Use LPG Sudan

The Use of Liquified
Petroleum Gas (LPG)

in Sudan
December 2010
Cover image: Truck delivering gas cylinders in Khartoum
This report is available online at: www.unep.org/sudan
Disclaimer
This report was prepared by Dr. Ahmed Hassan Hood, on behalf of the United Nations Environment Programme. Any views expressed
within this document are the authors own, and may not necessarily represent those of the United Nations Environment Programme.
The Use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG) in Sudan
United Nations Environment Programme

Dr Ahmed Hassan Hood
December 2010
Table of contents
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. Energy consumption in Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1. Overall energy consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2. Overall biomass energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3. Biomass energy consumption – household sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4. Biomass energy consumption – Industrial and services sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5. Other sources of energy consumed by the household sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3. Making the case for LPG – Environmental and health impacts of high dependence
on biomass energy and benefits of LPG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1. Environmental impacts of high dependence on biomass energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2. Health impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3. Environmental and health benefits of LPG to households. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4. Sudan’s energy policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1. Key stakeholders in the energy sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2. Energy policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3. Government subsidies for LPG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4. A preliminary analysis of relevant policy issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5. Efforts to substitute LPG for biomass fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1. Sudagaz/FNC project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2. Practical action – Kassala/El Fasher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.1 Kassala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.2 El Fasher – North Darfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3. Sustainable Action Group (SAG) – Abu Shauk and El Salam IDP camps in El Fasher . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4. Sudanese Organization for Building Materials and Construction (SOBMC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5. Green Bakery Project, Sayga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6. Other initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6. Findings, conclusion and recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1. Barriers to widespread use of LPG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.1 High upfront cost of LPG appliances and new technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.2 Price competiveness of woodfuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.3 Lack of adequate infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.1.4 Lack of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.1.5 Social and cultural issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2. Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Annex 1. List of tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Annex 2. List of figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Annex 3. Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Annex 4. LPG consumption in the Sudanese states (1993-2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Annex 5. Summary of advantages and disadvantages of LPG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Annex 6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Executive summary
The depletion of forests in Sudan is a major challenge and automotive sectors, amongst others. So as to
facing the countr y today. North and central protect supplies and ensure its policy commitment
states of have lost 70% of their forest cover since to supporting the household and services sectors
independence (UNEP, 2007). Recurrent droughts, with clean energy, the government removed
desertification, over-grazing and expansion of subsidies for LPG to the country’s industrial sector.
agricultural land, as well as the collection of timber
for firewood, charcoal production and other uses, Despite the success in uptake, it is clear that the
are among the root causes of forest degradation. benefits of LPG have not been equally spread.
The use of biomass fuels for household energy Poor households in the peripheries of large towns
creates significant demand for forest products and and rural areas still have little to no access to
leads to further degradation of an already scarce clean energy. The consumption of LPG is largely
resource. concentrated in Khartoum state, which constituted
about 75 percent of overall consumption in
The impacts of household reliance on wood based 2006. The other states had minor shares, with the
fuels are considerable. Poor peri-urban households central states of Gezira and Sinnar accounting
spend a sizeable percentage of their income on for 14 percent together; with the remaining states
purchasing firewood and charcoal, while rural consuming the rest.
households collect fuelwood, sometimes in inse-
cure areas. As cleaner renewable energy options are still
under development, LPG is presented as the
Biomass energy use has been shown to be highly short-term solution in delivering clean modern
inefficient. In households across Sudan, biomass energy for household use, and particularly for
fuels are burned in stoves that are often only 10 to cooking applications. This study concludes that
15 percent efficient, wasting heat and releasing there are clear benefits from the use of LPG over
excessive amounts of smoke. The latter contributes the existing biomass fuels that are widely used by
to serious health problems for women and for chil- the household sector across the country. These
dren below five years of age. Accordingly indoor air include improved environmental conservation and
pollution measurements conducted in peri-urban reduced deforestation, climate change mitigation,
households in Kassala, Eastern Sudan, showed that improvement in women and children health and
the level of indoor air pollution caused by wood fires wider socio-economic development.
is 20 times or more higher than standards specified
by WHO. This study demonstrates that LPG use in Sudan is on
a slow ascendancy, due in particular to govern-
In the face of these challenges, the rationale for ment incentives, investment by LPG companies in
clean and efficient energies is clear. One of the distribution infrastructure and dissemination efforts
options that has emerged in Sudan is liquefied made by private, public and non-governmental
petroleum gas (LPG). Upon the onset of local organizations.
production of LPG in Sudan, the Government of
National Unity adopted a fuel-switching policy LPG use remains, however, concentrated in the cen-
to increase the uptake of LPG amongst the tral region of the country. This has been attributed to
population. The price of LPG was reduced by 50 high population density, the high price of woodfuel,
percent and LPG appliances were exempted from greater awareness and infrastructure development.
import duty tax. As a result of this intervention the
use of LPG, particularly by the domestic sector, The study analyses a range of case studies of LPG
increased from about 31,000 metric tonnes in promotion initiatives across Sudan and recognizes
2000 to 274,000 metric tonnes in 2006. In addition the following as the main barriers for the widespread
there was significant uptake in use by the industrial national use of LPG:
4 The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

1. The relatively large initial investment needed to
acquire LPG appliances (cylinders and stoves);
2. The higher price of LPG compared to woodfuel

prices in parts of the country;
3. The lack of infrastructure for LPG distribution;
4. A general lack of information;
5. Social and cultural issues.
Based on the best practices and lessons learnt from

existing initiatives, four broad recommendations
are proposed. Together these should constitute the
building blocks of any strategy to scale up LPG use
in Sudan. The recommendations are:
1. Public awareness and consumer education on

benefits of LPG and safety precautions of LPG
use;
2. Government policies and initiatives to promote

LPG market development, including strategy for
full application of subsidies and national price
stabilization;
3. Increased focus on women as primary ben-

eficiaries in LPG scale-up activities, including
capacity building support for WDAs;
4. Development of full cost recovery microfinance

options to facilitate household access to clean
modern energy such as LPG.
Expanding the use of LPG in Sudan is one clear

solution to help address the depletion of forest
resources and the associated risks and to set Sudan
on a Green Economy pathway.
The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan 5

1. Introduction
The forestry sector is very important in Sudan – fuel- climate change. The gum Arabic belt for example
wood and charcoal constitute the main domestic (an area of 520,000 km2 between the latitudes of
energy sources, while timber is the country’s primary 10° and 14° north), covering one-fifth of Sudan’s
source of construction material. The forestry sector land surface, protects 40 percent of the country
contributes as much as 13 percent to Sudan’s gross from desert encroachment.
domestic product (GDP).
A large increase in the consumption of forest prod-
Sudan is confronted by a number of processes ucts (mainly in Khartoum state where much of the
of change which significantly threaten its existing population is concentrated), combined with the
natural resource base. Increasing urbanization, uneven distribution of resources and changing
which has in places been compounded by con- rainfall patterns, has led to serious inequalities in the
flict related displacement, coupled with a growing supply of, and demand for, resources. The shortfall in
population has led to significant demand in house- fuelwood in some areas is clearly demonstrated by
hold energy needs and for construction material. the Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Overview
Sudan’s population grew from 21 million in 1981 Mapping by FAO (Figure 1.1).
(1981 census) to 39.2 million in 2008 (4th Census in
2008), representing a growth rate of 2.8 percent The green areas in the map represent areas with
according to the Central Bureau of Statistics. This a high surplus in fuelwood, while the red areas
is recognized as one factor which has contributed represent areas with a shortage of fuelwood. It is
to deforestation in Sudan. According to the UN clear from this that the Khartoum area in particular
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2006), as well as the Darfur states need to consider alter-
Sudan lost more than 5,500 km2 of forest per year native energy sources and more efficient energy
between 1990 and 2000 – an annual deforestation consumption, particularly in the context of the 2011
rate of 0.77 percent. This increased to 0.84 percent secession of South Sudan.
between 2000 and 2005, meaning that since 1990
Sudan has lost 11.6 percent of its forest cover. UNEP Alongside the natural and demographic factors
(2007) meanwhile estimates that given an annual that impact energy supply and consumption in
rate of loss of 1.87 percent between 1973 and Sudan, another contributing factor is the long period
2006, 48.2 percent of forest cover has been lost of conflict the country has experienced. This has
in since 1973. had a particular effect on energy consumption
patterns, the environment and livelihoods. With
At the same time, climate and rainfall patterns large numbers of people forced to abandon their
have changed significantly. Statistics from Darfur homes, internally displaced persons (IDP) and refu-
show that there is increased variability of rainfall gee camps have become commonplace in some
and an increased likelihood of drought. In Darfur, it parts of the country. People in these camps search
is acknowledged that 16 of the 20 driest years on for firewood alongside the local population, often in
record have occurred since 1970. This pattern is in situations where the conflict has cut off alternative
keeping with climate change models for the Sahel fuel sources. This has significantly increased defor-
region and is likely to continue in the coming years. estation and wrought significant changes in liveli-
hood patterns. For example, livestock rearing and
Stopping deforestation and protecting and agriculture has ceased to provide the best option
increasing the area of land covered by forests is and firewood collection has become more attrac-
a necessary component for any strategy to build tive (Figures 1.2). At the beginning of the conflict,
resilience against the consequences of climate collection of wood and charcoal production were
change. Forests not only convert carbon dioxide only coping strategies, but now they have become
(CO2) into oxygen, thus slowing the pace of climate viable long-term livelihood options – a seismic shift
change, but they also prevent soil erosion, helping that needs to be reversed. In the event of failure to
to secure agricultural productivity and combat respond, conflicts over timber resources will arise,

Figure 1.1. WISDOM – East Africa. Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Overview Mapping (WISDOM)
Methodology.
Source: FAO (2005)
Figure 1.2. Shift in livelihood strategies (Arab Aballa in Barka Alla, North of Kutum, North Darfur)
Source: Tufts University (2009)

particularly in the north-south Sudan border regions, use was mainly limited to Khartoum, where only well-
where economic opportunities in timber trade are off households and a few institutions, like the Uni-
high. versity of Khartoum boarding houses, were using it.
During the 1970s, other petroleum companies (Total
A switch to innovative, sustainable, clean energy and Agip) entered the LPG market in Sudan. Despite
sources is, therefore, urgently needed for the this, owing to the high price of (imported) LPG and
Sudanese people. Since the household sector is the low cost of firewood and charcoal, LPG use
the largest energy consumer in Sudan, widespread remained restricted to Khartoum state. During the
promotion and use of clean cooking technologies late 1980s, firewood and charcoal prices increased
is essential. Among the options for clean fuel in and this, combined with greater public awareness,
Sudan is Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). LPG is a saw the use of LPG expand beyond Khartoum to
mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, primarily pro- reach the capital cities of states in northern Sudan.
pane and butane, derived during natural gas and However, bottlenecks in supply chains limited its
oil extraction and refining. It is a clean burning fuel use beyond well-off households that could afford
which emits no smoke or residual particulate matter to keep a stock of several cylinders.
and has relatively low pollutant emissions. It has a
number of advantages over traditional wood fuels Following the inauguration of the Khartoum refinery,
including: which used locally produced oil, availability of LPG
ceased to be an issue. The Government introduced
• No soot, burners have a longer life and there- a policy to incentivize the use of LPG by the domes-
fore maintenance is low; tic sector which attracted several institutions to
engage in projects intended to scale up LPG use,
• No spillage as it vaporizes at atmospheric tem- particularly in the household sector, across Sudan.
perature and pressure;
This report evaluates the efforts to date to support
• Instantly controllable flame temperature; the adoption of LPG use across the country, and
looks to highlight the constraints currently blocking
• Avoids scaling and decarburizing of parts; its widespread use.
• Environmentally friendly fuel with minimal sul- Work on this report was undertaken on the
phur content and sulphur- free emissions; recommendation of the Environmental Technology
Task Force (ENTEC), that was set up as a collaboration
• Very high efficiency with direct firing system between UN, donor and civil society organisations
instant heat for faster warm-up and cool-down; following the importance of this issue, identified
during the Darfur Joint Assessment Mission (DJAM)
• Can be used for a variety of applications. process in 2008. ENTEC’s central concern is to
introduce and scale-up alternative construction and
LPG can be easily stored, transported and used energy technologies in Darfur to reduce the current
virtually anywhere from downtown urban areas to rate of deforestation and projected deforestation
remote rural area. These properties have made it in the future when IDPs eventually return and
a highly appealing global fuel option which both reconstruction begins. The group is co-chaired
meets household energy needs and causes very by UNEP with a focus on energy and UN-Habitat
low levels of pollution. While LPG also has potential with a focus on construction technologies. More
downsides – it is highly inflammable at very low information is available at www.unep.org/sudan.
concentrations, and gas is odourless so the addi-
tion of a pungent odorant is compulsory worldwide
to enable rapid detection of leakages – its use is
considered significantly safer for household pur-
poses than fuels.
The introduction of LPG in Sudan was pioneered by

the Shell Petroleum Company during the 1960s. Its

2. Energy consumption in Sudan
2.1. Overall energy consumption percent in 2001 to 63 percent in 2009. Biomass

here refers to firewood, charcoal and residues
The last major national study on energy consump- from agriculture and animal waste.
tion in Sudan was published in 2001. Since then
however, Sudan has become a major oil producer The Second National Energy Assessment confirmed
and exporter. As a result the data in the 2001 the findings of the First National Assessment, in 1981,
national assessment cannot be said to accurately that biomass is the dominant source of energy
reflect the current situation as energy consumption in Sudan. Its contribution to national energy con-
patterns have undergone considerable changes. sumption, however fell from 83 percent in 1981
In particular three major changes since the Second to 78 percent in 2001 and to 63 percent in 2009.
Energy Assessment can be noted: Sudan’s principal energy sources are hydropower
(one percent), locally produced crude petroleum
• Petroleum products have become widely (36 percent) and biomass (63 percent). (Figure 2.1)
available from local refineries, their share in Energy from biomass mainly constitutes the burning
the energy market having increased from 20 of firewood and charcoal.
percent in 2001 to 36 percent in 2009;
Figure 2.2 shows Sudan’s national energy balance.
• Power generation (both hydro and thermal) has Sudan’s primary energy supply in 2008 amounted
expanded considerably; to 14,908 kilo tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe), while
energy consumption was 9,810 ktoe. This indicates
• LPG is produced at the Khartoum refinery and a high rate of energy loss from petroleum product
has been set aside for domestic consumption refining, electricity generation and distribution,
and power generation. Consequently, the bio- petroleum products distribution, and biomass con-
mass share in the energy market fell from 78 version (the production of charcoal).
Figure 2.1. Sources and percentages of national energy supply in Sudan, 2009
Hydro 1%
Oil 36%
Biomass 63%
Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2009)

