THE UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MOUNTAINEERS

www.upmountaineers.org.ph
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BASIC MOUNTAINEERING COURSE No.2

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CAMPSITE SELECTION

When you end a long day’s trek, you need to scout for a place to spend your night as safe as comfortable as
possible. When establishing your campsite, you need to follow certain criteria. Try to look for the following:

1. The site should have sufficient water drainage. This ensures adequate surface water runoff in case of a
downpour. If you select a depression or relatively flat area with poor drainage, you may find yourself
swimming in an inch of water , maybe even more.

2. The site should have protection from strong winds. Take advantage of natural windbreakers such as
bushes, stable boulders, trees or even tall cogon grass. Be careful though not to pitch your tent directly
beneath trees since there is the danger of falling branches which could damage your tent or worse,
injure you. tree branches overhead will also drip water on you long after a downpour - which can be
very annoying.

3. The ground should be covered with grass or dead leaves to provide a cushioning effect for a more
comfortable night’s rest. This will also help prevent water seepage into the tent and lessen the impact
on the ground’s compactability.

4. A water source would be located nearby, but within a reasonable distance (like 100 feet) to avoid
getting it contaminated. You should camp several meters from the highest possible water line because a
flash flood may occur.

5. To further appreciate the wilderness, a panoramic view of the area could be taken into consideration
when selecting your campsite.

6. Mountains that are climbed regularly have traditional or impacted campsites. Set up your tents here,
instead of hacking a new area. This way, we keep damage to the site to a minimum.

7. Plan the arrangement of the tents to facilitate proper camp traffic wherein people can move without the
danger of stumbling over guylines and pegs.

8. Take into consideration the relative strengths of the different tents brought by the team. Weaker tents,
such as huge domes and A-frames, should be given priority in sheltered areas. Stronger tents, such as
tunnels could be pitched in more exposed areas so they can act as windbreakers for the other tents.

9. Avoid camping beneath overhangs and other areas that are prone to landslides and other natural
hazards. If you really have to spend the night in such areas, make sure that you reinforce your tents.
The site should also be free from poisonous plants and dangerous animals.

Note: when selecting a campsite, the probability of finding all the above is quite remote, but the more of
them you can get in one site the better.
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CAMP SHELTER

One of the basic necessities you should look for or have when you’re exposed in the outdoors is the shelter.
It is a common practice that mountaineers bring their own portable shelter - a tent. A tent is a major
investment. Not only monetarily, but for your protection outdoors. Your life depends on your shelter.

A) Features of a good tent

1. It should be sturdy in construction, double stitched, and supported by patches at stress points.

2. It should be able to stand exposure to strong winds and rain. Tents achieve this by having an
aerodynamic shape( such as tunnels) or by adding an extra pole within the framework ( for example: a
dome with 3 poles becomes a geodesic dome if you add one more pole). It is also ideal that tents are
covered by a full flysheet.

3. It should be composed of a breathable inner body and a water repellant fly. This allows your body heat
to drive away the interior moisture formed by wet clothing and dew. This also allows better ventilation
inside the tent (aided by windows) while also allowing for air movement within the airspace between
the body and the fly, thus preventing condensation. The fly remains impenetrable to the rain since it is
water repellant.

4. It should have a bathtub floor construction made of coated nylon or any other water repellant material.
This is to help prevent water seepage from the ground and wind driven precipitation from getting into
the tent.

5. It should be lightweight and compact. Nylon is not bulky and is the lightest material available. A
weight of two to three pounds per person is reasonable ( Example: a two person tent should weight
around four to six pounds).

6. It should have at least two(2) doors or a door and a window for proper ventilation. It should have
zippered and meshed doors and window to keep insects out.

7. It should be simple in construction and easy to pitch. Some tents have a no-hitch-pitch (NHP) feature
which makes setting up the tent easier.

8. It should have sturdy poles. Aircraft aluminum, being strong and lightweight, is the best material. A
good alternative, though heavier and prone to splintering, is fiberglass. Poles are preferably
shockcorded, that is, pole sections are joined by an elastic cord for easier set up.

9. An optional but useful feature is the tent vestibule, an extension of the flysheet that can be used as a
covered cooking area and storage area for your equipment.

