unless you also know the
direction you have flown.
Thus to completely define velocity or acceleration or force or many other quantities, it is also
necessary to define the direction. This is done by defining the quantity as a Vector. Note that the
Vector definition does not also include the position of the quantity, only the direction.
Addition of Vectors
Suppose an aircraft is moving with Velocity V1 relative to the air, the wind is blowing with Velocity
V2 and the aircraft is moving relative to the ground with Velocity V3.
Vector addition;
V3 = V1 + V2 (282)
Similarly Vectors V2 and V3 are in directions at an angle A2 and A3 respectively to this fixed
direction.
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Thus the single Vector equation V3 = V1 + V2 is a shorthand way of writing the two Scalar
equations;
V3 = √[ (V1 Cos A1 + V2 Cos A2)2 + (V1 Sin A1 + V2 Sin A2)2 ]
A3 = Arc Tan [ ( V1 Sin A1 + V2 Sin A2) /(V1 Cos A1 + V2 Cos A2) ] (283)
Operator j
The Operator j is assumed to follow the usual rules of Algebra except that the order of j and the
Vector cannot be changed.
Operating with j twice on the Vector V gives a vector in exactly the opposite direction to V and of
the same Magnitude.
Thus j2 V = − V (284)
And j3 V = − j V (285)
Thus j2 operating on a Vector reverses the direction of the Vector or is equivalent to multiplying the
Vector by (-1)
Operator h
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A Vectors in three dimensions can be defined in terms of its components in three directions
mutually at right angles
Unit Vectors (ie vectors with unit length) in directions Ox, Oy and Oz are called i, j and k
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If two vectors U and V have an angle between them, then the Vector Dot Product is a
shorthand way of writing their product resolved in the same direction as one of them.
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If V = Vx i + V y j + Vz k
and U = Ux i + Uy j + Uz k
Then VU = Vx Ux ii + Vx Uy ij + Vx Uz ik
+ Vy Ux ji + Vy Uy jj + Vy Uz jk
+ Vz Ux ki + Vz Uy kj + Vz Uz kk
VU = Vx Ux + Vy Uy + Vz Uz (290)
Cos q ==
Cos Vx
Vx UUxx ++V Vyy UUy
y ++ Vz Uz
Vz U z (291)
[ Vx22+
√[√ (Vx +VyVy22+Vz
+Vz22])(Ux
[ Ux2 +Uy
+ Uy22+Uz
+Uz22 ])]
Direction Cosines
The cosines of the angles between a vector V and each of the axes are called the Direction Cosines.
These define the direction of V.
If Ux, Uy and Uz are the components of unit vector v along each axis
then Ux2 + Uy2 + Uz2 = 12
Also Ux = Cos , Uy = Cos and Uz = Cos
Therefore Cos2 + Cos2 + Cos2 = 1 (293)
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The Vector Cross Product of two vectors is a Vector with direction perpendicular to the plane of the
two vectors. The magnitude is proportional to the Sine of the angle between them.
V X U = V U Sin a (294)
where V and U are the magnitudes of the vectors
is the angle between them
and a is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of V and U
The Vector Cross Product is a Vector and V X U = − U X V (295)
By Convention, the product is positive in the direction of a corkscrew turned clockwise from the
first vector to the second vector.
Thus i X j = k, jXk = i and kXi = j (296)
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Let V = Vx i + V y j + Vz k and U = Ux i + U y j + U z k
VXU = (298)
Grad
If a scalar quantity (eg temperature or pressure) is defined at any point in a three dimensional
volume, then there is a surface linking all adjacent points with the same value. The grad or gradient
of the quantity, at any point on this surface, is a vector normal to the surface with magnitude equal to
the rate of change of the quantity in this direction. Let the scalar quantity be V at point P co-
ordinates (x, y, z)
Then at point P
grad V = dV/dn n
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface and dV/dn is the rate of change of V in
direction n
grad V is not dependent on the axes
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Differentiation of a Vector
A Vector quantity (eg velocity of a fluid, or electric field) can be defined at any point P (x,y,z) in a
three dimensional volume.
If F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k
Then Div F = ∂F1 / ∂x + ∂F2 / ∂y +∂F3 / ∂z
And Curl F = (∂F3 / ∂y − ∂F2 / ∂z) i + (∂F1 / ∂z − ∂F3 / ∂x) j + (∂F2 / ∂x − ∂F1 / ∂y) k
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P = A + k(B − A)
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Then P n = length ON
Thus the Vector Equation for the plane is P n = N
where N is the length ON
Let the direction of the normals to two planes be defined by unit vectors n and m.
Let the components of n along axes 0x, 0y and 0z be Nx, Ny and Nz and the components of m
along the same axes be Mx, My and Mz then the angle between n and m is given by equation (291)
(292)
where n and m are unit vectors
This relation can be used to find the angle between two flat surfaces.
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Example
By inspection,
a = 0 i – sin 40 j + Cos 40 k
b = − Sin 30 Cos 20 i − Sin 30 Sin 20 j + Cos 30 k
From (298)
Angle of the Gully = = 1800 − θ
where Cos θ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
= 0 + Sin 40 Sin 30 Sin 20 + Cos 40 Cos 30
= 0.1099 + 0.6634 = 0.7733
θ = 39 degrees
Angle of the Gully = 180 – 39 =141 degrees
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20 ARGAND
20 ARGANDDIAGRAM
DIAGRAM
Complex Numbers
The concept of Real and Complex numbers was mentioned briefly in Chapter 2 Algebra.
Complex numbers are of the form A + i B where A and B are Real Numbers (positive or
negative).
Complex Numbers obey the normal rules of Algebra with the additional rule that i2 = -1
Let A + i B = C + i D
Then (A − C)2 = − (B − D)2
Therefore A = C and B = D
360°
The Operator j2 acting on any Vector has the effect of multiplying the Vector by (−1).
.
Thus the effect is equivalent to multiplying the vector by the scalar quantity ( i )2
Thus a convenient way to show a Complex Number A + i B is to show it as Vectors A and jB
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166
Thus if a diagram is drawn with the axis to the right called the Real axis, and the axis in a direction
900 anti-clockwise called the Complex axis, then any Complex Number can be represented by a
point on the diagram. This diagram is called the Argand Diagram
The Modulus is unique, but the Argument can have 2n added or subtracted, where n is any whole
number. The value between − and + is called the principle value.
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(A + i B) + (C + i D) = (A + C) + i (B + D) (305)
(A + i B)/(C + i D) = (A + i B) (C − i D)/{ (C + i D) (C − i D) }
= [(AC + BD)/( C2 + D2)] + i [(BC − AD)/(C2 + D2)] (308)
or (X e ) / (Y e ) = (X/Y) ei (x −y)
ix iy
(309)
Let xn = A + i B
Find x = n√(A + i B)
Put A + i B = R ei ( +2k)
where R = √(A2 + B2) and = Arc Tan (B/A) and k is any integer
Let x = r ei
Then r = n√R (310)
and n = 2k +
= 2k/n + /n (311)
Put k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....... (n − 1) to obtain n different values of x (312)
Example
Find the 8 solutions to the equation x8 = −1
But − 1 = 1 ei (2k + 1)
Let x = r ei Therefore r8 = 1 or r = 1
And = (2k + 1)/8
= /8, 3/8, 5/8, ............15/8
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21 DIFFERENTIAL
21 EQUATIONS
Differential Equations
Definitions
169
axa_ad_grad_prog_170x115.indd 1 19/12/13 16:36
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Warning. This method may produce an answer without the required number of arbitrary constants,
eg a particular case where an arbitrary constant is zero.