At 67 percent, the biomass conversion losses are percent increase in urbanization rate induced a 14
remarkably high. This is due largely due to the percent increase in charcoal consumption (Tanza-
characteristics of charcoal production technol- nia Association of Oil Marketing Companies, 2002).
ogy – earth mound kilns, which have a theoretical
efficiency of about 30 percent. Earlier research con-
ducted by the Energy Research Institute indicated
2.2. Overall biomass energy
reasonable efficiency figures (of about 25 percent) consumption
for large volume (>100 m³) earth mound kilns,
which are commonly used in Sudan. (ERI, 1987) The Second National Energy Assessment showed
total consumption of biomass energy in 1999 to
Figure 2.2 also shows energy consumption by be about 8 million toe. This fell to 6.5 million toe
the country’s main sectors. The household sec- in 2008. Firewood remains the dominant biomass
tor is the dominant consumer with 49 percent in fuel, over the years contributing 63 percent of total
2008, against 60 percent in 2001. This reduction is biomass energy consumption (Figure 2.2).
explained by the expansion in the consumption of
petroleum products, mainly in the transport sector. The main consuming sectors of biomass energy
Biomass represents 95 percent of the total energy (Figure 2.3) are: household (68 percent), com-
consumed by the household sector. Of particular mercial/services (21 percent) and industries (11
note is the consumption of charcoal by households percent). The commercial/services sector includes
in urban centres. Over the last 25 years, urbanization restaurants and schools, while the industrial sector
levels in Sudan have risen from 22.4 percent in 1985 is composed largely of brick-makers, lime-burning
to 45 percent in 2010. Studies have shown that a 1 enterprises and oil mills.
Figure 2.2. National energy balance (‘000 tonnes of oil equivalent [toe]), 2008
ENERGY BALANCE and FLOWS (000 TOE) - 2008
Energy Supply Conversion and Losses End Use Sectors - Consumption
Hydro-Power 14
126 474 368
1% 57 Agriculture
Transmission & Distribution
8 Losses 18%
4
3 (106)
Generation Losses (66%)
705
(531) 203
Industry 10%
8 47
7
Crude Production 8
23098
4707 3099 1309 Services 14%

36%
Petroleum 117 (Commercial &
4079 Government)
Exported (18391)
Crude
Refinery Losses 13%
Exported Petroleum Products (678) 2577
Imported Petroleum Products 996 Transport 26%
Distribution Losses (318)
Wood 4037 190

63%
262
9079 Agri-Residues 1167 6343
4329 H-Holds 49%
Biomass
Wood Converted
to Chacoal 3875
(2596)
Charcoal Converssion Losses 67%
Resources = Consumption + Losses

14280 = 9810 + 4470

Figure 2.3. Composition of biomass energy biomass sources which constitute 96 percent of
consumption, 2009 total energy consumed by the household sector
Residue in 2001. (Figure 2.4)
s
Firewood and charcoal at 59 percent and 24 per-
17%
cent respectively, are the main fuels consumed.
At more than 12 percent, biomass residues also
constitute a considerable share of total household
energy consumption. This is mainly in the form of
cotton stalk produced in large irrigated agricultural
schemes in central Sudan.
Charcoal
Wood Charcoal is the main cooking fuel for urban house-
20%
63% holds (used by more than 89 percent of house-
Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2009) holds), while firewood is the dominant cooking fuel
in rural areas (used by more than 81 percent of
households). Indicatively, Khartoum state has the
lowest urban consumption of firewood per capita
The consumption of biomass energy by Sudanese
states shows considerable variation dependant on
the size of the population and resource availability
Figure 2.4. Consumption (%) of biomass energy
(Table 2.1). South Darfur and Khartoum states are
by sector, 1999
the major consumers of biomass energy, at 13
percent and 10 percent of total national biomass
energy consumption respectively.
2.3. Biomass energy

consumption – household sector
Household sector consumption accounts for 49 per-
cent (2008) of total energy consumption in Sudan.
Household energy consumption meanwhile – used
chiefly for cooking – comes almost entirely from Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2009)
Table 2.1. Biomass energy consumption in some Sudanese states (‘000 toe), 2001
Woodfuel Total biomass
% of total Biomass % of total

State
Charcoal Firewood Total country residues Total country
consumption consumption
North Darfur 47 274 321 5 6 326 4
West Darfur 47 306 364 5 3 357 4
South Darfur 98 834 932 14 82 1,014 13
Khartoum 286 499 785 12 8 793 10
River Nile 46 102 148 2 28 176 2
North Kordofan 98 290 388 6 49 437 5


and the highest urban charcoal consumption per charcoal meanwhile is 0.0667 tonnes (respec-
capita. Similarly, the percentage of rural households tively 0.0542 tonnes and 0.0913 tonnes for rural
using charcoal is very low in the three Darfur states and urban households). Households often use a
compared to other states.
combination of both fuels (Table 2.2). Firewood is
mostly used by both urban and rural households
The average national per capita consumption of
firewood is 0.273 tonnes (respectively 0.322 tonnes for cooking the main staple foods in the country:
and 0.176 tonnes for rural and urban households). Asida and Kisra1. Following the 1985 drought and
The national average per capita consumption of famines, the consumption of bread increased
Table 2.2. Households using a combination of different fuels for cooking purposes, White Nile state (%)
Type of fuel % of consumption

LPG 3.2
Firewood 2.4
Charcoal 4.0
LPG + firewood 2.4
Charcoal + firewood 4.8
Charcoal + firewood + LPG 17.4
Charcoal + firewood + LPG + agricultural residues 61.6
Charcoal + firewood + dung + agricultural residues 4.0
Other (agriculture residues, kerosene, gasoline, dung) 5.0
Source: Mahasin (2007)
Figure 2.6. Biomass energy consumption by the industrial sector in Sudan
1
Asida is the main staple food in rural areas of Sudan, particularly Darfur, a porridge made from millet flour and cooked in round
aluminum pots that only fit well on the 3-stone fire place as the cooking process demands rigorous stirring) Kisra (mainly in Central
Sudan, Kisra represents the main staple food, a sort of pancake cooked on a hot plate, which fits well on almost all sorts of stoves,
even large size charcoal stoves (including recently LPG).No measures have been made to compare the energy consumption of
cooking Asida and Kisra. The cooking of Kisra consumes less energy as it does not involve boiling the water.

significantly across Sudan. Bread production is now Figure 2.7. Biomass energy consumption by
visible in almost all villages of Sudan and in remote medium-sized industries (‘000 toe), 1998
rural areas. The availability, access and cost of fuels
determine a household’s choice of the energy mix
for cooking.
2.4. Biomass energy

consumption – industrial and
services sector
Biomass energy consumption by industry sectors is
shown in Figure 2.7. The main consumer of agro-
residues is the sugar industry, where bagasse (the
fibrous matter that remains after sugarcane or Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2001)
sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice) is

a biofuel used mainly to meet the industry’s heat
and power demands. date national statistics are unavailable, it is clear
that in the 15 years since then, the economic land-
Industrial use of firewood and agricultural residues scape of Sudan has witnessed significant change
is mainly dominated by rural oil mills and soap fac- led by increased national revenue due to oil export.
tories (Figure 2.7), small to medium-sized concerns The building industry has flourished, prompting an
scattered across rural towns. Inefficiently generated increased demand for bricks. Accordingly, the pro-
heat is the main end use of these biofuels. duction of bricks may have as much as doubled,
and production has expanded to reach new areas.
(i) Brickmaking Industry In addition, the impacts of conflict induced dis-

The brick-making industry is distributed across placement have caused the production of bricks to
Sudan, however it is particularly concentrated increase several fold. In particular, increasing rates of
in central Sudan, along the Blue Nile In 1994, urbanization through the influx of people displaced
the industry’s annual consumption of firewood from rural areas, combined with the increased pres-
amounted to 13,932,000 toe. While more up to ence of the international community (UN peace-
Figure 2.8. Number of bricks produced and taxed by Forestry National Corporation (FNC) in major
towns of Darfur, pre and post conflict

Figure 2.9. Regional annual firewood consumption by bakeries, 1994, 2000 and 2005 (‘000 toe)
Source: Ministry of Council of Ministers (2005)
keepers and humanitarian agencies and NGOs) It is usually classified into two categories: formal
created significant demand drivers for construction (restaurants, boarding houses, schools and prisons)
and increased brick-making. (Figure 2.8) and informal (urban and roadside tea and food
vendors).
(ii) Other industries
The bread-making industry is a major consumer of 2.5. Other sources of energy
firewood. Since 1994 there has been a consistent consumed by the household
increase in firewood consumption across Sudan
(Figure 2.9). In 2005, firewood consumption by bak-
sector
eries amounted to 15,738,000 toe, with Khartoum
Other energy sources used in the domestic sector
state and the central regions of Sudan accounting
include electricity and petroleum products (kero-
for the highest consumption levels
sene/gasoil and LPG). Consumption of the latter,
and particularly of LPG by the household sector,
(iii) Commercial and services sector has increased considerably in recent years. This can
Commercial and services sector consumption of be attributed both to increasing availability from
biomass energy is quite considerable (Table 2.3). local production, and to government incentives.
Table 2.3. Annual firewood and charcoal consumption by the commercial/services sector, 1999
Charcoal consumption Firewood consumption

Commercial/Services
(tonnes) (tonnes)
Formal Sector 234,640 2,477,078
Informal sector 13,925.2 10,550
Total 248,565.2 2,487,628

Figure 2.10. Share of electricity consumption by
the different sectors
Kerosene/gasoil is mainly used for lighting purposes,

while LPG is mainly used for cooking in urban areas.
The household sector consumes about 51 percent

of total generated electric power (about 2.7 percent
of total household energy consumption) (Figure
2.10). Only about 30 percent of the population
enjoys this service however as the national electricity
grid only covers central parts of the country. Other
towns are supplied from isolated generation units,
while rural areas of the country remain out of range
of electricity services. The vast size of the country,
coupled with distant rural settlements, have made
investment in power infrastructure in rural areas
prohibitive.