10. Try to use tents with “earth colors” unnatural colors disrupt some important natural processes (like the
reproductive cycle of some organisms).

B) Types of tents

There are numerous types of tents ranging from one-person bivouac sacks to huge family tents. There are
two (2) main categories of tent.:

Not Free Standing. Tents which are not free standing need to be pegged to the ground in order to support
itself. These are more difficult to pitch and some are less sturdy. Some examples: classic A-type, Sierra
Designs Flashlight, North Face West Wind.

Free Standing. Free standing tents need not to be pegged in order to maintain its structure. They also have
the advantage of being moved around after being pitched. Some examples are: A-frames and Domes.
Listed below are the common types of tents (Free and not free standing)

1. A -Type The classic triangular design. The body is stretched and staked to the ground tautly with
guylines and is supported by (2) vertical poles at each end. though much cheaper, it is more
cumbersome to pitch and requires a larger space due to its guylines.

2. A - Frame - An innovation of the A-Type. The body is supported by intersecting poles(A-Frame) on

each end with a central horizontal pole to keep the whole tent taut. Modified A-Frames an added
central hoop to keep the side walls near vertical, thereby adding more space. Examples: (A-Frame)
Eureka Timberline and (modified A-Frame) Eureka Alpine Meadows.

3. Tunnel or Hoop - Tunnel shaped, supported by looped frames usually tapering on one end. This has an
edge since it is aerodynamic, but it is more cramped than other tents. Examples: Sierra Designs
Flashlight and North Face Lunar Light.

4. Dome - The tent Body is supported by arching poles forming a Dome frame. The usual number of poles
forming a Dome tent is three, forming a hexagonal floor. The number of poles for dome tents may vary.
Generally, the more poles a Dome has, the more it can withstand high winds. A Dome with four or
more poles is called a modified Dome or a Geodesic dome. The steep vertical walls maximize internal
space. Examples: Half Dome (2poles) - REI Half Dome and Geodesic Dome (4poles) - North Face VE-25

Note: Generally, the lower the tent, the more stable it is on high winds but this makes for less headroom
inside, a disadvantage when you are bottled in by a storm. For a team of six persons, bring along a couple
of three person tents. Aside from being much more stable, it is easier to distribute the tent parts evenly
among the group. It is also easier to find a campsite for two smaller tents than for a large one.

C) Tent Pitching

Each type of tent has a different way of being pitched. This would be discussed in detail during your
practical exercises, but below are some rules to follow:

1. Determine the orientation of the tent. The main factor is the direction of the wind. Generally, the
smallest profile points towards the wind. For A-Frame and Domes, a point a door or a window towards
the wind because this will inflate the tent and ease a little pressure off the poles.

2. Lay the tent on the designated spot to estimate the area to be covered. This is done to maximize the
campsite.

3. Remove the tent to lay the groundsheet. Replace the tent body over the groundsheet. This layer of
plastic provides waterproofing and protects the tent body from sharp stones and sticks.

4. Stake down the corners. Pegs should be driven into the ground in a 45 degree angle from the surface. In
case of hard rock soil, screw the peg instead of hammering it with a rock. On loose soil, place a heavy
rock on top of each peg. Always hold the pegs or stuff them in a pocket while pitching the tent to avoid
losing them.

5. Insert the poles. Attach the flysheet after the tent has been set up. Make sure that all attachments are
complete.

6. In strong winds, attach extra guylines. Be sure that these can be seen especially at night so people wont
trip over them.
7. When pitching down, clean the tent of trash first. Then reverse the procedure mentioned for pitching.
Stuff the tent body into its bag before storing. Clean the campsite; replace rocks and fluff up the grass
cogon. Make the spot as if no one has been there.

Note: In large groups, the team leader decides where tent would be pitched, especially in areas with limited
campsites.

D) Proper care and handling of the tent:

By the nature of their use, tents are subjected to a lot of abuse such as sun degradation, stress of pitching and
packing, and abrasion. However, through proper care and use, a tent could last for many years. Here are
some ways to prolong the life of the tent:

1. Seal seams - All exposed seams should be sealed for complete tent waterproofing or else water may
seep in through needle holes. Seams will need to be resealed when the sealer starts to wear off (this
usually happens after 6 months).