Example
d3y / dx3 = dy / dx
Substituting;
a3 + a4 x + a5 x2 / 2! + a6 x3 / 3! + ..... + etc
= a1 + a2 x + a3 x2 / 2! + a4 x3 / 3! + .... + etc
Equating Coefficients;
a1 = a3 = a5 = a7 = etc
a2 = a4 = a6 = etc
Hence y = a0 + a1 (x + x3/3! + x5/5! + ...) + a2 (x2/2! + x4/4! + x6 / 6! ...)
= a0 + a1 Sinh x + a2 Cosh x − a2
Put a = (a1 + a2) / 2, b = (a2 − a1) / 2 and c = a0 − a2
x −x
Then from (191) and (192) y = a e + b e + c
Example
x d2y/dx2 − dy/dx − 6 x2 − 7 = 0
Substituting;
x (a2 + a3 x + a4 x2/2! + a5 x3/3! + .... + ar xr-2/(r -− 2)! + ...
− (a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2/2! + a4 x3/3! + ....+ ar xr-1 /(r -− 1)! + ...− 6x2 − 7 = 0
Equating Coefficients;
− a1 − 7 = 0 therefore a1 = − 7
a2 − a2 = 0 therefore a2 is indeterminate
a3 − (1/2) a3 − 6 = 0 therefore a3 = 12
a4 / 2 − a4 / 6 = 0 therefore a4 = 0
ar / (r − 2)! − ar / (r − 1)! = 0 therefore ar = 0
The Solution is;
y = A − 7 x + B x2 + (12 / 6 ) x3
= A − 7 x + B x2 + 2 x3
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Example
Show the method fails for dy/dx = 1/x
as Log x cannot be expanded by Maclaurim's Theorem
y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2/2! + a3 x3/3! +
x dy/dx = a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3/2! + a4 x4/3! + .... = 1
Therefore a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = ......etc = 0
There is no term to equate with 1
Example (i)
(12x + 5y − 9) dx + (5x + 2y − 4) dy = 0
M = (12x + 5y − 9)
N = (5x + 2y − 4)
∂M/∂y = 5 and ∂N/∂x = 5 Therefore the equation is Exact
Integrating
6x2 − 9x + ∫5y dx + ∫5x dy + y2 − 4y + C = 0
6x2 + 5xy + y2 − 9x − 4y + C = 0
Example (ii)
{Cos x Tan y + Cos (x + y)} dx + {Sin x Sec2 y + Cos (x + y) } dy = 0
∂M/∂y = Cos x Sec2 y − Sin (x + y)
∂N/∂x = Cos x Sec2 y − Sin (x + y)
Therefore the equation is exact
Integrating Sin x Tan y + Sin (x + y) = C
Example (iii)
y dx − x dy + 3x2y2e(x)3 dx = 0
This is not exact, but divide by y2
(1/y)dx − (x/y2) dy + 3x2e(x)3dx = 0
M = (1/y) + 3x2 e(x)3 and N = − (x/y2)
∂M/∂y = −(1/y2) and ∂N/∂x = −(1/y2)
The equation is exact
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Separation of Variables
M N dx = P Q dy (316)
Where M and P are functions of x only
And N and Q are functions of y only
The Solution is ∫ (Q / N) dy = ∫ (M / P) dx + C
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Example (i)
dy/dx = 2xy
Separating the Variables (1/y) dy = 2x dx
Integrating ln (y) = x2 + C
Example (ii)
Tan x dy = Cot y dx
Separating the Variables Tan y dy = Cot x dx
Integrating − ln Cos y = ln Sin x + C
putting C = − ln a Sin x Cos y = a
dy/dx = f ( y / x) (317)
Put y = v x then dy / dx = v + x dv / dx
Therefore v + x dv / dx = f (v)
Separating the Variables and Integrating
∫ [1/{ f(v) – v}] dv = ∫ (1/x) dx + C = ln (x) + C (318)
Example (i)
(x + y)dy + (x − y)dx = 0
dy/dx = (y − x) / (y + x)
Put y = v x therefore v + x dv/dx = dy/dx = (v − 1) / (v + 1)
x dv / dx = (v − 1 − v2 − v) / (v + 1) = − (v2 + 1) / (v + 1)
− v dv / (v2 + 1) − dv / (v2 + 1) = dx / x
Integrating
− (1/2) ln (v2 + 1) − Arc Tan v = ln x + C
2 ln x + ln (v2 + 1) + 2 Arc Tan v + 2 C = 0
Example (ii)
dy/dx = (y − x + 1) / (y + x + 5)
This is not homogeneous but substitute y = Y + a and x = X + b
dY/dX = (Y + a − X − b + 1) / (Y + a + X + b + 5)
Put a − b + 1 = 0 and a + b + 5 = 0
therefore a = − 3 and b = − 2
dY / dX = (Y − X) / (Y + X) which is the same as Example (i)
ln (Y2 + X2) + 2 Arc Tan (Y / X) + a = 0
ln { (y + 3)2 + (x + 2)2 } + 2 Arc Tan { (y + 3) / (x + 2) } + a = 0
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Example (i)
dy/dx + y Cot x = Cosec x
ln (R) = ∫ Cot x dx = ln (Sin x) Therefore R = Sin x
Sin x dy + y Cos x dx = dx
Integrating y Sin x = x + C
Example (ii)
x ln (x) dy/dx + y = 2 ln (x)
Therefore dy/dx + y/ [x ln (x)] = 2/x
ln (R) = ∫ [1/{x ln (x) } ] dx
= ∫ {1/ln (x)} d{ ln (x)} = ln {ln (x)}
Therefore R = ln (x)
{ln (x)} dy + (y / x) dx = (2 / x) ln (x) dx
Integrating y ln (x) = ∫ (2 / x) ln (x) dx = [ ln (x) ]2 + C
y = ln (x) + C / ln (x)
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Put y = V e 1 x
(D − 1) r y = (D − 1) r { V e 1 x}
From (241)
(D − 1) r y = e 1 x (D − 1 +1) r { V }
= e 1 x (D ) r { V }
= 0 if V = C1 + C2 x + C3 x2 + .... + Cr xr
Thus the Complimentary Function for F(D) y = f (x)
with r equal roots to the equation F () = 0 is of the form
C.F. is y = C1 e 1 x + C2 x e 2 x + C3 x2 e 3 x + ... + Cr xr-1 e r x (327)
(ii a) f (x) = ek x
F(D) y = ek x
Therefore y = { 1 / F (D) } ek x
From (243) y = ek x / { F (k) } (329)
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Example 1
d2y/dx2 - 6 dy/dx + 13 y = 0
Put y = eax a2 eax − 6a eax + 13 eax = 0
a2 − 6a + 13 = 0 therefore a = 3 + 2i or a = 3 − 2i
Therefore
y = A e(3 + 2i)x + B e(3 − 2i)x
= e3x { A e2ix + B e-2ix }
= e3x {C Cos 2x + D Sin 2x}
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Example 2
(D4 + 2 D2 + 1) y = 0
(D2 + 1)2 y = 0
Put y = eax
Therefore (a2 + 1)2 = 0
a2 = −1, −1
a = +i, −i, +i, −i
Therefore y = C1 eix + E1 x eix + C2 e-ix + E2 x e-ix
= A1 Cos x + B1 Sin x + x { A2 Cos x + B2 Sin x }
Example 3
(D3 + D) y = 3
C.F. (D3 + D) y = 0
Put y = eax therefore a3 + a = 0 and a = 0, +i, −i
y = C + A Cos x + B Sin x
P.I. Try D y = 3 therefore y = 3x and D3 y = 0
Therefore y = 3x is a P.I.