3. Making the case for LPG – Environmental and
health impacts of high dependence on biomass
energy and benefits of LPG
3.1. Environmental impacts of high The demand for wood products is significant
and far exceeds the natural regrowth rate. The
dependence on biomass energy annual clearance of forest area in Sudan is
The environmental challenges posed by the high about 36,975 hectares. This has led to a tangible
dependence on biomass as a source of household deficit between the annual consumption of forest
energy are considerable in Sudan. The country has products, 21 million m³, and the annual growth
witnessed an acute reduction in forest area, which rate and reforestation of 10 million m³ annually.
has decreased from covering 36% of the country The result of such a non-sustainable exploitation
in 1958 to 12% in 1998. (Forestry National Corpora- of forest resources is a continuous depletion of
tion (FNC), 1998) forest area.
Table 3.1. Risks associated with forest loss and degradation
Function Process Implication
Rainfall diminishes over deforested Prejudicial to agricultural and

Climatic amelioration
land, but not greatly pastoral production
Unprotected soil loses fertility

Highly prejudicial to agricultural
Soil and/or rapidly erodes to a near-
production
worthless condition
Deforested slopes release water Water loss during rains; water

Water catchment
rapidly shortages during dry season
Heavy off-take of wood converts

With less woodland, Sudan would
closed forest to open forests, and
Habitat conservation lose much of its wildlife and many
open forest to scrubland – leading
rare species of plants
to desertification
Traditional culture depends heavily Medicinal herbs and wood for

Culture values
of forest products carving become harder to find
Most rural dwellers augment their Wild fruits and honey become
Subsistence
food supply with forest products harder to find
Diversion of government funds to

Civil disorder Competition for scarce resources security and public order instead
of development
Source: UNEP (2007)

Figure 3.1. Regional distribution of the volume of growing forest stock and annual allowable cut, 1998
Source: FNC (1998)
Figure 3.1 shows that the Darfur and Kordofan and other deadwood. In contrast urban households
regions contain the bulk of remaining woody bio- primarily depend on fuel purchased from the mar-
mass stock in the Republic of Sudan. However, within ket. In general, commercial fuelwood is collected
these regions the distribution of remaining woody by organized, well-equipped traders who undertake
biomass stock can vary considerably – Northern large-scale tree felling to obtain bulk quantities of
Darfur and Northern Kordofan, for example are fuel which is then transported to urban areas. By
highly impacted by desert encroachment and clearing large forest areas annually without replant-
have significantly fewer forest resources than South ing trees, the harvesting of fuel for the urban markets
Darfur and South Kordofan. (FNC (1998) contributes to environmental degradation.
Urban demand for wood products is an important The industrial sector also contributes to the depletion
driver of deforestation in less populated states. of forest resources (Figure 3.2). Bakeries and brick-
Firewood and charcoal are presently hauled over makers are the main consumers of firewood in the
more than 1,000 km to supply major consump- industrial sector. Both industries employ traditional
tion areas in central Sudan (Khartoum and Central production processes characterized by using inef-
region) from as far off as South Kordofan. ficient wood burning techniques. The brickmaking
industry is considered highly polluting in nature and
The burning of non-renewable woodfuel is also energy intensive. Such highly polluting industries
responsible for emissions of greenhouse gases, are a major health hazard for not only the work-
including as CO2, CH4, CO, N2O and NOx. Given ers but also for the surrounding populations. This
that the household sector is responsible for consum- is particularly the case in Khartoum State, where
ing 68% of total biomass consumption in Sudan, brickmaking yards along the Blue and main River
it is clear that this sector is an important source of Niles are becoming enclosed within the residential
greenhouse gas emissions as it uses non-renewable areas. Smoke from the brick kilns accompanied by
woodfuel burned in inefficient stoves. However, a strong odour has become an inherent feature of
some studies (Ministry of Energy and Mining,1983) many residential areas of Khartoum. The burning
claim that households in the rural areas use renew- of cow dung contained in the bricks is the main
able wood as they usually collect fallen branches source of the odour.

Figure 3.2. Annual fuelwood consumption by traditional industries and forest area cleared to meet the
demand
Source: Ministry of Council of Ministers (2005)
The inefficient burning of biomass fuels emits harm- 3.2. Health impacts
ful greenhouse gases which usually are referred to
as products of incomplete combustion (PIC). These Cooking and heating with solid fuels, such as dung,
are considered to be significantly larger contributors wood, agricultural residues, charcoal and coal,
to global warming than CO2 and include methane remains the most widespread traditional source of
(CH4), nitrous Oxide (N2O), carbon monoxide (CO) indoor air pollution exposure globally. Indoor smoke
and non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC). (COM- contains a range of health-damaging pollutants,
PETE, 2009). such as small particles and CO, and particulate
pollution levels may be 20 times higher than
The burning of fuelwood is considered to be accepted guideline values (WHO 2004). Indeed,
among the highest contributors of PIC’s amongst indoor air pollution has been identified as being
other sources of domestic fuel. Due to incomplete responsible for 2.7 percent of the global burden
of disease (WHO, 2009).Nearly 2 million people die
combustion of fuelwood anywhere between 10 and
every year from household air pollution; 44 percent
20% of released carbon is PIC.
from childhood lower respiratory infections (LRI), 54
percent from chronic obstructive pulmonary dis-
Modern cooking fuels emit far less PIC than fuel-
ease and 2 percent from lung cancer. (WHO 2011)
woods which, due to incomplete combustion,
It has been found that children exposed to indoor
release 10 and 20% of released carbon as PIC. LPG
air pollution from household solid fuel use have a
on the other hand is far more efficient, with a release
2.3-fold higher risk of LRI, while women exposed to
rate of 2.3%.(COMPETE, 2009) Even where biomass
such indoor air pollution have a 3.2-fold higher risk
is harvested sustainably, the fuelwood would not be of COPD (Goldemberg, J. et al., 2004).
carbon neutral due to its incomplete combustion.
The situation is further exacerbated when fuelwood People cook with solid fuels at least once a day
is inefficiently burned on traditional stoves, as is the in around half of the world’s households (Desai et
case in Sudan. al., 2004). In rural areas of developing countries,

Table 3.2. Annual premature death and disability associated with indoor air pollution in Sudan
Premature deaths attributable Disability-adjusted life Share of total national burden

to use of fuelwood and years attributable to use of disease attributable to use
charcoal for cooking of fuelwood and charcoal of fuelwood and charcoal
4,400 79,000 0.7%
Source: IEA (2008)
the prevalence of solid fuel use is even higher. In national burden of disease attributable to the use of
Sudan, more than 70 percent of households use fuelwood and charcoal is estimated at 0.7 percent
solid fuels as their primary household cooking fuel (see Table 3.3). Monitoring of indoor air pollution
(SHHS, 2006). Combustion of solid fuels on inefficient in poor households in Eastern Sudan, meanwhile,
stoves in poor ventilation conditions results in large showed that concentrations of CO and particu-
exposure to indoor air pollution, particularly for
late matter were 20 times the WHO standard of
women and young children, who spend the greater
50 µg/m³ (Practical Action, 2006).
part of their time at home.
In Sudan premature deaths attributable to the use Figure 3.3 shows the emission of pollutants of differ-
of fuelwood and charcoal for cooking are esti- ent household fuels per cooked meal. As concerns
mated at 4,400 per year, while disability-adjusted the relative emissions per meal, LPG use is second
life years attributable to their use are estimated lowest for both carbon monoxide and hydrocar-
at 79,900 per year (IEA 2008). The share of total bons, and lowest for particulate matter.
Figure 3.3. Health-damaging pollutants per unit energy delivered: ratio of emissions to LPG
Smith, K.R et al. (2005)

3.3. Environmental and health iii. According to the IPCC, LPG is not a greenhouse
gas, meaning it is assigned a global warming
benefits of LPG to households potential factor of zero. The IPCC lists the global
LPG, a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons produced warming potential factor of CO2 as 1 and C4
from natural gas and oil extraction as well as oil as 25 (IPCC, 2007).
refining, has three physical properties that are par-
In studies carried out in India, it was shown that the
ticularly relevant to its carbon footprint:
burning of LPG emits far less greenhouse gases
i. In comparison to most hydrocarbons, LPG has compared to other fossil fuels and non-renewable
a low carbon to hydrogen ratio, which means biomass fuels. Cooking with LPG at the household
that it generates lower amounts of CO2 per level emits 126 g/MJ CO2 and 0.002 g/MJ N2O,
amount of heat produced. while for the same amount of energy wood fuel
emits respectively 305g and 0.018 g of CO2 and
ii. While there is a degree of natural variation in N2O. Hence, the burning of LPG produces far less
heating values due to the specific proportions greenhouse gases compared to non-renewable
of butane and propane within a particular wood (Figure 3.4).
sample of LPG, it nevertheless has a comparably
high heating value, meaning it contains more In addition, LPG provides a safe alternative to
energy per kg than most competing fuels. traditional for household cooking. As highlighted
Figure 3.4. Co-benefits for climate and health of changes in household fuels in India
(For comparison, the health-based standard for particle air pollution is about 50 μg/m3. The arrow
illustrates a shift from crop residues to LPG for one household, which would decrease indoor air
pollution by 95 percent and greenhouse gas emissions by 75 percent)
Source: Kirk R. Smith et al. (2005)

Table 3.3. Airborne emissions for household cooking, India (g/MJ delivered energy)
Fuel CO2 N2O
LPG 126 0.002
Biogas 144 0.002
Kerosene 138 0.002
Wood fuel 305 0.018
Crop residues 565 0.028
Charcoal 710 0.018
Dung cake 876 0.022
Source: UNDP/World LP Gas Association (2003)
in Table 3.3 above, LPG emissions of the main

noxious gases are the lowest of all other cooking
fuels including biogas.
As a low carbon and particulate energy able to

replace less clean sources, LPG can contribute
to improving quality of life by helping to reduce
the social cost of energy use on the Sudanese
population.
Due to its characteristics LPG provides a useful

tool for national policy makers and international
actors. LPG is portable, multi-purpose and has a
high volume-to-energy yield ratio. As a result it can
rapidly be introduced in the aftermath of natural
disasters and humanitarian crises where local
availability of energy for heating, cooking or power
generation is required.
LPG can also play an important role in economic

and social development as it allows for activity
and development to take place throughout
Sudan, even in remote areas characterized by
low population density. In rural areas without
reliable access to petroleum products, LPG
serves as a reliable back-up to renewable energy
sources, thereby facilitating decentralized energy
production and accelerating the proliferation of
renewable technology.

4. Sudan’s energy policy
4.1. Key stakeholders in the into one ministry and then again in 2010 split into
three ministries (Oil, Mining and Electricity). Similarly,
energy sector the FNC, which was formerly under the Ministry of
Agriculture, is now under the Ministry of Environment,
A number of national institutions in Sudan have
Forestry and Physical Development.
mandates related to the energy sector. These are
summarised in Table 4.1 below. The main stakehold- In addition to the agencies listed above, the fol-
ers responsible for policy making as concerns LPG lowing bodies are also responsible for regulatory
are the Ministry of Petroleum and the FNC. activities relevant to the sector.
Over the past 10 years, the energy sector has seen • General Administration for Environment and
several changes with the creation of new ministries, Safety: This regulatory body within the petro-
and shifts of functions between existing ministries. As leum sector deals with environmental issues in
an example, the Ministry of Energy and Mining was the oil fields (explorations, refineries, transporta-
split in two ministries (Oil and Electricity), regrouped tion activities and legislations).
Table 4.1. Institutional structure of the energy sector in Sudan
Function Key Institution
Policy and Ministry of Petroleum (General Directorate of Energy Affairs)

Planning Ministry of Electricity and Dams
Forests National Corporation (Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Physical
Development)
Ministry of Finance and National Economy
National Council for Strategic Plan
Sudan Petroleum Corporation (Ministry of Petroleum)

Pipeline Companies and Transport (Ministry of Petroleum)
Khartoum Refinery (Ministry of Petroleum)
Energy Petroleum Exploration Companies
Supply National Electricity Corporation (Ministry of Electricity and Dams), now divided into
several companies
Forests National Corporation
Private sector companies and enterprises
Energy Research Institute, ERI, – National Centre for Research, Ministry of Science
and Technology
Training, Forestry Research Institute
Khartoum University and the Sudan University for Science and Technology – Ministry
Research and
of High Education
Development Sudan Academy for Science and Technology – Ministry of Science and Technology
General Directorate of Energy Affairs (responsible for undertaking National Energy
Assessments, planning, and policy)
Energy/ Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources – Ministry of Environment,
Environment Forests and Physical Development
Protection/
Civil Defence Department – Ministry of interior Affairs
security
Source: Own table