Set up your tent in a protected area, and put the fly on inside out. Run seam sealer along every seam on
the fly and floor. It's better to apply two thin coats than one thick coat. Allow to dry for several hours
before putting the tent away.

2. Sun - Never leave your tent set up under the sun longer than necessary. Use the flysheet even on
clearer even on clear days. It acts as sunscreen and is less susceptible to ultra violet damage than the
tent body because of its urethane coating. It is also easier to replace when damaged.

3. Staking - A free-standing tent does not need stakes or pegs to keep its shape. But pegs serve as anchors
during strong winds.

4. Fire - Most tent fabrics are fire retardant, not fireproof. use common sense when using a stove or a
candle inside or near a tent if possible, avoid cooking inside the tent. Use the vestibule instead. But if
bad weather forces you to cook inside, be sure to properly prime the stove before bringing it in. open
the windows a bit to allow hazardous gases to escape.

5. Packing a tent - Folding and rolling your tent neatly every time you pack it away tends to stress the
same areas over and over, eventually causing waterproofing to break down along the creases. Instead,
stuff your tent and fly into the sack like you do a sleeping bag.

It's best not to cram a wet tent into its stuff sack, but sometimes you have no choice. If you must pack it wet,
shake the tent out as best you can to remove excess water. As soon as you arrive at the next campsite, set up
the tent so it can start to dry out.

6. Cleaning - Clean a tent by setting it up and wiping it with a damp sponge or cloth. For stubborn dirt,
use mild soap. Apply a light coat of silicone lubricant or candle wax to the zippers to keep them sliding
freely. Grease can be removed with a small drop of kerosene. Never machine wash a tent nor subject it
to high temperature.

7. Poles and Pegs - Wipe off soil and dirt after use. Apply car wax on aluminum poles to keep smooth.
Keep the poles dry, clean, and scratch-free.

8. Storage - Be sure that the tent is dry before storing to avoid mold and mildew. Avoid storing the tent
body and flysheet compressed inside its sack. Hang it in a breezy, shaded area. Never expose it directly
to sunlight. Store it in a cool, dry place. Keep all parts in a single stuff sack.

9. Check - Regularly check the tent for damage, especially before a climb. It is better to fix it as early as
possible to avoid discomfort. Rips could be patched up with sail tape, torn seams can be sewn.
E) Improvised shelter

Though many tents are available, it is necessary that you know how to make an improvised shelter. There
might be circumstances when your tent might be broken and you have to resort to making an improvised
shelter. Below are some examples (using a tarp or a groundsheet) which are easy to set up.

1. A-Type - There are various types of improvised shelters you may use. If there are two adjacent trees
present, tie a line connecting the trees. Fold the groundsheet into two (along its length) and hang it on the
line. Tie the corners to the ground using strings and pegs.

If there are no available trees, you may improvise poles from strong branches. Drive these two at
opposite ends of the groundsheet. You may attach the groundsheet. At the ends of the poles or connect
the tips with a line (like the previous example). Stake the corners again.

2. Lean-to - This type of shelter is ideal during good weather. Using two improvised poles or two adjacent
trees, attach the two corners of the groundsheet to the poles or trees. Peg the remaining two corners. It
is important that you note the wind direction when using the lean-to, the exposed side of the
groundsheet should be facing where the wind is coming from.

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COOKING AREA

The preparation of the cooking area is a vital step in meal preparation and camp orderliness. By preparing
the area, you will be able to cook safely and efficiently.

Preparing the cooking area

1. A suitable cooking area should facilitate convenience and ensure safety. Choose a level ground so your
stove will not topple even with a pot on. Clear the ground of flammable materials.

2. Make sure that the kitchen is protected against strong winds. High winds can snuff out the flame and
whisk away the heat. You can shelter on the downwind side of the tent. You can also use your earthpad
to block the wind off.

3. If a campfire is built, be certain that you can set it up downwind from your tent at least three meters
away. No want wants to sleep in a smoked sleeping bag inside a tent full of holes made by sparks.

4. Have everything you need within reach; utensils, food garbage bags, etc…should be placed within the
area.

5. It is imperative that your stove and pot are stable. Mountaineers abounds with stories of rice, hot
chocolate and soup spilled on the ground or on somebody’s lap due to precarious stove balance.