Complete Solution is C.F. + P.I.
y = C + A Cos x + B Sin x + 3x
Example 4
(D4 − 3 D3 + 3 D2 − D) y = 2
C.F. a (a − 1)3 = 0 therefore a = 0, 1, 1, 1
y = A + B ex + C x ex + D x2 ex
P.I. Try −D y = 2 therefore y = −2x
D2 y = 0, D3 y = 0 and D4 y = 0
Complete Solution is C.F. + P.I.
y = A + B ex + C x ex + D x2 ex − 2x
Example 5
(D2 + D − 6) y = ex
(D + 3) (D − 2) y = ex
C.F. (a + 3) (a − 2) = 0 therefore a = 2, − 3
y = A e2x + B e−3x
P.I. y = [ 1/{(D + 3) (D − 2)}] [ ex ]
= [ 1/{(1 + 3) (1 − 2)}] ex = − (1/4) ex
Complete Solution is
y = A e2x + B e−3x − (1/4) ex
Example 6
(D + 3)(D − 2) y = e2x
C.F. y = A e2x + B e−3x
P.I. (D − 2) y = [ 1/(D + 3)] [e2x] = [1/(2 + 3)] e2x = (1/5) e2x
y = (1/5) [1/(D − 2)] [e2x] = (1/5) e2x [1/(D + 2 − 2)] [1]
= (1/5) e2x [1/D] [1] = (1/5) x e2x
Complete Solution is
y = A e2x + B e−3x + (1/5) x e2x
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Example 7
(D − 3)2 y = e3x
C.F. y = A e3x + B x e3x
P.I. y = [1/(D − 3)2] e3x = e3x [1/(D + 3 −3)2 ] [1]
= e3x [1/D2] [1] = e3x x2/2
Complete Solution is
y = A e3x + B x e3x + (1/2) e3x x2
Example 8
(D2 + 6 D + 25) y = 2 Cos 3x
C.F. Put y = eax in F(D) = 0 therefore a = − 3 + 4i, −3 − 4i
y = A e−3x Cos 4x + B e−3x Sin 4x
P.I. Try y = c Sin 3x + d Cos 3x
Substituting;
− 9c Sin3x − 9d Cos3x + 18c Cos3x − 18d Sin3x + 25c Sin3x + 25d Cos3x = 2 Cos3x
Equating co-efficients of Cos3x and Sin3x
18c + 16d = 2 and 16c − 18d = 0
therefore c = 9/145 and d = 8/145
P.I. y = (1/145) (9 Sin 3x + 8 Cos 3x)
Complete Solution is;
y = A e-3x Cos 4x + B e−3x Sin 4x + (1/145) (9 Sin 3x + 8 Cos 3x)
Example 9
(D2 + 1) y = 4 Cos x
C.F. is y = A Cos x + B Sin x
P.I. Consider the Real part of (D2 + 1) y = 4 eix
P.I. is the Real part of y
y = 4/(D2 + 1) eix = 4/[(D − i)(D + i)] eix = 4/(D − i) (1/2i) eix
y = (2/i) /(D − i) [eix .1] = (2/i) eix /[(D + i) − i] [1]
= − 2 i eix [1/D] [1] = − 2 i x eix = − 2 i x (Cos x + i Sin x)
Real part is y = 2 x Sin x
Complete Solution is
y = A Cos x + B Sin x + 2 x Sin x
Example 10
(D2 + 6D + 13) y = x2
P.I. y = 1/(13 + 6D + D2) [x2] = (1/13) [1 + (6D + D2)/13 ]−1 [x2]
= (1/13) [1 − {(6D + D2)/13} + {(6D + D2)/13}2 − ....] [x2]
= (1/13) [ 1 − 6D/13 − D2/13 + 36D2/169 + higher orders of D ] [x2]
= (1/13) (x2 − 12 x/13 − 2/13 + 72/169)
= (1/13) ( x2 − 12 x/13 + 46/169)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Standard Form;
an xn dny/dxn + ........... + a2 x2d2y/dx2 + a1 x dy/dx + a0 y = f(x) (338)
where a0, a1, a2 .... an are constants
To solve, put x = et and D = d/dt therefore dx/dt = et = x
Therefore x dy/dx = dy/dx . dx/dt = dy/dt = D(y)
If V is any function of x,
then x dV/dx = dV/dx . dx/dt = dV/dt = D(V)
Write Vr = xr dry/dxr
Then Vr+1 = xr+1 dr+1y/dxr+1 = xr+1d/dx(dry/dxr) = xr+1 d/dx(Vr/xr)
Vr+1 = xr+1 [ xr dVr/dx − Vr r /xr-1]/x2r = x dVr/dx − r Vr = (D − r) Vr (339)
But V1 = x dy/dx = D(y)
Put r = 1 V2 = (D − 1) V1 = (D − 1) D(y)
Put r = 2 V3 = (D − 2) V2 = (D − 2) (D − 1) D(y) (340)
Example (i)
x d2y/dx2 − 2 dy/dx + 2 y/x = 4 x2
x2 d2y/dx2 − 2 x dy/dx + 2 y = 4 x3
Put x = et and D = d/dt
Thus D(D − 1) y − 2 D y + 2 y = 4 e3 t
(D2 − 3 D + 2) y = 4 e3 t
C.F. Put y = ea t in (D2 − 3 D + 2)y = 0 Therefore a = 1 or 2
C.F. is y = A et + B e2 t
P.I. y = { 4 / (D2 − 3 D + 2) } { e2 t }
= 4 e3 t { 1 / (9 − 9 + 2) } = 2 e3 t
Complete Solution is y = A et + B e2 t + 2 e3 t where et = x
Complete Solution is y = A x + B x2 + 2 x3
Example (ii)
x2 d2y/dx2 − 3 x dy/dx + 4 y = 0
Put x = et and D = d/dt
D (D − 1) y − 3 D y + 4 y = 0 Therefore (D − 2)2 y = 0
at
Put y = e a = 2 or 2
y = A e2 t + B t e2 t
But t = log x therefore y = A x2 + B x2 log x
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example (iii)
x2 d2y/dx2 + x dy/dx + y = 2 log x
Put x = et and D = d/dt Thus D (D − 1) y + D y + y = 2 t
(D2 + 1) y = 2 t
C.F. Put ea t in (D2 − 1) y = 0 Thus a = i or − i
Thus C.F. y = A Cos t + B Sin t
P.I. y = { 1/(1 + D2) } {2 t} = 2 { 1 − D2 + D4 − .... } { t } = 2 t
But t = log x therefore;
Complete Solution is y = A Cos (log x) + B Sin (log x) + 2 log x
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Example (i)
dx/dt + 5x − y = et
dy/dt − 3y + x = 4e−t
Write D = d/dt
( D + 5 ) x − y = et therefore y = ( D + 5 ) x − et
( D − 3 ) y + x = 4e−t
Substitute for y
( D − 3 ) ( D + 5 ) x − ( D − 3 ) et + x = 4e−t
( D2 + 2D − 14 ) x = 4e−t − 2et
CF Put x = eat in ( D2 + 2D − 14 ) x = 0 therefore a = −1 √15
a = − 4.87, + 2.87
x = A e−4.87 + B e2.87
PI x = [ − 2 / (D2 + 2D − 14) ] et + [ 4 / (D2 + 2D − 14)] e-t
= et { −2 / (1 + 2 − 14) } + e−t { 4 / ( 1 − 2 − 14) }
= ( 2 / 11) et − (4 /15) e−t
Complete solution for x is;
x = A e-4.87 + B e2.87 ( 2 / 11) et − (4 / 15) e−t
But y = ( D + 5 ) x − et
Complete solution for y is;
y = 0.13 A e−4.87t + 7.87 B s2.87t + (1/11) et − (16/15) e−t
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Example (ii)
(4D + 1) x − (3D + 2) y = t eqtn (a)
(D + 5) x − (D + 4) y − 0 eqtn (b)
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22 BESSELL’S
22 BESSELL’S AND
ANDLEGENDRE’S
LEGENDRE’S
EQUATIONS
EQUATIONS