• FNC: Responsible for non-commercial fuel i.e. NEC: The NEC is responsible for electricity genera-
wood fuel resources. tion, transmission and distribution in Sudan. One of
NEC’s objectives is to diversify its electricity supply
• Higher Council for Environment and Natural options through greater use of renewable energy.
Resources: Operating within the Ministry of
Environment, HCENR is charged with regulatory SPC: The SPC is responsible for petroleum explora-
issues in environmental matters, including those tion, production, refining, transportation, marketing,
related to energy. financing, planning, arranging licenses, supervision
and new legislation. SPC is composed of several
departments, each responsible for specific man-
4.1.1 Ministry of Petroleum
date within the wider petroleum sector.
The Ministry of Petroleum consists of a number of
corporations and companies, the main ones being: The Nile Petroleum Company, (NPC) operating
under the Ministry of Petroleum, is responsible for
• The Sudanese Petroleum Corporation which is marketing petroleum products. The NPC has an
responsible for exploring, producing, refining, integrated system of storage and delivery from its
transporting, marketing, financing, planning, main depots in Al-Jaili, Al-Shajara, Port Sudan and
arranging licenses, supervision and the devel- Wad Medani. The NPC is responsible of supplying
opment of new legislation. This corporation petroleum products to a number of sectors includ-
is composed of several departments, each ing: Electricity Stations, Sugar Factories, Irrigated and
responsible for specific mandate within the Mechanical Agricultural Sectors, Irrigation Institutes,
Roads and Bridges, Service Sectors, Security and
wider petroleum sector.
various development projects. In addition to its
• Controlling more than 50 per cent of the major depots, ten regional depots (Port Sudan,
Medani, Atbara, Sennar, Kassala, Gedarif, Rabak,
market, the Nile Petroleum Company is con-
Al-Fasher, Nyala, Dongola and Al-Obeid) are distrib-
sidered to be the sole arm for the Ministry of
uted across Sudan to deliver gas cylinders.
Petroleum with the mandate of distributing and
marketing petroleum products. The Company
In conformity with the government’s directives at
is responsible of supplying petroleum products
naturalizing LPG services as an alternative for char-
to important strategic sectors like electricity sta-
coal and wood as a source of domestic energy,
tions, sugar factories, irrigated and mechanical
the NPC distributes gas tanks for bakeries free of
agricultural sectors, irrigation institutes, roads
charge, and provides the delivery service from
and bridges, service sectors, security and the its main depots to assist in providing clean and
various development projects in progress. healthy bread for the public. This comes through
commercial agreements and coordination with
4.1.2 Civil Defence the major companies working in the marketing
and distribution of wheat flour such as Sayga and
While Civil Defence has no engagement on Wheata Companies.
biomass fuels production and use, the depart-
ment establishes safety measures for the storage, FNC: The FNC is empowered to exercise technical
transportation, handling and end use facilities supervision over all forests throughout the country
of petroleum products. Actors in the sector must and entitled to issuing directives or take measures
obtain a license from Sudan Civil Defence prior to for protection and management of reserved and
establishing any petroleum product service facility. unreserved forests across the country. At the federal
level, FNC is the sole agency responsible of manag-
4.1.3 Public corporations ing the forestry sector. Through its state offices, FNC
manages the production, supply and marketing of
The energy sector is dominated by three public firewood and charcoal all over the country.
corporations: the FNC, Sudanese Petroleum Corpo-
ration (SPC) and the National Electricity Corporation In the early 1990s, the FNC launched its Gabatgaz
(NEC). Project which aimed at facilitating households’

Brick kilns on the banks of the Blue Nile, in El Gezira state. The brick-making industry is a major market for
fuelwood.
accessibility to LPG and its appliances. This is dis- 4.2. Energy policy
cussed in detail below at section 5.1)
The Ministry of Petroleum has the responsibility for
4.1.4 Civil society organizations formulating and implementing the energy policies
in the country. The government formulates its energy
A number of NGOs concerned with environmental policies by using a participatory process between
conservation, food security and livelihoods have relevant ministries and stakeholders for each policy
implemented LPG promotion projects in different field e.g. oil, electricity. The national energy policy
parts of the country. These include: sets the direction for the development of the energy
sector in order to meet national development
• Practical Action in Eastern Sudan, PA, (Kassala goals in a sustainable manner. Through its General
and Gedaref States) Directorate of Energy Affairs, the Ministry of Energy
and Mining is responsible for:
• Sudanese Environment Conservation Society,
SECS, (Khartoum State) • Conducting National Energy Assessments;
• Formulating and implementing the strategic

• Plan Sudan (Kassala State)
national energy planning issues;
• Sustainable Action Group (IDP camps in North
• Promoting and disseminating renewable
Darfur) energy technologies; and
These initiatives are discussed in greater detail in • Conducting studies for conservation and envi-
Section 5 below. ronmental impacts issues.

The First National Energy Assessment (1981) was • To conserve the environment through efficient
the first policy endeavour towards understanding and optimal utilization of local resources,
and planning the energy sector in Sudan. The especially forests, and to promote tree planting
main output was the first National Energy Plan, activities. The solution of the energy problem
1983, which placed significant emphasis on the should not be at the cost of deterioration of
environmental crisis facing the country given the natural resources.
high dependence on biomass energy. The main
policy directives were: • To conserve all energy types so as to generate
the highest economic value for energy and
• Improving the efficiency of biomass fuels con- minimize the cost to the economy.
version, particularly in the household sector
• To develop the energy sector institutions to
• Development of alternative fuels, mainly tar- ensure coordination between consumers and
geting the conversion of biomass residues into producers.
convenient fuels for the household sector
• To develop and promote local and/ or adapted
• Creation of new biomass resources – tree energy technologies particularly in the field of
plantations, and maximum use of available renewable energy resources.
resources, particularly woody biomass resulting
from mechanized farms clearing operations • To train qualified and adequate staff at all levels
to facilitate the development of energy sector.
• Development and dissemination of renewable
energy technologies use, particularly solar The government energy policy has the following
energy objectives for the energy sector, with emphasis on
energy security through:
In the wake of the National Energy Plan, several
projects were launched with international support • Efficient energy supply in an environmentally
aimed at realizing the above policy objectives. sustainable manner at feasible but socially
However, by the end of 1992 almost all of these acceptable prices;
projects had come to a standstill, largely due to
lack of funding. • De-monopolization and liberalization of the
energy market;
The Second National Energy Assessment (2001) did
not formulate a National Energy Plan. Oil produc- • Fostering competition in the energy market
tion and export had created new priorities in the where possible through privatization;
energy sector and all efforts were directed towards
more exploration with the objective of increasing • Establishing a regulatory framework; and
oil production and export. Following the inaugura-
tion of two oil refineries at Al Obeid and Khartoum, • Addressing market and institutional failures to
the country became energy self-sufficient, and an promote energy efficiency and renewable
exporter of petroleum products. energy resources and to protect the environ-
ment.
Given the changing energy environment, a revised
energy policy was articulated. The energy policy In realization of the above policy the prices of
within the overall development policy (as articu- petroleum products were subsidised at levels below
lated by the National Strategic Plan) is as follows prevailing international prices. Indicatively, at the
(NCSP, 2006): inauguration of the Khartoum refinery in 2001,
the price of LPG for domestic consumption was
• To provide an adequate and reliable supply of reduced by 50 percent and has remained fixed
energy from local resources to support sustain- since. In addition, LPG equipment was exempted
able development. from import duty tax.

4.3. Government subsidies for Promotion efforts to achieve widespread use of
LPG by the household sector were mainly directed
LPG towards facilitating households’ access to LPG
appliances (cylinders and gas burners). The main
As one of its components, the 2001 National Energy
Policy sought to encourage the widespread use of target was the formal sector, where institutions were
LPG by the household sector. This was done through: directed to facilitate employees’ access to LPG
appliances. Institutions purchased the LPG equip-
• Reduction of LPG price by 50 percent at refinery ment and employees repaid the cost through
gate; monthly installments from their salaries.
• Exemption of LPG equipment from import duty As a consequence of the above policy and dissem-
tax (although VAT applied); ination efforts the consumption of LPG increased
tremendously (Figures 4.1). The low price of LPG
• Commitment for consistent and sustainable relative to other petroleum products attracted other
supply of LPG for the domestic consumption; sectors, including the automobile and industrial
sectors, to switch to LPG use instead of gasoline
• Measures to ensure LPG price stability.
and fuel oil. However, faced with a steady growth
The government subsidy scheme for LPG did not of LPG consumption by the domestic sector, the
however involve any awareness campaign or government banned distribution for the automo-
promotional activity in order to further encourage bile sector, and stopped new authorizations for the
households to switch to LPG use instead of wood- industrial sector (2008). In addition, industries which
fuel. In addition, LPG subsidies are maintained only had already converted to LPG use were subject to
for the household and commercial/services sectors, pay a premium price of SDG 1,000 per tonne. For
and for bakeries, which together have been identi- the household sector, the price was maintained
fied as key biofuel users in need of intervention. at SDG 960 per tonne. Export of LPG was also
Figure 4.1. Development of LPG production, consumption and export, 2000-2006 (‘000 mt)
Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining, SPC- website

reduced significantly. (Figures 4.1). However, the central and states governments as regards the
local consumption of LPG sharply increased from dissemination of LPG use. These taxes may serve to
31,977 tonnes in 2000 to 274,397 tonnes in 2006, make fuelwood much cheaper than LPG in these
Figure 5.2. states, and keep the majority of households using
biomass fuels.
Due to the high upfront costs of LPG appliances,
refilling cost and lack of awareness in many parts
of the country, the consumption of LPG is mainly
concentrated in Khartoum State, which accounts Figure 4.2. LPG consumption in Sudanese states,
1993-2006
for over 70 percent of total use. (Figure 4.2), fol-
lowed by the Gezira, Nile and Kassala States. In
these states the penetration of LPG use was also
facilitated by proximity to a major supplier of LPG
(the Al Gaily Refinery) and the existence of good
transport infrastructure, coupled with high local
prices of fuelwood.
The government has sought to fix the price of LPG

and regulated LPG refilling prices in Khartoum State.
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
There is however poor adherence to these regula-
tions, and of the suppliers, only the NPC applies the Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining Website, Oil Statistics
fixed price of SDG 12.0 for 12.5 kg cylinder at its Book (n.d.)
petrol stations in Khartoum State. For other suppli-
ers in Khartoum the price has been noted to vary
between SDG 12 and 15. Figure 4.3. Variation in 12.5 kg LPG cylinder
refilling price in different cities and towns in
For the other states, sales prices are determined by Sudan
transport costs and availability. Given the state of
roads, there is significant variation in LPG consumer
prices across the different states (Figure 4.3). The
highest refilling price of LPG is noted in Darfur, where
transport by either rail or road tankers is very expen-
sive, due to long hauling distance and insecurity.
The uptake of LPG across the country is in some

cases hindered by taxes levied by various states
governments and localities on LPG. This points to
a weakness in policy coordination between the Source: Practical Action (2008a)
Khartoum Locality LPG Initiative

In 2005, the Khartoum Locality (Environment Department) issued a decree requiring the commercial and services
sectors to switch from firewood and charcoal to LPG. To encourage uptake, the Locality threatened to ban the
entry of firewood and charcoal into Khartoum State. Concurrently, the Khartoum State Social Fund was directed to
facilitate household access to LPG equipment through microfinance loans. This endeavour was however unsuc-
cessful due to a number of defaults on the repayment of loans.
As the prices of firewood and charcoal soared, the response of the commercial and services, sector in Khartoum was
very positive and almost all restaurants switched to LPG use in place of firewood and charcoal. The Civil Defence
Department (Ministry of Interior) put in place safety regulations and an awareness program to allay fears over the
possible safety risks of LPG appliances. This initiative can be credited as supporting the significantly increased
consumption of LPG in Khartoum (figure 4.2).

4.4. A preliminary analysis of The basic price structure for LPG is determined by
the SPC which sets the price at the refinery gate,
relevant policy issues applying a subsidy of approximately 50 percent.
As such, in July 2009 the price of LPG in Sudan
At the federal level there are a number of govern-
was $250/mt compared with the average world
ment departments with mandates relating to LPG.
price of around $530/mt. The transport costs from
These include the Ministry of Energy, the State Petro-
the refinery to distribution points around Sudan are
leum Administration, the Civil Defence, the Ministry
also supposed to be determined by government.
of Finance and the FNC. These actors have a say
In practice, however, there is sometimes consider-
as to the extent to which LPG replaces woodfuel
able local variation in the price that different LPG
as a source of energy, pricing levels for LPG, and
distributors charge. The findings of this report suggest
whether to allow the importing of LPG to keep pace
that further research is needed to fully understand
with local demand. A preliminary review of federal
the dynamics of LPG pricing policy and practice
policy relating to LPG in Northern Sudan indicates
in Sudan.
that it has not been consistent and that it has not
yet prioritised increasing and stabilising the supply
of LPG. 4.5. Conclusion
State level policies have also had an impact on In combination with proactive government poli-
the uptake of LPG, particularly through fees and cies aimed at encouraging the use of LPG by the
taxes. As described in section 5.6 below, firewood household sector, a number of LPG stakeholders
traders in Khartoum attribute a large part of the rise have played complementary roles in promoting
in firewood prices to increasing taxes imposed at widespread uptake of LPG across the country. It
the state level. This directly helps the substitution of is clear however that due to challenges in pricing
LPG for firewood. Some state governments have and policy coherence, the target of a real reduc-
taken more significant measures to reduce the use tion in the use of biomass in the household sector
of firewood. For example, Khartoum State passed require further effort. One possible solution may lie
an Act to stop the use of charcoal and firewood in in the creation of an LPG Forum where stakeholders
the commercial and services sector, although this could streamline their, consolidate achievements
does not appear to have been fully implemented. to date and prepare a joint strategy and plan to
achieve maximum substitution of LPG for woodfuel
In the absence of clear policy implementation on in the domestic.
LPG there are cases of contradictory measures
being taken at federal and at state levels. For
example, at federal level taxes were removed from
domestic appliances which use LPG, but various
state governments (e.g. the Northern State) have
then taken their own initiative in levying taxes on the
transport of LPG.
As demand for LPG has started to outstrip supply

in Northern Sudan (and Khartoum in particular) the
government has prioritised certain users of LPG
(households, restaurants and bakeries) over oth-
ers (the use of LPG for vehicles and for brick kilns.)
Despite these measures many stakeholders in the
LPG industry believe that imports will be necessary to
keep pace with rising demand. Whether this option
will be acceptable for the national stakeholders
remains to be seen.