6. Do not cook inside the tent except during (very) bad weather. If your tent has a vestibule, it is advisable
that you cook there. Prime your stove properly outside the tent. Make sure you stove is hot and going
before bringing it in. this reduces the chances of “stove flare” wherein unvaporized fuel reaches the
height of a few centimeters to two feet. Have a frying pan ready to cover the stove in case it flares up to
prevent it from damaging the tent body. Place your stove on an earthpad to protect your floor from
heat and spills to prevent unnecessary heat fall-off from the stove. Ventilate the tent properly and keep
movement to a minimum. It is easy to knock over a stove in a cramped tent.

7. Always use a trashbag.

8. When using a campfire, smear soap outside the pot. This enables you to take off the soot much easier
when cleaning the pot.
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THE BOLO/MACHETE

This is a long knife with a blade length of 12 inches or more. Used for chopping, splitting wood, trailblazing
and bushcraft. It should have a sheath to protect both you and the blade and can be worn also on a belt.

Proper care and Handling of the bolo

1. You should hone the bolo regularly with a sharpening stone to keep it sharp and safe. Hold it with the
blade pointing up, then rub the stone over the blade, stroking away from you. Remember to keep a 30-
degree angle between the stone and the blade. Turn the blade over or shift the stone to your other hand
to sharpen to other side. Continue until the blade is sharp. You may also use sandpaper to sharpen the
bolo.

2. When travelling in public transportation, hide the bolo inside the pack.

3. When passing the bolo, offer the handle, not the blade.

4. Do not let your bolo strike the ground, so always use a chopping block.

5. Remember that the bolo can chop not only wood but people too, so make sure you provide a two-meter
distance from others when using it.

6. Chopping: Use the contact method for this. Hold the bolo edge against a stick on a slant to the grain,
not straight across. Raise the bolo and stick together and bring them down hard on the chopping board.
repeat until cut. If the stick is too thick to cut with the chopping method, use the bucking method.

7. Bucking: Place the stick on the chopping block and cut it into two with a V-shaped notch. Make the top
of the V as wide as the thickness of the stick. It is better if you cut both sides partially with V-cuts, then
hurl the stick down onto a rock to snap it.

8. Splitting: Use the contact method again. Hold the middle of the stick with one hand and rest one end of
it on the chopping block. Place the blade on top of the stick, partially embedding it. lift both stick and
bolo together then bring both down gingerly. As they are brought down, release your grip of the stick,
just in case the bolo goes through the wood. Repeat this several times until the bolo is more than
halfway down the wood, then twist it slightly to split the wood.

9. Lopping or Limbing: This is the process of removing branches. Always strike upwards to the top of the
tree to prevent the bolo from being wedge. Always swing away from the body.

10. Trailblazing or Hacking: When cutting branches off a tree, make sure that you have a clear swing since
anything on the way may obstruct you and deflect the bolo and damage it, or even injure you. always
cut diagonal to the grains and not straight across.

11. Rest when you are tired hacking because ones concentration is dimmed when tired.

12. When not in use, sheath your bolo.

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STOVES

Stoves are now considered a necessity for mountaineers. Many of the mountains we climb no longer have
adequate supplies of firewood; besides, building a fire is not environmentally sound. Stoves have a minimal
impact on the wilderness. “Fires last a night, fire rings last a decade”.

A) Types of stoves

1. The Butane Cartridge Stove / Bluette: Butane cartridge stoves are easy to light. Flame control is very
good and as simple as turning a knob. Mechanical functions are almost non-existent. The cartridges are
bulky, but burn a longer time compared to most white gas stoves.

The principal disadvantages of butane stoves are their poor performance in cold weather and the
decreased heat output occurs as the amount of fuel in the cartridge decreases. The butane inside the
cartridge is in liquid form, burning into a gas when released. As fuel is consumed, the pressure
decreases and the gas is expelled at a slower rate. Do not shake the cartridge before using as this may
cause flare-ups.

Butane cartridges - or any fuel for that matter should not subjected to heat above 120 degrees farenheit.
Manuguit Outdoors Club 1995

1. The White Gas Stove: White gas is a highly volatile fuel, an attribute both good and bad. Spilled
white gas evaporates readily with little odor, but is dangerously flammable.