Bessell's and Legendre's equations
Both these equations are special cases of second order linear equations of the form;
d2y / dx2 + P(x) dy/dx + Q(x) y = 0
Bessell's equation
Legendre's equation
Singular Points
If for continuous values of x, P(x) or Q(x) go off to infinity (called a Singular Point), then one
solution will be singular at this point.
Solution
It can be shown that a solution of the form (345) is permissible if the singular points are Regular, ie if
Limit as x → 0 of (x – a) P(x) and Limit as x → 0 of (x – a)2 Q(x) are both finite for singular point
(x = a)
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Bessell's equation
Substituting
where a0 ≠ 0
(346)
equating coefficients of xc ( ie r = 0 in terms Xc + r )
a0 c (c − 1) + a0 c − n2 a 0 = 0
a0 (c2 − n2) = 0
c2 = n2 indicial equation
c = n c1 = n and c2 = − n (347)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
a2 (c + 2) (c + 1) + a2 (c + 2) − n2 a2 + a0 = 0
a2 [ (c + 2)2 − n2) = − a0 (349)
[ ar (c + r) (c + r − 1) + ar (c + r) − n2 ar ] + ar−2 = 0
ar [ (c + r)2 − n2 ] = − ar−2 (350)
Thus
a3, a5, a7 etc are all expressible in terms of a1 and therefore all zero
a2, a4, a6 etc are all expressible in terms of a0 which is not zero
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 etc
Hence y = A Jn(x) is part of the solution of (343)
ie part where c = + n
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Thus factorials containing n can be replaced by the Gamma Function and non integer values given
to n.
Put a0 = A / [ 2n (n + 1) ] (357)
(358)
where n > 0
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Hence a family of curves can be plotted which cross and recross the X axis
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
(359)
Hence the first terms in the expansion of Jn(x) are zero since;
1 / [ ( − n + s + 1) ] = 0 for s = 0, 1, 2, ........., n − 1
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Write r = s − n ie s= r+n
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Therefore the solution with c = − n contains two arbitrary constants and is the complete
solution. It contains the first solution.
Thus for the general case where n is not an integer or zero, the Complete Solution is;
y = A Jn(x) + B J-n(x) (363)
Jn(x) = J−n(x)
From (355)
J−n(x) = (−1)n Jn(x)
Hence as Case (iv), a different solution must be found.
It can be seen that the solution (365) is a valid solution for cases (i), (ii) and (iii)
It can also be shown that solution (365) is also valid for Cases (iv) and (v).
For given values of n and x, Yn(x) can be evaluated. Like Jn(x), it is found to be oscillatory with
an infinite number of zeros and tends to zero as x tends to infinity.
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Summary
The solution to Bessell's equation;
(ii) d2y/dx2 + [(1 − 2a)/x] dy/dx + [(bc xc−1)2 + (a2 − n2c2 )/x2 ] y = 0
Put y = t xa and z = xc
Equation becomes;
z2 d2t/dz2 + z dt/dz + (b2z2 − n2)t = 0 which is the same as (i) above
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Example
d2y/dx2 + x y = 0
This is the same as (ii) above with;
a = 1/2, b = 2/3, c = 3/2 and n = 1/3
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Therefore
d/dx [ xv Jv(x) ] =
Therefore
d/dx [x −v Jv(x) ]
Put x = i t
dy/dx = dy/dt dt/dx = (− i) dy/dt
Equation becomes;
t2 d2y/dt2 + t dy/dt + (t2 − n2) y = 0
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Substituting for t;
y = A Jn(i x) + B Yn(i x)
(370)
The Modified Bessell Function of the second kind is defined as;
In(x) and Kn(x) behave quite differently from Jn(x) and Yn(x)
Legendre's Equation
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23 LAPLACETRANSFORM
23 LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Use of Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform gives an easy solution for a range of differential equations and at the same
time evaluates the arbitrary constants.
The method is used for evaluating the output of a control or amplification system with various
inputs all of which are zero at times before t = 0.
Laplace Transform
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= 0 – A/– (s + a) = A/(s + a)
Put a = 0
f(t) = A and F(s) = A/s (378)
∞ ∞
= [ {– A tn (s + a) / (1 + t + t2/2! + )] + {n/(s + a)} ∫A t(n – 1) e– (s + a)t dt
0 0
L [ A tn e– at ] =A n!/(s + a)n + 1
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= – f(0) + s L[f(t)]
Thus;
L[df(t)/dt] = s F(s) − f(0) (380)
where F(s) is the Laplace transform of f(t) and f(0) is the value of f(t) when t = 0
Similarly
L[d2/dt2 f(t)] = s2 F(s) – sf(0) – d/dt[f(0)] (381)
where d/dt[f(0)] is the value of df(t)/dt when t = 0
And
L[dn/dtn f(t)] = sn F(s) − sn−1 f(0) − .... − s dn−2/dtn−2[f(0)] − dn−1/dtn−1[f(0)] (382)
where dn−1/dtn−1[f(0)] is the value of dn−1/dtn−1[f(t)] when t = 0 etc
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Put I = ∫ f(t) dt
∞
L [ I ] = ∫ I e– st dt
0
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The solution has evaluated the arbitrary constant in terms of the value of x when t = 0.