5. Efforts to substitute LPG for biomass fuels
A number of initiatives have been undertaken to NGOs adopted the dissemination of LPG instead
encourage the use of LPG in place of traditional of improved stoves within their food security and
biomass fuels. These build on recognition of the livelihoods interventions, particularly in urban areas.
opportunities it presents in addressing both house-
hold health and in arresting deforestation due to
5.2. Practical action – Kassala/El
household energy demand.
Fasher
5.1. Sudagaz/FNC project Practical Action’s LPG use promotion projects in
Kassala and North Darfur have aimed to facilitate
In a joint partnership with Sudagaz Alamarty, the access to clean modern cooking energy for poor
FNC launched the Gabat Gas project in 2002, households. The primary goal of the project is to
aimed at facilitating households’ accessibility to improve the health conditions of women and chil-
LPG and LPG based appliances. dren below five years age, through a reduction of
smoke emitted by inefficient biomass fuel stoves.
Under the partnership Sudagaz imported LPG cylin-
ders from abroad. Through its offices across Sudan,
5.2.1. Kassala
the FNC ensured that these were widely distribution
throughout the States. Hood et al. (2004) report on the experience in
Kassala. Practical Action initiated the first indoor air
In total 88,521 LPG cylinders were distributed across pollution monitoring in Sudan, monitoring household
the country in 2002. The refilling of cylinders was indoor air pollution levels over a period of 24 hours.
conducted by the FNC. However, as FNC lacked the Thirty poor households from a semi-urban residential
necessary infrastructure and logistics for managing area (Wau Nour, Kassala) voluntarily participated in
the refilling process, the project faced considerable the research. Firewood purchased from the market,
constraints. These included (Mahasin, 2007): was the dominant cooking fuel, and usually took a
significant share of the daily household expenditure.
• High initial cost of gas appliances; Cooking took place on traditional inefficient three
stone stoves.
• Safety concerns over gas leakage due to the
cylinder’s adapter; The monitoring of indoor air pollution revealed
high levels of particulate matter and CO. During
• Underdeveloped LPG distribution and refilling the research phase, the project enabled 167
network; households to switch to cooking with LPG. The use
of LPG led to a reduction in indoor air pollution lev-
• Micro credit refund failure due to lack of clear els by more than 80 percent (Table 5.1). A scaling
implementation system and proper collateral up strategy was developed focussing on Women
means. Development Associations (WDA) and incorporat-
ing project partners and stakeholders. The scaling
As a number of private actors emerged to take up phase started in May 2004 and since then sig-
advantage of LPG subsidies, the Gabatagas project nificant achievements have been realized – over
stopped. The new LPG companies were authorized 3000 households switched to LPG use instead of
to refill its cylinders for existing consumers. biomass fuels.
Although the Gabatgaz project witnessed lot of The Practical Action project carried our energy
drawbacks, it can be lauded for encouraged saving and conservation calculations, concluding
private sector investments in LPG distribution and that cooking with LPG costs much less than using
marketing. In addition following the project several biomass fuels. It was shown that a household in

Table 5.1. Comparison between the levels of particulate matter and carbon monoxide as measured
before and after switching to LPG
24-hour means:
Pollutant Pre-intervention (n=30) Post-intervention (n=30)
Round 1 (wet season) Round 3 (wet season)
Respirable PM μg/m3) 980 160
CO kitchen (ppm) 12.9 3.1
CO woman (ppm) 6.3 1.9

Source: Hood, A., et al (2004)
Kassala could repay the cost of LPG appliances The strategy for scaling up LPG use in Kassala, par-
over a period of six months (Figure 5.1). Accord- ticularly in poor residential areas, was based on the
ingly, the idea of using a revolving fund system following components:
was presented to the WDA, which already had
experience with a revolving fund system used for • Supporting and capacity building of WDA’s as
funding income-generating activities. The WDAs the primary local partners;
are registered charity organizations, have accounts
with the Credit and Social Development Bank and • Provision of seed funding for the revolving fund
are registered for receiving formal credits. On their system;
acceptance of the idea, the project provided
seed funding to initiate the microcredit system. The • Awareness raising and training of women on
WDA was trained and its capacity built to procure the advantages of LPG over biomass fuels;
LPG appliances and to manage the microcredit
system. The households repaid their loans through • Training women on safety precautions and
lease term instalments. efficient use of LPG;
Figure 5.1. Payback periods (months) for the different LPG cylinders and appliance combination
options
Source: Hood (2004)

• Close cooperation with relevant stakeholders • Close monitoring of the microfinance system
and partners. These included: Ministry of Health; is essential to ensure the sustainability of LPG
Civil Defence Department; LPG Companies; funding initiatives.
and NGOs;
Over a period of three years the Practical Action
• Convincing LPG companies to provide LPG project enabled more than 3000 households in
cylinders on credit to WDA. Kassala State to switch from the use of firewood to
LPG. As the WDA have branches in rural towns and
The main lessons drawn from this project are sum- villages, the project activities expanded to cover
marized in Hood et al. (2004) and expanded on all of Kassala State. The successful participatory
below. project implementation approach adopted by
Practical Action produced enabled the WDA to
• For poor communities the acceptability of new sustainably run the project after the withdrawal of
ideas and technologies to alleviate poverty is Practical Action.
linked to addressing their needs and priorities;
5.2.2. El Fasher – North Darfur
• Participatory approaches and awareness-
raising are the best methods to reach, organize, Following its successful experience in Kassala, Practi-
and understand the needs and priorities of poor cal Action has looked to replicate its LPG initiative
communities, and to guarantee their involve- in El Fasher. The project started in December 2008
ment in project activities. It is an approach that and seeks to facilitate poor families’ sustainable
leads to sustainability; access to and use of LPG for cooking.
• Women organizations (WDAs) are the most The project strategy is based on the following
appropriate and interlocutors for the wide- components:
spread dissemination of LPG use in the
• Adopting a participatory project implementa-
domestic sector in Sudan. However, training
tion approach while working through partner-
and capacity building of WDAs are essential
ship with Women Development Associations,
for ensuring successful outcomes;
(WDAs), in North Darfur;
• The revolving fund system is the development of
• Use microcredit to facilitate poor households’
a traditional funding system in Sudan (Sandug).
access to LPG;
It solves the problem of poor communities’
access to services and income-generating
• Raising public awareness about the negative
activities, and is an empowerment tool, par- environmental and health impacts of burning
ticularly for women, which leads to an improve- fuelwood on inefficient stoves;
ment in their livelihoods;
• Training and education of beneficiaries on
• Involving partners and stakeholders at early efficient and safe use of LPG appliances;
stages of the project is a key element of project
success and sustainability; • Capacity building of partners. This includes the
training of WDA-Net (Women Development
• In poor households, smoke from burning Association Network in North Darfur) and WDA’s
firewood is not the sole source of indoor air on microfinance, accounting, bookkeeping;
pollution. Traditional kerosene wick lamps and
candles also contribute to indoor air pollution; • Monitoring to ensure continuous use of LPG and
timely repayment of credit instalments;
• For poor households accessibility to LPG appli-
ances does not guarantee consistent use of • Cooperation with Civil Defence Department for
LPG. Poor households may not be able to afford training and raising awareness on safety issues
the refilling cost of an LPG cylinder; of LPG use;

Selling point of LPG cylinders. The high upfront cost of LPG appliances and the cost of refilling LPG cylinders
are reasons cited by households for hindering the uptake of LPG in Darfur.
• Coordination and advocacy with view of The continued use of biomass fuels can be
influencing stakeholders to joint efforts with the attributed to traditional cooking methods and taste
project to achieve widespread dissemination preference. Some local staple foods, including
of LPG use in North Darfur; Asida and Kisra are more conveniently prepared
on the 3-stone fire place. It should be noted here
• Provide seed money to initiate the microfinance that there are no LPG stoves designed specifically
system, then run it on a revolving fund basis; for cooking Kisra.
• Close cooperation with LPG companies for sup-
It is clear therefore that in North Darfur the dynamics
plying LPG appliances on a lease term basis.
of new fuel and stove adoption and use does not
For the purpose of measuring the projects impact, a follow the correlation between household affluence
household energy survey was conducted by Practi- and modern fuels that is often seen elsewhere.
cal Action in El Fasher, 2008, covering 17 residential Other factors (including awareness and cultural
areas. It showed that 57.8 percent of households preference) greatly influence the decision to
were predominantly dependant on firewood and switch to using clean modern fuel at the household
charcoal for satisfying their cooking energy needs level. The situation in El Fasher is representative of
(see Table 5.3). Their average monthly expenditure this phenomenon, with well-off households using
on cooking fuel was SDG 83.0. multiple fuels to satisfy their cooking energy needs.
The same study showed that 20.4 percent of the Given the high rate of poverty in El Fasher, the
households only use LPG for cooking purposes, while main barrier to household access to LPG is the
9.5 percent of households use a cooking energy high upfront cost of LPG appliances. As indicated
mix (firewood, charcoal and LPG). in Table 5.3 below, this, along with the high cost of

Table 5.2. Average monthly household consumption of cooking fuels in El Fasher, and expenditure,
2008
Total Fuel source (kg per month)
% of total
household* Fuel combination use
sample of Firewood Charcoal LPG
expenditure options
147 HHs
SDG/month Kg SDG Kg SDG Kg SDG
71.0 2.7 Only using firewood 124.8 71.0
40.6 7.5 Only using charcoal 65.8 40.6
40.8 2.0 Only using LPG 14.6 40.8
Only using firewood and
83.0 57.8 147.8 46.3 48.8 36.7
charcoal
Only using LPG and
56.3 20.4 37.7 24.4 11.7 31.9
charcoal
Using three fuels (firewood

113.8 9.5 67.8 37.2 63.2 45.5 11.7 31.1
+ charcoal + LPG)
* Average household size is 7.9 persons
Source: Practical Action (2008)
refilling LPG cylinders (12.5 kg), and perceptions energy cost of using LPG is only SDG 0.11 compared
that the use of LPG is dangerous are the three main to SDG 0.2 and 0.25 respectively for firewood and
reasons deterring households from switching from charcoal on traditional stoves (3-stone fireplace
fuelwood to LPG and traditional metal charcoal stove). The main
reasons behind these figures are the high price of
Due to the high prices of biomass based fuels in biomass fuels with low energy density; inefficient
north Darfur, it much cheaper to cook with LPG than biomass stoves; and the high energy density of LPG.
with firewood or charcoal. This is notwithstanding the
high refilling price of LPG cylinders in El Fasher, which Based on this data, it was found that switching to
at SDG 35 are more than twice as expensive as LPG use in place of firewood and charcoal could
those in Khartoum. As shown in figure 5.2, the useful generate considerable monetary savings for
Table 5.3. Reasons that deter households from switching to LPG use in El Fasher
Reason for not using LPG Frequency %
N.A. 47 32.0
LPG appliances are too expensive -cannot afford it 73 49.7
Refilling cylinder is too expensive – cannot spare money 11 7.5
Using LPG is dangerous 9 6.1
All above answers 6 4.1
Others 1 0.7
Total 147 100.0

Figure 5.2. Useful energy costs (SDG/MJ) of using different cooking fuels in El Fasher
household in El Fasher. As highlighted in Figure 5.3 bility criteria for obtaining LPG appliances through
below these include 56 percent savings when LPG microcredit, with each WDA to serve as a guarantor
replaced charcoal, and 45 percent saving when for loans to its members.
replacing firewood to LPG use.
On the basis of these agreements, the initial seed
Following the baseline study the Practical Action money for the revolving fund was used to purchase
project signed partnership agreements with the a first batch of 561 LPG appliances sets for the
WDA-Net and two LPG companies in El Fasher. The benefit of seven WDAs. The repayment of credit
agreement with WDAs included beneficiary eligi- instalments from this batch was very good, reach-
Figure 5.3. Monetary savings (%) on switching from firewood and charcoal to LPG in El Fasher
Source: Practical Action Consulting (2009)

ing an average of 95 percent by December 2009 rural El Fasher, and from as far off as Kooma Gara-
(Table 5.4). dayat (80 km from El Fasher) and Kabkabiya (150
km from El Fasher) were engaged with the project.
Despite the high average repayment rate, there The repayment of credit instalments is very high,
were some cases of non-payment – including for and 92 percent of the beneficiaries are continu-
example within the Maiarem Women Association ously using LPG.
which defaulted on 35% of its total loan. Household
poverty was cited as the main reason for defaults, Other achievements of the project include building
with some women being unable to afford the a strong relationship with NPC, resulting in full lease
repayment of the loan or for the refilling of the arrangements for payment for LPG appliances.
cylinder. Accordingly they resorted back to using Practical Action and the WDAs are now well known
firewood for cooking fuel. and trusted chartered organizations in El Fasher.
As a result of this the number of beneficiaries per
Following this finding the credit eligibility criteria was batch has increased significantly.
revised to ensure that borrowers could pay for LPG
appliances. This included stipulations that LPG appli- 5.3. Sustainable Action Group
ances would be withdrawn within three consecutive
months of default repayment. Changing the benefi-
(SAG) – Abu Shouk and El Salam
ciary eligibility criteria has to some extent denied the IDP camps in El Fasher
poorest households from access to LPG. However,
within the context of the project, it was decided that Due to the scarcity of forest resources and insecurity
this was the only option to ensure access to credit in Darfur, particularly around El Fasher, IDPs face
for the WDA’s and project sustainability. difficulties in meeting their cooking energy needs.
As a consequence humanitarian organizations are
By May 2010, the total number of project benefi- undertaking efforts to help IDPs through energy con-
ciaries reached 2,905 – more than the planned servation measures and alternative fuels. Among
target of 2400 households, and the number of others a local NGO – the Sustainable Action Group
WDAs being supported increased to 27. WDAs from (SAG) – launched a free distribution initiative of 12.5
Table 5.4. Rate of repayment of credit instalments, first batch of LPG appliances
First Beneficiary Batch Loan Duration: March 09 – December 09
Number of Loan Repayment Deficit Repayment