White gas or naphtha is a very pure petroleum product containing no additives and no tetra-ethyl lead.
Lead is not highly poisonous, but it will clog stoves beyond repair. Unleaded automotive fuels are not
recommended for use in white gas stoves as they contain many other additives that will clog burners
and may cause safety releases and possible explosions.

White gas stoves are generally termed “high output” as they tend to produce flame hotter than butane.
This is excellent for cooking quickly. The potential hazard is that they consume oxygen at an extremely
rapid rate and the user must ensure there is adequate ventilation for both the stove and himself. The
danger of suffocation is more real than many would expect.

Additionally, all stove produce carbon monoxide - a deadly gas. Carbon monoxide is the result of
incomplete combustion. Lack of oxygen in an enclosed shelter (tent) or poor airflow to the burner could
cause serious problems.

3. Multi-fuel Stoves: Multi-fuel stoves are similar in construction and appearance to white gas stoves.
They have special gaskets that can be manipulated to make the stove adaptable to different kinds of
fuel.

B) How to operate the stove

Operating a stove depends on the brand and type of stove one is going to use. The first step is to read and
follow the operating instructions printed on the stove or accompanying manual. Generally, the steps in
operating a stove are as follows:

1. Fuel: Put / attach the fuel inside / on the stove. Make sure it is tightly sealed before going to the next
step. Do not change the fuel near open flames, replace your fuel at least two(2) meters away from any
source of flame.
2. Pump : Some stoves require pumping, like the Coleman Peak 1 , but bluette stoves do not require
pumping. The number of times you need to pump the stove depends on which stove you are using;
follow what is indicated on the instructions. Usually, stoves need to be pumped around 30 times.

3. Light : Light the stove with a match or a lighter. REMEMBER: ALWAYS MAKE SURE THAT YOU
HAVE YOUR FIRE READY BEFORE TURNING THE STOVE ON. The reason for this is to prevent
burns or possible explosions. Remember that gas diffuses easily and is highly flammable.

4. Control : As you cook, you can manipulate the flame (higher or lower) by turning the right knobs.

5. Turn off: After using the stove, immediately turn it off to save on gas. Just switch it off and wait for the
fire to die by itself. NEVER BLOW THE FIRE TO EXTINGUISH IT because unburned fuel will clog the
burner. Remove the remaining pressure by loosening the fuel valve (not for bluettes).

C) Care for the stove

Stoves go through a lot of conditions such as being exposed to dirt, stress in packing and deformities.
However, through the proper care and use, a stove could last for many years.

1. Never allow your stove to get wet. Put the stove inside the tent when not in use and before going to
sleep so that it will not be exposed to rain and dew.

2. Make sure that the fuel is compatible with the stove type.

3. Always make sure that the pump is properly lubricated. This is to maintain pumping efficiency.

4. As much as possible, stoves must be kept in an upright position. Pack it in such a way that it will not
fall on its side (especially for the Peak 1 stove). This is to prevent fuel spillage. Make sure that the stove
is no longer pressurized before you pack it to prevent clogs.

5. Although a stove is made of metal, it may also be deformed if not stored in a proper container. Dents in
stoves may damage some of its internal parts leading to malfunctions. There are available stove
containers in the market, but you can also put the stove inside a large cookset or caldero.

6. Lastly, make sure that the stove is always clean. Just wipe off the dirt or mud found on its surface. This
helps prevent the corrosion of the metal parts of the stove.

D) Trouble Shooting

Listed below is a list of common stove problems and their solutions. Some problems can be remedied by the
reasonably knowledgeable owner; others may necessitate bringing the stove to a repair shop.

The vast majority of stove problems are caused by using improper fuel or by leaving fuel in the tank over a
long period of time. Fuel left in the tank will form gums that impairs the stove’s performance. This does not
apply to butane cartridges.

1. Failure to operate or weak flame

a) Clogged - stoves should be disassembled and cleaned. Some parts may require replacement.
b) Leak in safety valve in tank cap - Replace cap
c) Low vapor pressure - Pump up pressure; insulate from cold.
d) Improper fuel - Empty stove and fill it up using the correct fuel type.