Example (ii)
(D2 + 3D + 2) x = 4 et
when t = 0, then x = −1 and dx/dt = −1
Thus the differential equation has been solved and the arbitrary constants evaluated in terms of x
and dx/dt at t = 0.
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A table of Laplace Transforms can be made up from (379) choosing values for n and a.
Re[ ] means Real Part of the complex number
Im[ ] means Complex (or Imaginary) Part of the complex number
n a f (t) F (s)
n a A tn e-at A n! / (a + s)n+1
' 0 ' 0 A A/s
' 1 ' 0 At A / s2
' 0 A t2 2 A / s3
' 2 ' a A e– at A / (a + s)
' 1 ' a A t e−at A / (a + s)2
' 0 ' − j A Sin t = Im [ A ej t ] Im [ A / (s − j)] = A / (2 + s2)
' − j A Cos t = Re [ A ej t ] Re [ A / (s − j)] = A s / (2 + s2)
' 0 ' − j A t Sin t = Im [ A t ej t ] Im [ A / (s − j)2] = A 2 s / (2 + s2)2
' 1 ' − j A t Cos t = Re [ A t ej t ] Re [ A / (s − j)2 ] = A (s2 − 2) / (2 + s2)2
' 0 a − j A e– at Sin t Im [ A / (a − j +s)]
= Im [Ae– (a– j )t ] = A / {(2 + (s + a)2 }
' 0 a − j A e-at Cos t Re [ A / (a − j + s)]
= Re [Ae– (a– j t ] = A(s + a)/ {2 + (s + a)2 }
d/dt [ f(t) ] s L[ f(t)] – f(0)
dn/dtn[ f(t) ] sn L[ f(t)] − sn−1 f(0) − ......
− s dn−2/dtn−2[ f(0)]
− s dn−1/dtn−1[ f(0)]
∫ f (t) dt (1/s) L[ f(t)]
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24 FOURIER
24 SERIES
Fourier Series
Fourier Series
A Fourier Series is an infinite series that defines a cyclic function of any known shape.
Let y = f(x)
where f(x) is the known function that is cyclic with a period of 2
(i) Integrate the Series with respect to x between the limits 0 and 2
∫y dx = 2 c0 + a1 ∫ Cos x dx + .... + an ∫ Cos nx dx + ...
+ b1 ∫ Sin x dx + .... + bn ∫ Sin nx dx + ....
= 2 c0 + a1 [ Sin x ] + .... + an [ (1/n) Sin nx ] + ...
+ b1 [ − Cos x ] + .... + bn [ (−1/n) Cos nx ] + ... (385)
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With Limits 0 and 2 all the Sin terms are zero and all the Cos factors are unity so cancel each other,
therefore;
(386)
(ii) Multiply the Series (384) by Cos (r x) and integrate between 0 and 2
But (387)
(388)
And
(389)
And
(390)
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And
(391)
And
(392)
(393)
The coefficient br can be evaluated in the same way.
Multiply the series (384) by Sin r x and integrate from 0 to 2
(394)
This is of a similar form to (387). It can be seen that all terms evaluate to zero except the term
involving y and the term involving Sin2 rx. Hence the coefficient br can be evaluated.
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(395)
where
(397)
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If y is symmetrical about the Y axis and is expressed as an ascending series of x then it contains
only even powers of x.
But Sine terms contain only odd powers of x when expressed as a series. Thus the sum of the
Sine terms is zero
The series is
If (y − C0) and x values are the same as −(y − C0) and −x values,
ie the curve is unchanged when rotated through 180 degrees about point x = 0, y = C0
Cosine terms are all zero
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Fourier Series is
Example (i)
Find the Fourier Series to express the waveform shown here where y = 1 + x/L
Put z = x + x/L
y = 1 + z/ while 0 < z <
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Fourier Series
y = bn Sin nz = bn Sin (n x/L)
y = 2/[3 Sin(x/L) − 1/2 Sin(2x/L) + 3/3 Sin (3x/L) − 1/4 Sin (4 x/L) + ..
This series is not true when x = 0 or x = L. Generally at points where the periodic function is
discontinuous, the Fourier Series gives the mean value of the periodic function.
Example (ii)
By inspection, C0 = 0
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Hence;
an = 2/(n22) (Cos n − 1) and bn = 3/(n) (1 − Cos n)
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PART 1: APPLIED MATHEMATICS
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25 MECHANICS’
25 MECHANICS’ELEMENTARY
ELEMENTARY
PRINCIPLES
PRINCIPLES
Statics and Dynamics
Statics is the study of bodies at rest, Dynamics is the study of bodies in motion.
An object in motion moves a Distance (eg in metres) from its starting point. The Rate of Change of
Distance is its speed, ie its Velocity (eg in metres/sec or m/s). The Rate of Change in Velocity is its
Acceleration (eg in metres/sec/sec or m/s2).
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Equations of Motion for a body moving in a straight line with Constant Acceleration
Initial velocity = u
Final velocity = v
Distance travelled = s
Time taken = t
Acceleration = a
Therefore;
s = ½ (u + v) t (A2)
And;
s = u t + ½ a t2 (A3)
Multiply by (2 a )
2 a s = 2 u a t + (a t)2
But from (M 1), a t = v − u
Therefore
2 a s = 2 u (v − u) + (v − u)2 = 2 u v − 2 u2 + v2 − 2 u v + u2 = v2 − u2
Therefore
v2 = u2 + 2 a s (A4)
s = u t + ½ a t2 and v = u + a t
Eliminate u = v − a t
s = v t − a t2 + ½ a t2 = v t − ½ a t2
s = v t − ½ a t2 (A5)
Equations (A1) to (A5) give the relation between Distance, Time, Speed and Acceleration.
These equations only apply for an object moving in a straight line with constant
acceleration.
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Gravitational Force
By studying the motion of planets, Sir Isaac Newton deduced that all bodies attract each other with a
force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
(A6)
Figure A1: Gravitational Constant
where G is a universal Gravitational Constant
Thus all bodies on the surface of the earth are attracted to the centre of the earth with a force
proportional to their mass. Galileo dropped objects from the tower of Pisa and showed that they
accelerated towards the ground with a constant acceleration. Experiments have showed that in a
vacuum all bodies accelerate at the same constant rate. In a vacuum, a feather and a lump of lead
will fall side by side. This acceleration, called "g", has been measured and is approximately 9.81
metres per second per second. [In fact there are very slight variations at different places of the world
depending on the density of rocks near the surface].
A body continues at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by a Force.
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Sir Isaac Newton deduced that for every Action there is an equal and opposite Reaction, Newton's
3rd Law.
If the man pushes the box and the box is suddenly removed, he will fall over. He would need a
similar man to push as hard to hold him up. Thus Newton deduced that the box pushes back with
an equal and opposite force on the man.
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Work
Power
A more powerful man will move the box more quickly than a weaker man. Power is the Rate of
doing Work.
Power = d/dt(Work)
The MKS unit of Power is the Watt
1 Watt = 1 Joule / sec
The Imperial unit of Power is the Horse Power, approximately the rate at which a strong horse can
do work. 1 HP is approximately 746 Watts
Conservation of Energy
Energy (ie Work Done) = Force x Distance. It can take many forms. Lifting a weight to the top of
a building gives it Energy which can be released by lowering the weight on a rope and using the rope
to drive machinery.