SN Name of WDA
households (SDG) (SDG) (SDG) rate (%)
Tanmia wa Tatweer
1 50 7,775 7,775 0 100
Amaraa
2 Maiarem 20 3,200 2,090 1,110 65
3 Market net 50 8,000 8,000 0 100
4 Amel 45 8,750 7,673 1077 88
5 ERDN 45 8,137 7,713 424 95
6 Forestry families 20 3,200 3,200 0 100
7 Argoon 30 4,800 4,800 0 100
Total/Average 260 43,872 41,261 2,611 95


kg LPG cylinders to 1200 households in Abu Shauk ing appliances, namely the gas cylinder and gas
and Al Salam IDP camps in El Fasher. burner. The preferred LPG cylinder size in El Fasher
as well as in the IDP camps is the 12.5 kg capacity.
In consultation with the traditional leaders (Umdas) The market price of the cylinder and one gas burner
SAG agreed on a distribution criteria for LPG appli- is currently about SDG 432 (2012) in El Fasher. How-
ances. This essentially focused on the capacity of ever, Practical Action Smoke project has especial
the household to refill the cylinder in El Fasher (about deal with Nile Petroleum Company at a price of
SDG 37 including transport). As a result LPG appli- SDG 330. On switching to LPG use, Figure 5.4 shows
ances were mainly distributed to Umdas, Sheikhs the monthly monetary saving, number of days to
and some relatively well-off households. consume a 12.5kg LPG cylinder and the payback
period for different households which are spending
All LPG users in the two IDP camps unanimously between 1 SDG and 5 SDG daily on firewood.
cited the advantages and benefits of LPG over
firewood, as follows: As households in Al Salam and Abu Shauk indicated,
a minimum daily expenditure of 2 SDG on buying
• Using LPG (on average SDG 35 per month) is firewood justifies switching to LPG use, saving house-
cheaper than firewood (minimum SDG 60 per holds about 28 SDG every month. An LPG cylinder
month); lasts for about one month and the payback period
is about 6 months. Depending on family size and
• Cooking with LPG is fast – time saving (prepar- daily expenditure on firewood, the payback period
ing Asida on firewood fire takes minimum one for investment on LPG appliances ranges between
hour, while using LPG it takes 30 to 45 minutes); 2.5 to 6.3 months. However, within the IDP camp
context, very few households could afford investing
180 SDG to purchase the LPG appliances.
• There is no smoke, ash, or soot – the house and
clothes remain clean;
Lessons learned from the SAG LPG experience in
Abu Shauk and Al Salam IDP camps, as confirmed
• It is healthier and there is no eye irritation and
by the staff, are:
coughing;
• LPG is the best alternative cooking fuel option
• Children get to school in time and meals are
for IDPs in Abu Shauk and Al Salam IDP camps
prepared in a short time;
• In contrast to the general statement that LPG
• When there are guests at home, hot drinks are is a hazardous and dangerous fuel for IDP set-
served in a short time tings, the limited experience demonstrated that
adequate training of beneficiaries on correct
• LPG reduces water consumption. Cooking pots use and safety precautions helped to avoid
are clean as there is no soot deposit. accidents.
Monitoring undertaken by SAG staff indicated that • The introduction of LPG raised IDPs awareness
the LPG adoption rate by beneficiaries was very and encouraged a considerable number of
high. Although no specific figure is mentioned, SAG well-off IDP households to switch to LPG use
staff highlighted that some men who received LPG through direct purchase from the market
cylinders on behalf of their wives sold them. With
regards to LPG accidents, SAG staff noted that only • The unavailability of LPG refilling services within
one accident was reported during the three-year the camp discouraged some households from
period. It was however a small accident which refilling their empty LPG cylinders. If an LPG
was quickly contained by the household members refilling service is made available within the
without causing any damage. camp boundary, small size cylinders (4, and 6
kg) could replace the 12.5 kg cylinder thereby
Switching to LPG use instead of firewood requires a increasing the number of beneficiaries several
significant initial investment by households in cook- fold.

Figure 5.4. Household daily expenditure on firewood and corresponding monthly monetary savings on
switching to LPG use
Source: Practical Action Consulting (2009)
5.4. Sudanese Organization successful firing. Brickmaking entrepreneurs how-

ever have noted that LP gas firing of clamp kiln
for Building Materials and does not produce results that are significantly better
Construction (SOBMC) than wood firing (as regards the percentage of first
class bricks) and thereby results in none or very little
The Sudanese Organization for Building Materials financial saving.
and Construction (SOBMC) has tried to encourage
the brickmaking industry, particularly in Khartoum, to Similarly, Practical Action’s effort to introduce LPG
switch to LPG use instead of firewood. Without giving as substitute for firewood in brickmaking in Kassala
much attention to technical considerations regard- did not yield encouraging results. The main reasons
ing brick kiln design, SOBMC conducted intensive identified for this were: 1) LPG supply problems
experimental work on clamp kiln firing using LPG.
where only cylinders of 25 Kg capacity were avail-
Some slight modifications were introduced to the
able; and 2) the clamp kiln proved unsuitable for
clamp kiln (covering the top of the kiln and intro-
LPG firing.
ducing a side chimney) in order to reduce the heat
loss that occurs through flue gas created by high
draught which is caused by gas burners. 5.5. Green Bakery Project, Sayga
Although SOBMC claimed to successfully con- In the private sector, Sayga Flour Mills have
vert clamp kiln to LPG firing, it did not succeed in launched a corporate social responsibility initiative
convincing brickmaking entrepreneurs to adopt aimed at both supporting the baking industry, and
the new fuel. The later claimed that there were improving the environment.
non-financial benefits in switching to LPG use, and
that additional investment would be necessary to The Green Bakery Project supports traditional bak-
acquire an LPG tank and burners. eries by replacing woodfuel with a clean, safe,
cost-effective, and environmentally-friendly gas
SOBMC reported the results in Table 5.5 below. These burner system. In addition the project plants trees
represent the best results that have been achieved near the vicinity of bakeries that adopt the burner
so far through clamp kiln firing with LP gas. The high system, and ensures that appropriate conservation
percentage of first class bricks is an indication of and watering arrangements are made.

The goals of the project include: In areas where there is no tanker service, the baker-
ies are given with 45 kg cylinders (4 cylinders con-
• An efficient and cost-effective operational sys- nected in series).
tem which aims to reduce fuel costs by more
than 40 percent. LPG use by the bakeries is mainly concentrated in
the central part of the country, where LPG com-
• High standards of occupational health con- petes with high prices of firewood. In other areas,
ditions and work environment by eliminating for example Darfur, the high price of LPG renders
pollution resulting from wood burning. its use in the bakeries unfeasible.
• Shifting the baking industry to becoming more

environmentally sustainable. 5.6. Other initiatives
The Sayga LPG initiative is directly linked to the Some other efforts that have been undertaken to
Company’s promotion campaign for its products, disseminate the widespread use of LPG bear note.
notably flour. In a similar manner, other companies
in the industry have increasingly started promot- In 2000 the Sudanese Environmental Conservation
ing their products by providing LPG equipment to Society (SECS) implemented a small LPG use pro-
bakeries. motion activity in a rural area of Khartoum State.
Innovatively, the project included a microfinance
LPG Companies freely provide fuel tanks (2 to 4 system to support household access to LPG appli-
tonnes) to the bakeries for the purpose so as to ances. Unfortunately due to a lack of records on
ensure that the gas supply comes through them. the project, it was not possible to evaluate its results.
Table 5.5. Results of clamp kilns fired with LP Gas
LPG use rate

Quantity of bricks Quantity of First class
Kiln No. kg/1,000
(‘000) LPG used (kg) bricks (%)
bricks
1 120 540 4.5 86
2 117 657 5.6 83
3 70 436 6.2 74
4 73 400 5.5 88
5 113 518 4.6 72
6 109.5 676 6.3 83
7 114 550 4.8 88
8 52 330 6.3 89
Average 5.5
Source: SOBMC (2006)

Another LPG use promotion effort was undertaken
by the Credit and Savings Bank (2007). The main
objective of the project was the reduction/elimi-
nation of charcoal use by women tea makers in
Khartoum State, while increasing their income. On
contract from the bank, a sustainable tea making
stall was designed and manufactured by the Sudan
University of Science and Technology. It consisted
of a working table, shade and drawers contain-
ing an LPG cylinder and gas burner. The stall was
initially distributed to tea makers on a credit basis,
with lease term repayments. The endeavour how-
ever was short lived. As roadside tea making is an
informal activity, tea makers were liable to being
removed by local authorities and having their stalls
confiscated.
The NGO Plan Sudan has worked on LPG use pro-

motion in rural areas of Kassala. Under the project
LPG cylinders were freely distributed to the house-
holds. However, the effectiveness of the project was
hampered by lack of buy in due to a lack of direct
participation by women.

6. Findings, conclusion and recommendations
Following the commencement of local production national LPG Scale-up strategy, which is discussed
of LPG at Al Jaili Refinery in 2000, and as a result in greater detail in section 6.2 below.
of government incentives aimed at encouraging
households to switch to LPG use instead of fuel-
wood, there has been a significant net up-take of
6.1. Barriers to widespread use
LPG use in Sudan. As a result, a number of private of LPG
sector companies have emerged to address the
increasing demand for LPG. 6.1.1. High upfront cost of LPG
appliances and new technology
It is clear also that LPG use has a number of ben-
Practical Action’s experience as well as that of LPG
efits over the conventional biomass energy sources
which are widely used in the countries household programs in other African countries has demon-
sector. These include improved environmental strated that the price of LPG appliances (almost ten
conservation and reduced deforestation, climate times the refilling cost of the LPG cylinder in Sudan)
change mitigation, improvement in women and is the main constraint hindering poor households’
children health and wider socio-economic devel- access to LPG. Even where the long term savings
opment. from a switch to LPG for fuel are significant, poor
households find it very difficult to justify the initial
The findings of this study indicate however that investment.
notwithstanding government incentives and the
expansion of the LPG distribution network, and the Efforts that have been based on the free distribution
clear benefits of LPG use, the penetration of LPG of LPG appliances to overcome this problem have
use across households Sudan as a whole is still very rarely been successful. Plan-Sudan’s experience in
low at about 6 percent. It is clear that the use of LPG Kassala State showed that LPG cylinders provided
remains concentrated largely in the central region for free were often later sold by households. It is gen-
of the country, and that it is still very low in remote erally recognized that poor households very often
areas of the country and even in the peripheries undervalue the socio-economic benefits of free
of major towns in central Sudan. Given the analysis donations. This implies the necessity of imposing a
considered above five main barriers to the wide- cost on LPG appliances. As shown by the success
spread use of LPG in Sudan can be identified: of Practical Actions interventions in Kassala and
El Fasher, supporting WDA’s with access to lease
• Relative large investment in LPG appliances arrangements is a useful method to ensure access
(cylinder and stove); of LPG for poor households.
• Price competitiveness of LPG against low prices 6.1.2. Price competiveness of

of woodfuel; woodfuel
• Lack of infrastructure for LPG distribution; Almost all households in the urban areas of Northern
Sudan obtain their cooking fuel supplies from the
• Lack of information; market. The prices of traditional biomass fuels rela-
tive to LPG, whenever available, are an important
• Socio-cultural issues. determinant factor in households’ decision to switch
to LPG use.
These are elaborated on below. What is clear is that
further national and local interventions are neces- The price of different biomass fuels varies to a great
sary to build on the successes with LPG up-take to extent between urban and rural areas and across
date, and to improve coverage to address the national borders due to transportation costs, avail-
identified barriers. These should form the basis for a ability of resources, national policy, and market-