2. Stove surges and has dirty, yellow flame

a) Clogged - Adjust flame control lever (high to low, then low to high) repeatedly until the clog is cleared,
or until blue flame appears. Refer to item 1.a.
b) Improper fuel type - Refer to item 1.d.
c) Improper priming - Allow stove to cool, then prime again and light.

3. Stove stays lit for a few second, then dies

a) Slow pressure leak in tank cap - Replace tank cap gasket.

4. Stove will not build up pressure when primed

a) Blown safety valve - Replace tank cap. Once blown, a safety valve will not hold much pressure.
b) Pump up leather has dried out - apply oil to pump leather.
c) Deformed tank lid gasket - Replace or reshape gasket.

Note: Stove tanks should not be filled more than two-thirds full to allow proper pressure to build up. For
more information on how to operate or repair a stove, refer to the manufacturer’s instruction manual
included with the original purchase.

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FIRE BUILDING

You may be surprised that the modern mountaineer rarely builds a fire. Instead of campfires, we use
modern, compact camping stoves for several reasons. First it is much more convenient to use a stove than to
build a fire, especially during a hard trek or during inclement weather. Gathering firewood takes some
effort and time, and in some places there are no good firewood. Second, stoves produce less environmental
impact. If all climbers gather and cut wood for their use, most mountains would be denuded and become
unsightly.

Still, every mountaineer should know how to build and use a fire. There will come a time when you would
have to use this skill, say your stoves breaks down or if you have to make a signal fire for rescue purposes.
The process of building a fire is as follows:

A) Make a safe fire site

When you build a fire, make sure that is safe. A fire must always be under complete control. It must be built
on a spot where it cannot spread. Pick an open space at least two (2) meters away from the nearest tree or
bush. Be sure that it is located downwind from your tent.

Note: If a campsite has an established fire site, use it. there is no sense in making another fire ring. Building
fire on a big flat rock is a good idea. Turn it over first (use the underside) and turn it back to its original
position when finished. This way you can hide the charred spot where you built the fire.

Clear a three-meter circle on the ground of flammable materials such as branches or dry grass and leaves.
On grassy areas, place a layer of soil on top of the grass. On wet ground, build your fire on a floor of sticks
or barks of dead trees.

B) Prepare your material

Now you are ready to gather firewood. There are three types:

1. Tinder : any kind of material which would easily catch fire like dried grass or leaves, tree bark, dead
twigs no thicker than a match stick.

2. Kindling : Thin branches of split wood about the size of a pencil that will catch flame from the tinder.

3. Fuel : These are thumb-sized branches to thick logs that will sustain the fire.

Tips for selecting and gathering firewood:

Only dead, dry wood should be used. Live branches will not burn. Take wood that snaps easily. Whittle a
dead branch into shavings (for tinder). In dry weather, gather wood that is strewn on the ground. During
the rainy season, look for dead branches on trees. Split open the pieces of wood, discard the wet outer layer
and use the drier, inner portion. Cut or split wood into usable lengths, about a foot or so. Stack them neatly
in one place and cover it with a tarp or poncho if you intend to use them later.

C) Fire Starters

These are lifesavers during rainy days when firewood is exceptionally had to burn.

1. Fuzz stick : Use dry sticks, thumb thick, and a handspan long. Hold one end and shave it all around but
leave the shavings attached. Make the shavings as thin and long as possible so it can easily catch fire.

2. Candle wax / Fire bugs : Bring candle sticks or better yet, make “fire bugs” by rolling newspaper into a
tight wad and tying it with two strings, two inches apart. Cut in between and dip each “bug” in molten
candle wax. Cool and store.

Waterproofed Matches : Waterproof your matches by storing them in watertight containers such as film
canister. Be sure not to forget the friction pad. Some even go one step further by dipping the heads in molten
wax or nail polish.

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ROPEMANSHIP

Ropes are essential in climbing. Small ones have a variety of uses: from securing a tent to making a
clothesline. Larger ones can provide safety to the climbers.

Ropes can be STATIC or DYNAMIC. A static rope has low stretchability, some don t even stretch at all. A
Dynamic rope has the ability to stretch and is more elastic than a static rope.

A) Types of rope.