Potential Energy.
When an object is raised above the ground, it is said to have Potential Energy. The energy can be
used when the object is lowered back to the ground.
Kinetic Energy
When the brakes are applied on a car, the Kinetic Energy is converted into Heat. Heat is a form of
Energy. Another form of Energy is Sound.
The Principle of Conservation of Energy states that Energy can be converted from one form into
another but the total remains unchanged.
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If an object with Mass M falls from rest a vertical distance x the Potential Energy is converted into
Kinetic Energy E.
But the body has moved from rest with a constant Acceleration g
v2 = u2 + 2as
Initial velocity u = 0, acceleration a = g, distance fallen s = x and final velocity = v
Therefore v2 = 2 g x
Work Done = M g x = (½ ) M v 2
Work Done has been converted into Kinetic Energy
Conservation of Momentum
If two objects collide, they can be damaged by the collision and Energy is used in the deformations.
However during the collision, the Action on one object is equal and opposite to the Reaction on the
other, (Newton's 3rd Law).
Therefore the Change in Momentum in one body is equal and opposite to the Change in Momentum
in the other.
Thus the total Momentum in any direction is the same after the collision as it was before. This is the
principle of the Conservation of Momentum.
Suppose a body mass M1 and velocity v1 collides head on with a body mass M2 and velocity v2
towards it. If they combine then after the collision the velocity of the combined mass is
V = [M1 v1 − M2 v2]/ [M1 + M2] (A12)
If two steel balls collide head on, they each bounce back. Little or no energy is absorbed by the
collision. Newton suggested a measure of the elasticity of the objects as;
Coefficient of Restitution = e
where Relative Velocity of objects towards each other after the impact
= – e times their Relative Velocity before the impact
Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of objects with mass m1 and m2 resolved in the direction of impact
before the collision and v1 and v2 their velocities in this direction after the collision, then;
Conservation of Momentum gives
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 u1 + m2 u2 (A13)
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If two smooth spheres meet with a glancing collision, then resolve each velocity into its component
parallel to the line joining their centres at impact and its component perpendicular to this line.
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(ii) Starting from standstill ignoring wind resistance and rolling resistance, assuming a variable
gearbox and no wheel spin, find the theoretical relation between time and speed on flat ground.
Acceleration = dv/dt
M dv/dt = Thrust available from the engine = 80000/v Newton
M = 1000 Therefore dv/dt = 80/v
Multiply by v and separate the variables, put terms of v on the left and terms of t on the right
v dv = 80 dt
Integrate (1/2) v2 = 80 t + constant
v2 = 160 t + constant
When t = 0 then v = 0 therefore constant = 0
v2 = 160 t
(iii) Find the theoretical time to reach 60 mph from a standing start on the flat.
60 mph = 26.8 metres/second
t = 4.5 seconds
The time with wind and rolling resistance can be calculated by the computer program
v=0:t=0:dv=0.1:WHILE:v<26.8:dt=v*dv/(80-0.54*v0.00062*v^3):t=t+dt:v=v+dv:WEND:PRINT
t. This gives the time with wind and rolling resistance as 5.5 seconds
This is with an infinitely variable gearbox. With a practical gearbox, the time will be longer.
(iv) Starting from standstill find the theoretical relation between speed and distance travelled on flat
ground ignoring wind resistance, rolling resistance, wheel spin and assuming a perfect gear box.
Acceleration = dv/dt = dv/dx . dx/dt = v dv/dx
M v dv/dx = Thrust available from the engine = 80000/v
M = 1000
Therefore v dv/dx = 80/v
Multiply by v and separate the variables to put terms of v on the left and terms of x on the right
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[ v2 / 80 ] dv = dx
Integrate
(1/80) ∫ v2 dv = ∫ dx
(1/80) (1/3) v3= x + constant
(1/240) v3 = x + constant
v = 0 when x = 0
constant = 0
x = (1/240) v3
(iv) Calculate the distance travelled to reach a speed of 60 mph on flat ground assuming no wind or
rolling resistance.
60 mph = 26.8 m/s
x = 80 m
The distance with wind and rolling resistance can be calculated by the computer program
v=0:x=0:dv=0.1:WHILE:v<26.8:dx=v^2*dv/(80-0.54*v-0.00062*v^3):x=x+dx:v=v+dv:
WEND:PRINT x. This gives the distance with wind and rolling resistance as 101 metres
This is with an infinitely variable gearbox. The distance is increased by a practical gearbox..
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26 ROTATIONAL
26 MOTION
Rotational Motion
Centre of Gravity
The body will balance on any knife edge that passes directly below the Centre of Gravity.
The sum of the moments of each element of mass in the body about the CG = 0
In the diagram;
Choose OX and OY so that O is at the CG
The moment of m1 about OY is m1 x1 and the moment of m1 about OX is m1 y1
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Let a body be subjected to two equal Forces F which act in opposite directions and are a distance
a apart.
The Moment of the Forces about any Point P on the body is;
C = F(a + x) − F x
=Fa (A17)
When the Resultant of all the Forces is zero, the Couple is the same at all points in or outside the
body.
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The Turning Force is called a Couple in Mathematics and the Torque in Engineering.
If half the Force is applied at twice the distance apart, the Couple is the same.
Rotational Energy
A spinning flywheel certainly has kinetic energy but has no linear velocity.
Assume the flywheel has a mass M all concentrated at radius R from the centreline of the axis.
Assume the flywheel is spinning with an angular velocity of radians per second.
Moment of Inertia
The quantity M R2) is called Moment of Inertia and is written as capital I
The Moment of Inertia of a body is the sum of all particles of mass in the body each particle
multiplied by the square of its distance from the axis.
Thus Kinetic Energy = ½ I 2 (A19)
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Radius of Gyration
The Radius of Gyration is the name given to a fictional radius such that;
Moment of Inertia = Mass times (Radius of Gyration)2
(1) Moment of Inertia of a bar length 2A spinning about an axis through its centre
I = M x2
M = M (x/2A)
I = M (x/2A) x2
I = M/(2A) x2 x
I = [M/(2A)] ∫ x2 dx from x = − A to x = A
= [M/(2A)] [1/3] [ A3 − (− A)3 ]
= M A2/3
(2) Moment of Inertia of a disc radius A spinning about an axis through its centre at right angles to
the disc
I = [(M/)] 2x x x2
I = [(M/)] ∫ 2x 3 dx from x = 0 to x = A
= (2M / A2 ) ∫ x3 dx from x = 0 to x = A
= (2M / A2) ] [ A4 / 4 − 0]
I = M A2 / 2
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Examples
I = M (a2/4 + b2/4) / 3
= M (a2 + b2) / 12
I = M (L2 ) / 3
I = M (r2 + r2) / 5
= 2 M r2 / 5
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Change of axis
r2 = x2 + y2
Therefore Moment of Inertia of the element about OZ axis
= Moment of Inertia of element m about OX axis
+ Moment of Inertia of element m about OY axis
In the diagram,
A–B is an axis throught the Centre of Gravity
C–D is another axis parallel to A–B.