driven demand. Experience shows that if direct tional fuels each day instead of purchasing larger
and significant economic incentives to encourage quantities of clean cooking fuels.
demand for LPG are not properly implemented,
there is a clear pattern where traditional options Conversely, fuel subsidies can even have a nega-
remain much cheaper and therefore more widely tive effect on the urban poor. A study of kerosene
used than LPG. Indicatively even though in certain subsidies in several African nations (Schlag, N. and
areas the price of LPG per unit of energy delivered Zuzarte, F. 2008) found that the urban poor would
may be cheaper than that delivered by traditional actually benefit from their removal. This is because
fuels, households might be dissuaded to adopt use they continue to purchase traditional fuels which
due to the high recurrent filling cost of LPG. Smaller are taxed to fund the kerosene subsidy. Thus, before
size cylinders are often proposed as a means any subsidy is introduced there should be careful
to address this constraint; however, in practice consideration of how all stakeholders might be
households unanimously rejected the small size affected. Nonetheless, Senegal’s success with subsi-
cylinders for reasons of frequent refilling (Hood, A., dies still provides a promising example of how such
et al., 2004). a policy can change fuel consumption patterns.
In the case of rural areas with direct access to The case of rural areas deserves special attention
woodfuel it is much harder to make a compelling as the pattern of energy use is very different to that
case for the uptake of LPG on the basis of price. in urban areas. Forest resources may be abundant
Low prices of charcoal and firewood result from allowing free collection of firewood and charcoal
the fact that both of these fuels are derived from produce. In addition the supply of firewood and
a natural forest resource that can be exploited with charcoal to urban markets is a basic livelihood
little or no direct cost to producers or consumers. activity for a considerable proportion of the rural
As long as the price of clean cooking fuel remains population, particularly during the dry season. In
uncompetitive vis-a-vis traditional fuel it will be diffi- consequence widespread use of LPG might pro-
cult for it to gain widespread use. Indicatively, where duce a negative impact on the rural economy. For
cost-effective alternatives to traditional fuel have example, in Kassala, as a result of the intervention of
been offered, they have gained a significant share Practical Action the price of charcoal fell, negatively
of the market. For example, the widespread use of influencing the income of rural population which
LPG in Senegal and Brazil resulted from government depended largely on charcoal supply to the urban
actions that removed all taxes on LPG combined population in Kassala.
with price subsidy.
Despite the success of Senegal’s LPG program, the

6.1.3. Lack of adequate infrastructure
use of fuel subsidies to incentivise fuel switching As a result of government LPG subsidies, the con-
does not provide a simple solution to the problem of sumer price of LPG for the household sector is fixed,
price competitiveness. The primary beneficiaries of but only at ex-refinery gate price. In addition, the
such subsidies tend to be wealthy and middle class refilling price for Khartoum State consumers is also
urban households. The desired effect of the subsidy fixed at SDG 12 for a 12.5 kg capacity cylinder.
is often lost on the urban poor, who, with little dispos-
able income, find it more affordable to purchase Despite this however, there are consumer price
fuelwood on a day-to-day basis. Poor households disparities across the country (Figure 4.3 above).
tend to prefer fuel that can be purchased in small, Due to lack of adequate transport infrastructure
discrete quantities (e.g. charcoal, firewood) to the consumer price of LPG, in many places largely
that which requires the purchase of a larger unit of depends on the state of roads, and the distance
fuel (e.g. a cylinder of LPG). For example, lessons from the main depots at Al Jaili and Al Shagara.
learned from Practical Action’s LPG project in Kas- Even within Khartoum State there is some variation
sala revealed that poor households switch back to (SDG 12 to 16 per 12.5 kg cylinder) in LPG refilling
using firewood and charcoal whenever they do not price despite the fixed price.
have enough money for refilling the LPG cylinder.
As a result, in the long run poor households may In recent years the LPG distribution network has
actually spend more money by purchasing tradi- witnessed remarkable improvements. There are

Tea maker in Khartoum market preparing tea using an LPG cylinder. LPG provides a more environmentally
friendly alternative to the use of charcoal in tea making.
now about 12 LPG storage depots in the capitals of The situation in Nyala is indicative of the challenges
twelve Northern States of Sudan. Even then however, facing LPG supply. In 2010 the price of a gas cyl-
there are still price disparities between the State inder rose from SDG 30 to SDG 50 as a result of
capitals and Khartoum and between the State serious shortages and black market availability. So
as to correct the prices the Sudanese government
capitals and rural areas. For example in White Nile
intervened in 2011 to set up a strategic stock of
State, the refilling price of 12.5 kg capacity cylinder
LPG in the town, to supply distributors in the event
is SDG 16 in Kosti and Rabak, while in the southern
of unavailability of cylinders. As a result the price of
parts of the State it reaches up to SDG 30. a cylinder fell to SDG 25.
For Darfur and southern Sudan the refilling price of

6.1.4. Lack of information
LPG is further exacerbated by the lack of paved
roads and prevalence of insecurity. The price of Public awareness, and particularly women’s aware-
a 12.5 kg capacity cylinder varies between SDG ness, about the benefits of LPG is a crucial factor
30-35 (in Nyala and El Fasher) and SDG 50 in Al that could further increase the widespread use of
clean cooking fuels. As it stands there is generally
Geneina and Kutum, for example. The rail transport,
a lack of information flow between producers, con-
if adequately operated, could have improved
sumers and intermediary organizations. In addition,
access and therefore the price, however only road
there is significant gap in information as regards
tankers are used which – depending on the secu- household energy consumption patterns. The last
rity situation and the rainy season – often results in national energy assessment was conducted in
supply shortages leading to scarcity and further the years 1999/2000. In addition, over the past 15
increases in LPG price. years there has been increased awareness of issues

LPG stove for cooking Kisra developed by artisans in Khartoum. Despite attempts to adapt LPG appliances to
cook local dishes, most households still prefer firewood and charcoal for cooking Asida and Kisra’
related to the impacts of forest degradation and a transition to clean cooking fuels (Schlag, N. and
the negative health impacts of high dependence Zuzarte, F. 2008).
on solid biomass fuels, including the identification
of indoor air pollution as one of the main cause 6.1.5. Social and cultural issues
of morbidity and mortality among women and
In addition to the factors discussed above there
children below 5 years age.
are a number of minor social and cultural issues
that reinforce the dependence on traditional fuels.
At the same time, consumers have little access to
Food taste is a minor constraint identified mostly
information about their energy options. There is a
by elderly women. In addition, the preferred food
lack of awareness among the public on a number
preparation method for the main national staples
of levels: first, many consumers are not aware of
– Asida and Kisra is difficult to replicate on an LPG
the available alternatives and do not have a clear
stove. These are usually prepared in round bottom
understanding of what their purchasing options are.
aluminum pots and hot plate, which do not easily
Second, those consumers who know their options fit on the LPG burner. This has been identified as a
are often ignorant of the effects of their consump- reason that many affluent households still use fire-
tion choices. Because they do not understand the wood and charcoal for cooking Asida and Kisra,
consequences of their use of traditional fuels — while using LPG for other cooking tasks.
specifically, the health and environmental effects
— they continue to use them in spite of the benefits Some households claim that cooking with LPG
of a transition to clean alternatives. This makes is inadequate as it does not allow enough time
encouraging a shift to clean alternatives a difficult for the food to cook slowly. However, this claim is
task. Thus, public awareness and consumer educa- incongruous with the inherent advantage of LPG
tion would play an important role in encouraging fire being controllable as opposed to wood and

charcoal fires, which are harder to control. Biomass Working through women organizations is the ideal
Stoves are hardly controllable at minimum power outreach approach to scale-up LPG use within the
without regular attendance. As a result a long time household sector as women constitute the main
is spent by those preparing food sitting on a stool beneficiaries from their use. In the experience of
in front of cooking pots. this author, it is generally stated that switching to
LPG use is becoming the ambition of almost all
Another constraint is based on traditional house- Sudanese women, particularly when accessibility
hold structures where household decision making is rendered or facilitated.
authority often rests with men. This is often the case
when women are not employed and the supply Training women’s organisations and WDAs on man-
of household needs, including cooking fuel, is the agement of the lease term microcredit system, and
responsibility of the man. For example, when Plan- in monitoring will ensure that repayment of loan
Sudan freely distributed LPG cylinders to households instalments are timely will help to ensure continu-
in rural areas of Kassala, the household interlocutors ous delivery of LPG appliances to newly registered
were men as per tradition in Eastern Sudan. LPG households.
cylinders were delivered to the men, without the
3. Government policies and initiatives to promote
knowledge of the women, and as a result a num-
LPG market development, including strategy for
ber of LPG cylinders found their way to the market.
full application of subsidies and national price
Similar cases happened in Abu Shouk IDP camp in El
stabilization.
Fasher. In the later case the men decided that LPG
was too dangerous for use and likely to lead to fire Existing government policies to enhance LPG
and explosion hazards for the family members. As uptake across the country are laudable. However
a consequence they either sold the LPG cylinders or there is still scope for further action through innova-
otherwise hid them from display, requiring that they tive policy frameworks and financing mechanisms.
be present when the cylinders were being used. Possible government interventions in this regard
may include;
6.2. Recommendations • Development of legislation, regulations and

standards that organize and govern the LPG
Having identified the major impediments to the full market and assure public safety as well as
uptake on LPG in Sudan, four broad recommenda- consumer safety and protection.
tions aimed at scaling up the use of LPG can be
put forward. These are based on lessons learnt and • Monitoring LPG sale prices to ensure the LPG
best practices ascertained from existing initiatives. agents are not imposing excessive retail prices
1. Development of full cost recovery microfi- • Expansion of LPG distribution network – depots
nance options to facilitate household access to and retail/refilling shops
clean modern energy such as LPG.
• Further removal of taxes on LPG appliances, for
It is clear from the lessons of existing initiatives that example VAT
both full price and free LPG appliances have met
• Set standards for LPG stoves, cylinders and
with poor up take. So as to overcome the high initial
accessories
cost of LPG units, a lease term microcredit system
for acquiring LPG appliances is essential. Creditors • Undertake policy and regulatory framework
should look to support initiatives focused on WDA’s measures attractive to prospective energy and
and other groups that have a proven record of financial investors, and to users
guaranteeing repayments.
• Encourage and support private sector and
2. Increased focus on women as primary ben- NGOs involved in the dissemination of LPG
eficiaries in LPG scale-up activities, including use, particularly among households and other
capacity building support for Womens Develop- sectors that are major consumers of firewood
ment Associations (WDAs). and charcoal

Fixed tea making stand (hidden are the two LPG cylinders).
4. Public awareness and consumer education on

benefits of LPG, and safety precautions of LPG use.
Public awareness activities must have two com-

ponents. The first involves awareness campaigns
aimed at highlighting both the negative health
and environmental impacts of inefficient use of
fuelwood. This must be augmented with clear
messages on the benefits of LPG use, including
monetary savings, health improvement, time sav-
ing, and cleanliness.
The second involves comprehensive training mod-

ules on the correct methods of using LPG and on
safety precautions of LPG use. In this regard the
Civil Defence department of the Ministry of Interior
is recognized as an important counterpart. With
the Practical Action initiative, close cooperation
with the Civil Defence department in educating
women on the correct use and safety precautions
greatly helped to convince hesitating women to
switch to LPG use.