1. Laid Rope (static) : Natural or synthetic fibers are twisted into yarns, the yarns are twisted into strands,
and the strands are twisted into rope. Laid or Hawser rope with a diameter of around 11 millimeters
and made of strong nylon make an excellent general mountaineering rope. If is ideal for river crossing
as a safety line because of its low stretchability.

2. Kernmantle Rope :A Large number of filaments (kem) running the whole length of the rope are
contained in a braided sheath (mantle) This construction (and the special materials) gives the rope a
high tensile strength, superior protection from abrasion, and comparative freedom from twisting. The
kernmantle rope is available in a number of diameters ranging from 5 mm (accessory cords) to 11 mm.
Due to its ability to stretch, it is best for rockcraft.

B) Care for Mountaineering Rope

1. Coiling and Uncoiling: After coiling the rope neatly in a clockwise direction ( with a diameter of about
2.5 ft to 3 ft), tie a simple whipping of three to six turns to secure the ends. If the rope is longer than 150
ft, double the rope before coiling. When uncoiling a rope, untie it in the exact reverse method as it was
coiled. Starting at the rope end will result in a helpless tangle.

2. Use: Be careful not to step on the rope when using it. Always carry the rope coiled, slung around the
shoulders
or inside the pack. Never leave the rope lying on the ground in the campsite.
3. Storage: Dirt or grit should be wiped or washed off with a mild soap, not with a detergent. When wet,
let it dry in a shaded area, hung in a loose coil. Direct exposure to the heat of the sun will hasten its
deterioration. When dry, coil and then store in a cool, dry place.

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KNOT TYING

You probably use a couple of knots for everyday needs. In mountaineering, you need to know several more.
The trick is to know which knot to use and how to tie it right. Remember that every knot should pass the
knot test; it is easy to tie, it holds when tied correctly, and it s easy to untie.

A) Knots for Joining:

These are for tying two rope ends of the same rope or two different rope.

1. Square Knot : A binding knot, it is used for tying two ends of the same rope. It is useful in tying bundles
and packages and is indispensable in first aid.

2. Fisherman ‘s Knot : Used for tying ropes of equal size together. This is the best knot for tying fine lines.

3. Double Fisherman ‘s Knot : A variation of the fisherman s knot, this is used to join two ropes intended
to support a person because it is less likely to unravel.

4. Sheet Bend : This is the best knot for tying two ropes of different thickness together, although it can
also be used for equal sized ropes.

B Hitches:

A knot is called a hitch when it is used to tie a rope to an object, such as a pole, a post or a ring.

1. Clove Hitch : this knot is important in tent pitching, when a rope is attached to a peg. This also used in
bushcraft.

2. Two Half Hitches : This knot is used to tie a rope such as a clothesline to a post or a ring. It forms a loop
that can be pulled tightly and yet loosened easily.

3. Taut Line Hitch : This knot is used for tying a tent guyline. One can tighten or loosen the line by
pushing the hitch downward or upward.

4. Timber Hitch : This is used for raising logs, dragging them over the ground or pulling them through
water. This also used in bushcraft.

5. Constrictory Knot: More secure version of clove hitch.

C) Knots for loops

These knots form permanent loops which have permanent sizes or “running” loops which vary in size.

1. Slip Knot: This knot is used for tying a string around a package or for bundling up a rolled sleeping bag
or tent. The formed loop can be slipped into a larger or smaller size.

2. Bowline: This knot will form a loop that will not close. As such, it is an important rescue knot. A bowline
tied around ones waist should be tight enough to prevent the rope from slipping. It should be loose
enough at the same time for a person to be comfortable. This knot should be one fist away from your
body.
3. Bowline, casting method: use the method of tying a bowline illustrated here when you need to fasten a
line around an object. When synthetic rope is used to tie this knot, it might be less reliable. It is a good
idea to secure the end with extra half-hitch, or tuck it and trap it beneath one of the rope's strands.

4. Figure-of-eight loop: also known as Figure-of-eight on the bight. Although this knot is difficult to
adjust and cannot easily be untied after loading, its advantages outweigh these drawbacks.

It is a comparatively simple knot to tie, and it stays tied, even when stiff rope is used. In addition,
because its appearance is unmistakable, it can be quickly checked, which is important when it is used by
climbers. This general purpose loop is also often used by climbers to attach a line to a carabiner.