Axis C–D is at distance h from axis A–B..
The Moment of Inertia of m1 about C–D = m1 (h + a1)2 = m1 (h2 + 2h a1 + a12)
The Moment of Inertia of m2 about C–D = m2 (h − a2)2 =m2 (h 2 − 2 h a2 + a22)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
= [m1 + m2 ]h2 +2h [m1 a1 – m2 a2] + [m1 a12+ m2 a22)
= M h2 + 2h (Moment of mass about AB) + MI about axis AB
But axis AB passes through the Centre of Gravity therefore Moment of mass about AB = 0
Hence
MI about axis CD = MI about parallel axis through CG + M h 2 (A20)
The angular acceleration of the flywheel, d2 /dt2, is the same for all elements of mass
C = d2/dt2 [m1 a12 ] = I d2/dt2
Thus
C = I d/dt (A 21)
C = I d2/dt2
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Similarly
Angular Momentum is Moment of Inertia times Angular Velocity
Angular Momentum = I (A22)
And Change in Angular Momentum is Couple times Time
Change in Angular Momentum = C t (A23)
Angular Momentum cannot change unless a Couple is applied.
A mass rotating about an axis exerts a Centrifugal Force on its enclosure. The enclosure exerts a
Centripetal Force on the mass.
Centrifugal Forces are outwards, Centripetal Forces are towards the centre
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This releases energy due to the Centrifugal Force acting on the Mass (eg this could be used to store
energy in a spring)
Energy released = M r 2 r
By the Principle of Conservation of Energy, this Energy can only come from the Rotational Energy
where r changes to r + r and changes to +
Therefore M r2 +2 M r 2 r = 0
+(2/ r) r = 0
Integrating
∫ ) d+ ∫ (2/ r) dr = Constant
ln() + 2 ln(r) = constant
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Thus the Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum is still valid when the Moment of Inertia
is changed.. Note that if r is decreased, then and the KE are increased
A skater may start spinning with arms outstretched. When the arms are folded, the Moment of
Inertia is reduced and therefore the Angular Velocity is increased, ie the skater's speed of spinning
accelerates with no apparent additional effort. The Angular Momentum is the same but the Kinetic
Energy is increased due to the work done in folding the arms against the centrifugal force.
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27 FORCES
27 ACTINGon
Forces acting ON A BODY
a Body
Coplanar Forces
The Forces are equivalent to single Forces Rx and Ry acting horizontally and vertically through an
arbitrary point A and a Couple C acting about an arbirary point A
Resolving horizontally
Rx = F1 Cos 1 + F2 Cos 2 + F3 Cos 3 + F4 Cos 4 (A26)
Resolving Vertically
Ry = F1 Sin 1 + F2 Sin 2 + F3 Sin 3 + F4 Sin 4 (A27)
Moments about A
C = F1 a 1 – F2 a 2 + F 3 a 3 – F4 a 4 (A28)
If the sum of all the Forces resolved in any direction is not zero, then the body will accelerate in that
direction. Thus for equilibrium, the sum of all Forces resolved in any direction = 0
Thus, when all the forces are in one plane, there are three conditions for equilibrium
i) Sum of the Forces resolved in any one direction in the plane = 0
ii) Sum of the Forces resolved in any other direction in the plane = 0
iii) The sum of the turning Moments of the Forces about any point = 0
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
If these conditions are met, the sum of the Forces in any other direction in the plane will also be
zero. Furthermore the turning moment of the Forces about any other point will also be zero.
The equations for equilibrium can be applied to only part of the body provided the forces within the
body are included.
1) Suppose the sum of coplanar forces acting on a body are zero resolved in one direction and the
total couple about two points A and B are both zero.
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2) Suppose the total couple about three points A, B and C are all zero
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236
Therefore
If R1 and R2 are not zero
Then (a1 − b1)/(a2 − b2) = (a1 − c1)/(a2 − c2)
But (a1 − b1)/(a2 − b2) is the slope of the line from A to B
And (a1 − c1)/(a2 − c2) is the slope of the line from A to C
Therefore if R1 and R2 are not zero, then A, B and C lie in the same line.
If R1 is zero but R2 is not zero, then points A, B and C are all on a line perpendicular to R1 as in
alternative (1) above.
If A, B and C do not lie on a straight line, then R1 and R2 are both zero
Thus there is a third alternative set of conditions for the body to be in equilibrium.
The total couple about each of three points which do not lie on a straight line are all equal to zero
When the Forces are in three dimensions, the body is in equilibrium if the Resultants of all the
Forces in each of three directions mutually at right angles are all zero and in addition the Resultant
Couples about three axes mutually at right angles are also all zero.
If only three Forces only act on a body, they must be coplanar for equilibrium. Take moments about
the point where two of the Forces cross. The moment of the third Force must be zero, thus it must
pass through the same point.
Therefore if three Forces only act on a body in equilibrium, they must be coplanar and either meet at
a point or all be parallel.
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1) Pulley system
For equilibrium W1 = 2 W2
2) Lever
Resolving Vertically
P = W1 + W2
Taking Moments about the Fulcrum
W1 a = W2 2 a
For equilibrium W1 = 2 W2
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
3) Beam
Note P1 could have been evaluated directly by taking moments about the right hand support
239
axa_ad_grad_prog_170x115.indd 1 19/12/13 16:36
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Therefore W1 = (2 Sin ) W2
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Virtual Work
If the mechanisms are displaced from the equilibrium position, work is done by each of the Forces.
When moved a small displacement from the equilibrium position, the total work done is zero, ie
work done by some forces is equal and opposite to the work done by the other forces since the
Resultant of all the Forces is zero.
This principle could have been used to solve the above examples by equating the work done by each
weight when one is displaced a small distance.
Friction
Where the Normal Force is that due to Gravity, then on a level surface;
P = M g. ` (A30)
In practice, it is found that the Coefficient of Friction reduces as soon as the body begins to slide.
The Coefficient of Friction is sometimes quoted as the value with the body sliding and a higher value
quoted for the "Coefficient of Stiction" ie the value before sliding occurs.
ABS braking systems are designed to prevent the car tyre sliding and therefore the car stops in a
shorter distance.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Capstan
The Capstan has been used on ships for hundreds of years. It consists of a drum that is now driven
by a powerful motor (they were powered by a gang of sailors in the past). A sailor loops two or
three turns of rope round the drum. When he pulls with a small pull P1 , a much larger pull P2 is
applied to the rope beyond the capstan. P2 is directly proportional to P1 giving the sailor complete
control.
Therefore P/P =
P2 = P1 e (A 31)
Wind Resistance
Experiments show that Wind Resistance is approximately equal to the square of the Velocity times
the Frontal Area times a Drag Factor (Cd) which depends on the shape of the object.
FW = A v2 Cd
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28 SIMPLE
28 SimpleHARMONIC MOTION
Harmonic Motion
(OR
(orSHM)
SHM)
Basic Equations
An object moves with Simple Harmonic Motion when its acceleration towards the equilibrium
position is proportional to its distance from the equilibrium position. The motion is a continuous
oscillation.