Annex 1. List of tables
Table 2.1. Biomass energy consumption in some Sudanese states (‘000 toe), 2001
Table 2.2. Households using a combination of different fuels for cooking purposes, White Nile state
(%)
Table 2.3. Annual Firewood and charcoal consumption by the commercial/services sector, 1999
Table 3.1. Risks associated with forest loss and degradation
Table 3.2. Annual premature death and disability associated with indoor air pollution in Sudan
Table 3.3. Airborne emissions for household cooking, India (g/MJ delivered energy)
Table 4.1. Institutional structure of the energy sector in Sudan
Table 5.1. Comparison between the levels of particulate matter and carbon monoxide as measured
before and after switching to LPG
Table 5.2. Average monthly household consumption of cooking fuels in El Fasher, and expenditure,
2008
Table 5.3. Reasons that deter households from switching to LPG use in El Fasher
Table 5.4. Rate of repayment of credit instalments, first batch of LPG appliances
Table 5.5. Results of clamp kilns fired with LPG

Annex 2. List of figures
Figure 1.1. Woodfuel supply and demand balance in Sudan (data of 2000)
Figure 1.2. Shift in livelihood strategies (Top: Arab Aballa in Barka Alla, North of Kutum, North Darfur;
Below: Nur el Huda, Near Gokal, West Darfur)
Figure 2.1. Sources and percentages of national energy supply
Figure 2.2. National energy balance (‘000 tonnes of oil equivalent [toe]), 2008
Figure 2.3. Composition of biomass energy consumption, 2009
Figure 2.4. Consumption (%) of biomass energy by sector, 1999
Figure 2.5. Energy sources consumption (%) by the household sector in Sudan, 2001
Figure 2.6. Biomass energy consumption by the industrial sector in Sudan
Figure 2.7. Biomass energy consumption by medium-sized industries (‘000 toe), 1998
Figure 2.8. Number of bricks produced and taxed by FNC in the major towns of Darfur, pre and post
conflict
Figure 2.9. Regional annual firewood consumption by bakeries, 1994, 2000 and 2005 (‘000 toe)
Figure 2.10. Share of electricity consumption by the different sectors
Figure 3.1. Regional distribution of the volume of growing forest stock and annual allowable cut, 1998
Figure 3.2. Annual fuelwood consumption by traditional industries and forest areas cleared to meet
demand
Figure 3.3. Health-damaging pollutants per unit energy delivered: ratio of emissions to LPG
Figure 3.4. Co-benefits for climate and health of changes in household fuels in India
Figure 4.1. Development of LPG production, consumption and export , 2000-2006 (‘000 mt)
Figure 4.2. LPG consumption in Sudanese states, 1993-2006
Figure 4.3. Variation in 12.5 kg LPG cylinder refilling price in different cities and towns in Sudan
Figure 5.1. Payback periods (months) for the different LPG cylinders and appliance combination options
Figure 5.2. Useful Energy cost (SDG/MJ) of using different cooking fuels in El Fasher
Figure 5.3. Monetary savings (%) on switching from firewood and charcoal to LPG in El Fasher
Figure 5.4. Household daily expenditure on firewood and corresponding monthly monetary savings
on switching to LPG use

Annex 3. Acronyms and abbreviations
ALRI Acute lower respiratory infection

CH4 Methane
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DJAM Darfur Joint Assessment Mission
ENTEC Environmental Technology Task Force
ERI Energy Research Institute
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FNC Forest National Corporation
GHG Greenhouse gas
g/MJ Gram per mega joule
IDP Internally Displaced Person
km Kilometres
ktoe Kilotonne of oil equivalent
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MDG Millennium Development Goal
Mt Mega tonne
N2O Nitrous oxide
NEC National Electricity Corporation
NMHC Non-methane hydrocarbons
NO Nitrogen monoxide
NOx Mono-nitrogen oxides
PIC Products of incomplete combustion
SPC Sudanese Petroleum Corporation
SAG Sustainable Action Group
SDG Sudanese Pound (Geneih)
SECS Sudanese Environment Conservation Society
SOBMC Sudanese Organization for Building Materials and Construction
NEC National Electricity Corporation
toe Tonne of oil equivalent
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
WDA Women Development Association
WHO World Health Organization
VAT Value Added Tax
Woodfuel: Woodfuels refer to all types of biofuels originating directly or indirectly from woody biomass,
including fuelwood, charcoal and black liquor.
Fuelwood: Fuelwood refers to woodfuel where the original composition of the wood is preserved.

50
Annex 4. LPG consumption in the Sudanese states (1993-2006)
State 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Khartoum 8981 11312 13275 16633 19760 20838 17946 23703 39574 54326 64997 130141 138584 207421
Gezira 444 686 678 895 342 428 1178 2358 6199 18249 17968 24952 31261 39022
W. Nile 0 0 0 54 0 42 363 628 1898 6332 6645 8944 9464 6656
R. Nile 107 124 28 43 492 284 722 1350 3199 5820 5345 5491 5968 7032
Red Sea 913 342 1403 717 742 1249 2222 1859 2494 2845 2749 3163 3765 4037
Kassala 1621 588 581 590 550 685 706 862 2113 4085 2922 3295 3421 4031
Northern 23 61 18 237 562 22 148 781 1912 3730 2656 3425 3159 2788
N. Kordofan 56 84 132 211 110 157 254 207 797 1679 1153 1672 1877 2502
B. Nile 0 0 0 28 0 0 9 194 539 697 566 275 185 151
S. Darfur 0 0 0 0 0 0 154 20 107 103 288 670 575 686
N. Darfur 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 35 43 83 25 97 2
S. Kordofan 0 0 0 0 45 0 0 9 43 30 31 14 22 9
All Southern 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37 60
Total 12145 13197 16115 19408 22603 23705 23705 31977 58910 97939 105403 182067 198415 274397
Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining / Sudan Petroleum Corporation – Oil Statistics Book (n.d.)
The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

Annex 5. Summary of advantages and
disadvantages of LPG
Source: Smith et al. (2005)

Annex 6. References
Bromwich, B. (2008) Environment, Relief and Conflict in Darfur. Overseas Development Institute, London
COMPETE (Competence Platform on Energy Crop and Agroforestry Systems for Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems
– Africa) (2009) Third Periodic Activity Report
Desai, M.A., Mehta, S., & Smith, K.R. (2004). Indoor smoke from solid fuels. Environmental Burden of Disease
Series, No.4. WHO
Forest National Corporation (1998) National Forest Inventory. Khartoum, Sudan
El Faki Ali, G. (1994) Studies on consumption of forest products in the Sudan – Fuelwood consumption in the
household sector – Forestry Development in the Sudan, FAO, Khartoum, Sudan
Energy Research Institute (ER) (1987) Sudan Renewable Energy Project, Report on charcoal production effi-
ciency in the Blue Nile, Khartoum, Sudan
FAO (2005), WISDOM – East Africa Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Overview Mapping (WISDOM) Meth-
odology, ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/j8227e/j8227e00.pdf
FAO (2005), GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCES ASSESSMENT – COUNTRY REPORTS SUDAN
FAO (2006) ESTIMATING FOREST COVER AND FOREST COVER CHANGE IN SUDAN, GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCES
ASSESSMENT 2005
FNC (2011), Supplement to Expression of Interest in Joining the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), http://
www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/sites/forestcarbonpartnership.org/files/Documents/PDF/Jan2012/
Sudan%20Support%20interest%20to%20join%20FCPF%20.pdf
Goldemberg, J., et al. (2004) “A global clean cooking fuel initiative.” Energy for Sustainable Development 8.3
Hood, A., et al. (2004), Dissemination of Smoke Reduction Interventions In Sudan, Case study for Workshop
and Networking Event (Building Bridges with the Grassroots: Scaling up through knowledge sharing), 12-17
September 2004, World Urban Forum, Barcelona
Climate Change 2007: Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis, http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_
data/ar4/wg1/en/ch2s2-10-2.html
International Energy Agency (2008) World energy outlook 2008 : Part B: Oil and gas production prospects IEA
Publications, Paris
Kelly, M. (2009), Delivering Clean, Affordable Energy Profitably – Perspectives from the LP Gas Industry, World
LP Gas Association
Mahasin Mohamed Salih (2006). “Assessment of Liquefied Petroleum Gas and Improved Stoves Adoption in
White Nile State, Sudan”, Masters of Science Thesis, University of Khartoum, Faculty of Forestry. Khartoum,
Sudan
Ministry of Environment (2001). Sudan National Report to the Conference of the Parties on the Implementa-
tion of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Khartoum, Sudan
Ministry of Council of Ministers (2005). Firewood Consumption and Possible Alternatives in Sudan. Khartoum,
Sudan
Ministry of Energy and Mining (1983). First National Energy Assessment. Khartoum, Sudan
Ministry of Energy and Mining (2001). Second National Energy Assessment. Khartoum, Sudan
Ministry of Energy and Mining (2009). Energy Handbook, Khartoum, Sudan
Ministry of Energy and Mining / Sudan Petroleum Corporation ‫( يئاصحلإا باتكلا‬Statistical Book, no date),
Available online at: http://www.spc.sd/pdf/Oil%20Statistics-Version1.pdf
Ministry of Finance – North Darfur State (2001) Appropriate Building materials and techniques for North Darfur
State

Mohamed Hussein (1994). Firewood consumption by the Brickmaking Industry in Sudan. Food and Agriculture Orga-
nization, Forest National Corporation
NCSP – National Council for Strategic Planning (2006), The Five-Year Plan (2007-2011), workplan.unsudanig.org/.../
national/GoS%20Five
Practical Action (2004), Household Energy Survey in Kassala, Eastern Sudan
Practical Action (2006), Smoke Project Progress Reports and publications, Available online at: http://www.dfid.gov.uk/
R4D/PDF/Outputs/EngKar/R8345_Vol2_Annex04.pdf
Practical Action (2008), Household energy survey, El Fasher cited in Practical Action Consulting (2009)
Practical Action (2008a), Proposal for dissemination of LPG use in El Fasher
Practical Action (2009), Low Smoke Stoves Project Annual Report – Darfur program
Practical Action Consulting (2009) Alternative Household Cooking Fuels for Internally Displaced Persons in Darfur,
Sudan, Available online at: www.practicalaction.org/docs/consulting/Final_Report_-_Oxfam_GB.pdf
Practical Action Consulting, Eastern Africa, (2009), Study on Alternative Fuels to Promote Improved Natural Resource
Management, and Improved Access to Sustainable Fuels in Darfur, Sudan
Relief International (2005). Alternative Fuel Study for IDP camps in North Darfur cited in Practical Action Consulting
(2009)
Schlag, N. and Zuzarte, F. (2008) Market Barriers to Clean Cooking Fuels in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Litera-
ture, Stockholm Environment Institute, SEI
Sudan household health Survey (SHHS) (2006), http://www.irinnews.org/pdf/pn/SHHSreport.pdf
Smith, K.R., et al. (2005), Household Fuels and Ill-Health in Developing Countries: What improvements can be
brought by LP Gas, Presented at the 18th World LP Gas Forum Shanghai, Sept 14-16, 2005
Smith, K. R., et al, (1999) Household Stoves in India, prepared for Office of Research and Development of U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency
SOBMC (2006). Results of clamp kilns fired with LP Gas. Unpublished document
Tanzanian Association of Oil Marketing Companies. (2002). The True Cost of Charcoal: A Rapid Appraisal of the
Potential Economic and Environmental Benefits of Substituting LPG for Charcoal as an Urban Fuel in Tanzania.
Norconsult Tanzania Limited. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Total India. (no date). About LPG: Properties, advantages and technical specifications. Available online at: http://
www.total.co.in/lub/lubin.nsf/VS_OPM/4E3D889D3F3813BEC125762E005308E9?OpenDocument
Tufts University (2009). Livelihoods, Power and Choice: The Vulnerability of Northern Rezaygat, Darfur, Sudan
United Nations Environment Programme (2008). Destitution, distortion and deforestation – The impact of conflict on
the timber and fuelwood trade in Darfur. UNEP. Nairobi, Kenya
United Nations Environment Programme (2007). Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment. UNEP. Nairobi, Kenya
UNDP (2003). “LP Gas Rural Energy Challenge – a fabulous fuel for development”, Available on: http://www.undp.org/
environment/publications.shtml
World Health Organization (2004) Indoor Air Pollution, Household Energy and the Millennium Development Goals –
Indoor Air Thematic Briefing, http://www.who.int/indoorair/info/iabriefing1rev.pdf
World Health Organization (2009). Global Health Risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected
major risks, WHO. Geneva, Switzerland
World Health Organization Website (2011) “Clean Household Energy for All”, Available online at: http://www.who.int/
indoorair/interventions/CHEA_brochure_rev.pdf

Use LPG Sudan

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Use LPG Sudan

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Use LPG Sudan

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Use of Liquified

Petroleum Gas (LPG)

This report is available online at: www.unep.org/sudan

United Nations Environment Programme

4 The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

2. The higher price of LPG compared to woodfuel

3. The lack of infrastructure for LPG distribution;

4. A general lack of information;

5. Social and cultural issues.

Based on the best practices and lessons learnt from

1. Public awareness and consumer education on

2. Government policies and initiatives to promote

3. Increased focus on women as primary ben-

4. Development of full cost recovery microfinance

Expanding the use of LPG in Sudan is one clear

The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan 5

6 The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

Source: FAO (2005)

Source: Tufts University (2009)

The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan 7

The introduction of LPG in Sudan was pioneered by

8 The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

2.1. Overall energy consumption percent in 2001 to 63 percent in 2009. Biomass

Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2009)

The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan 9

ENERGY BALANCE and FLOWS (000 TOE) - 2008

Energy Supply Conversion and Losses End Use Sectors - Consumption

4707 3099 1309 Services 14%

Wood 4037 190

Charcoal Converssion Losses 67%

Resources = Consumption + Losses

Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2009)

10 The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

2.3. Biomass energy

Woodfuel Total biomass

% of total Biomass % of total

North Darfur 47 274 321 5 6 326 4

West Darfur 47 306 364 5 3 357 4

South Darfur 98 834 932 14 82 1,014 13

Khartoum 286 499 785 12 8 793 10

River Nile 46 102 148 2 28 176 2

North Kordofan 98 290 388 6 49 437 5

The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan 11

Type of fuel % of consumption

Figure 2.6. Biomass energy consumption by the industrial sector in Sudan

Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2001)

12 The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

2.4. Biomass energy

sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice) is

(i) Brickmaking Industry In addition, the impacts of conflict induced dis-

Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2001)

The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan 13

Source: Ministry of Council of Ministers (2005)

Charcoal consumption Firewood consumption

14 The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan

Source: Ministry of Energy and Mining (2009)

Kerosene/gasoil is mainly used for lighting purposes,

The household sector consumes about 51 percent

The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Sudan 15