5. Threaded figure-of-eight loop: this is a variation of the figure-of-eight loop. The most frequent uses of
the threaded figure-of-eight are for tying on to the rope and for anchoring non-climbing members of a team.
This is probably the most common way of attaching a rope to the harness.

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THROWING THE ROPE

1. Estimate the distance the rope has to reach, adding a few more feet for good measure. Coil this length.
Let the rest pile loosely (untangled) on the ground.

2. The throwing of the rope must always point to the desired direction. This is to ensure proper uncoiling
as the rope is thrown. Make sure that the free end of the rope does not snag on any object.

3. Throwing Upward : Stand with your feet apart , with your back to the target point ( ex: top of cliff ) .
Swing the rope from between the legs and release directly above the length. This will help the rope
reach its full length vertically.

4. Throwing Forward : Stand with feet apart , facing the target with your left foot forward (for right-
handers, right foot forward if otherwise) .Throw the rope by swinging the arm from the back and
releasing the rope directly in front of you . Use the force to propel the rope as you twist your body to
the waist . When throwing to a person on a river, consider the current . Throw the rope a upstream such
that it drifts to the person upon landing.

BELAYING

Belaying is the fundamental technique of climbing safety. It is a system of setting up a rope to hold a climber
in the event of a fall. A belay consists of nothing more than a rope from a climber to another person, the
belayer, who is ready to put immediate friction on the rope to stop a fall.

Four things make belaying work --- 1) a skilled belayer to apply friction to the rope, 2) a proper stance and
anchor to take the forward pull of the fall, 3) a method of amplifying the friction of the belayer`s hand , and
4 ) the belayer`s undivided attention.

The essentials of a belay are two climbers, each tied to a rope. As one climbs, the other belays. The belay is
connected to an anchor, a point of secure attachment to the rock. The belayer “pays out” or takes in rope as
the climber ascends, ready to use one of the methods of applying friction in case the climber fall.

1. Belay Anchor: As the ultimate security for any belay, the anchor should be able to hold the fall and the
full weight of both climbers. A large natural feature, such as rock or a tree is an ideal anchor.

2. Belay Stance: If you belay from the body rather than directly from the anchor, you should brace against
the forward pull of a fall with a solid stance.
a) located behind a solid object
b) sitting stance
c) standing stance
3. Applying Friction: In any belay method, the rope from the climber goes to a belay device or around the
belayer`s hips and then to the belayer’s braking hand. This braking hand produces the belay. The
controllable friction by the belay method stops a falling climber. The hip wrap amplifies friction by
passing the rope around your back and around your sides.

Paying Attention: Presence of mind is of the essence. This system will fail without proper attention by the
belayer of the climber’s progress. Remember, you are responsible for the other person `s safety so
concentrate on what you are doing.

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RIVER CROSSING

When crossing rivers the following rules should be strictly followed

1. Unfasten your hipbelt and sternum strap. This will allow you to easily remove your pack in the event
that you fall into the water. Remember, packs have a tendency to float which will affect your balance in
the water.

2. Face the current. Water carries floating debris downstream which may hit you if you are unaware or
not paying attention.

1. When crossing alone in knee-deep water, it is advisable to make use of a stick . this will help you
maintain your balance by acting as your third leg and will also function as a prod to check what is
under the water.

3. When crossing in groups, hold hands and cross in a triangular formation in threes. This will help you
maintain balance and deflect the current. Hipbelts and sternum straps again be loosened as the group
crosses.

4. In the event of a flash flood, seek higher ground and stay put. Water subsides as fast as it rises.

5. When the water exceeds waist level, the use of a rope is recommended. A rope is strung across the body
of the water diagonally downstream and used as a guide for the members crossing. Climbers should
stay on the downstream side.

6. When strung perpendicularly to the current, ropes tend to sag in the middle when loaded – which will
hinder movement . It is also advisable to remove your backpack before crossing, to lessen the drag. It
will be easier and safer to pull it across later, after crossing.

References: c/o the UP Mountaineers

Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills. Edited by Don Graydon. Fifth Edition. The Mountaineers,
Seattle. Pp. 108-135
REI Fact Sheet “For Your Information – Stoves”
Knots: by Peter Owen