Acceleration is towards the Equilibrium Position and proportional to the distance from it
P=Kx
Therefore M d2x/dt2 = − K x
d2x/dt2 = − (K / M) x
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)
d2x/dt2 = − (K / M) x (A32)
This is the basic equation for Simple Harmonic Motion
Multiply by the Integrating Factor 2 dx/dt
If the oscillations have a frequency f then this is the number of oscillations per second.
Therefore the period is (1/f)
Therefore w = 2 pf
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Piston
A piston with a very long connecting rod moves with a motion approaching Simple Harmonic
Motion.
x = r Cos
If the crankshaft rotates with constant speed radians / sec
Then = t
Therefore x = r Cos t
Coil Spring
T = K (y − L )
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Therefore T − M g = K x
But ( T − M g ) is the net force acting on the mass towards the equilibrium position. This force
acts on the mass M to reduce x
Therefore
M d2x/dt2 = − (T − Mg) = − Kx
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Simple Pendulum
If is small, Sin =
and horizontal displacement x = L
M d2x/dt2 = − (Mg/L) x
d2x/dt2 = − ( g/L) x
This is Simple Harmonic Motion
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Solid Pendulum
The force due to gravity acts through the Centre of Gravity and has components
Mg Cos in a direction away from the pivot and Mg Sin in a direction at right angles.
If h is the distance between the pivot and the CG, then the Couple returning the pendulum to the
central position is given by;
C = Mgh Sin
Hence
d2/dt2 = − (Mgh/I) This is Simple Harmonic Motion
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29 STRUCTURES
29 Structures
Pin Jointed Frame
A Pin Jointed Frame consists of a number of bars or tubes or girders each of which is connected to
others by joints at each end that are free to rotate. Thus no Couple can be applied to either end.
Each member is subjected only to Tension or Compression.
The diagram shows a symetrical pin jointed frame carrying a weight W at point B, the centre, and
supported at points A and C
Consider the equilibrium of the part of the structure in the vicinity of Point A
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Beams
Consider the equilibrium of part of the beam at the outer end and length x
Resolving vertically, there must be a force equal to W acting vertically at the inner end of the part.
The Vertical Force is called the Shear Force in the beam.
This Force together with the Weight exert a couple W x on the part.
For equilibrium, this Couple is balanced by horizontal forces in the beam that exert an equal and
opposite Couple.
This Couple is called the Bending Moment M in the beam at this point. In the diagram,
M = Wx
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
For a small Stress, most materials are elastic, ie when the Stress is removed, the bar returns to its
former size.
Furthermore for a small Stress,as the Stress is increased, the Strain increases in direct proportion to
the Stress.
Thus for a small Tensile Stress, the ratio Stress/Strain is a constant and can be measured. It is called
Young's Modulus and denoted by E
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
If the Force P is at a right angle to the cross section, the Force is a Shear Force.
There is similar Modulus for a body subjected to Shear
Shear Stress = P / A
Shear Strain = x / L
If a body is subjected to a large Stress, it can be permanently deformed. The point at which the
Stress and Strain first begin to cause a permanent deformation is called the Elastic Limit.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Part of the section is in compression and part in tension. The length in the centre of the section is
unchanged. This is called the Neutral Axis.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
I is called the Second Moment of Area and is exactly the same as the Moment of Inertia except it has
A instead of M. It is denoted by I
Thus I can be calculated as for Moment of Inertia about an axis perpendicular to and through the
Neutral Axis, axis A-B in the diagram.
Let K be the Radius of Gyration K of the Moment of Inertia of a laminar about this axis.
The Second Moment of Area is then A K2 where A is the total cross sectional area of the beam.
The Second Moment of Area has dimensions L4.
x = R Cos
But is small, therefore Cos = 1
= 1 / (EI) M x
= 1 / (EI) ∫ M dx from 0 to x
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
These identities can be used to calculate the deflections in a large range of structures.
Example
Calculate the deflection under a point load on a portal frame, height H and width B
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
When a Couple is applied to a bar, it twists. The angle of the deflection is proportional to the
Couple.
Consider a thin tube, length L, concentric with the centre of the bar, radius r and thickness r
M / 2 r2 r = G r / L
Thus M = 2 r2r G r / L
= [2 G / L] r3 r
Therefore;
M = ∫ [2 G /L] r3 r from 0 to a, where a is the radius of the bar
M = [ 2 G / L] a4/4
Therefore M = [ G a4 / (2 L)]
Or = 2 M L / [ G a4 ] (A48)
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Stress in a pipeline
pDL=2ftL
Hoop stress f = p D / 2 t
where p is the pressure, D is the outside diameter and t is the wall thickness
The outside diameter is used as the pressure acting on the inside diameter squeezes the wall
increasing the stress.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
30
30HANGING
HangingCHAINS
Chains
Suspension Bridge
Let P be a point on the Suspension Bridge chain at (x,y).
Let the roadway be fully supported by the chain with weight uniformly distributed along the OX axis
at w per unit length. Weight of OQ = w x
Consider the equilibrium of the bridge between points O, P and Q.
The Weight of the Roadway acts downwards at the mid point of OQ
The Force in the Chain at P acts tangentially along the chain
The Force in the Chain at O acts horizontally along the chain
For equilibrium, these three forces meet at a point, ie they meet at R such that RP is tangential to the
chain and R is the mid point of OQ.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
∫ dx/x
Therefore at point P dy/dx = 2 y / x and ∫ dy/y = 2
Integrating ln (y) = 2 ln (x ) + const
Therefore the curve is a parabola y = A x2
Catenary
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
ds/dx = √[ 1 + (dy/dx)2 ]
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
31 GYROSCOPES
31 Gyroscopes
Characteristics of gyroscopes
Let a Flywheel spin with Angular Momentum M shown as a Vector in a corkscrew direction.
The gyroscope will then rotate with a constant Angular Velocity again shown as a Vector in the
corkscrew direction.
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
INDEX
INDEX
A Congruent Triangles 9, 56
Conic Sections 83
Acceleration 18, 136, 214 Conservation of Energy 24
Alternate angles 54 Conservation of Momentum 25
Angle between two lines 11, 83 Coplanar Forces 234
Angle between two planes 164 Corresponding angles 54
Angle between vectors 159 Cos (2A) 74
Angles of a Triangle 54 Cosec 9, 68, 123
Angles over 90 degrees 70, 71 Cosech 15
Angular acceleration 230 Cosh 15, 25, 123
Angular deflection 256, 257 Cosine 9, 68, 123
Angular Momentum 231, 233, 264 Cosine Formula 76
Angular strain 259 Cotangent 9, 68
Area of a circle 59 Couple 25, 224, 231, 234, 251, 264
Area under a Curve 110, 139 Cubes and Cube Roots 33
Area of polygons 58 Curl 21, 162, 163
Argand Diagram 22, 166
Arithmetical Progression 13, 104 D
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
I Octal 35
Operator h 19, 157
Indices 33, 34 Operator j 19, 20 156
Integrals of fractions 16, 129
Integrals of square roots 16, 128 P
Integrate between limits 111
Integrate by parts 17, 131 Parabola 11, 87
Integrate trigonometrical function 129 Partial differentials 138
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ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS
Y
6
Young’s modulus 25, 251
267