Construction Materials For Coastal Structures

7AD-A129 MI CONSTRUCTION INC FOR
MATERIALS BEACH STRUCTURES(U)

LONGCOASTAL CR FEB 83 CERC-SR-1B 1/5
MOFFATT AND NICHOL
DRCU72-80-C-8996
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Construction Materials for Coastal Structures
by
Moffatt ond Nichol, Engineers
SPECIAL REPORT NO. 10
FEBRUARY 1983
~§C'0LO APtvS
$ SODTIC
Approved for public release; SLC

distribution unlimited. E 6
4 Prepared for
U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS
COASTAL ENGINEERING
RESEARCH CENTER
Kingman Building
Fort Belvoir, Va. 22060
* 83 06 27 06 6
a
Reprint or republication of any of this material

shall give appropriate credit to the U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers.
U.S. Army Coasti Tgineering Research Center

* Kingman Building
Fort Belvoir, Virginia 29060
Contents of this report are not to be used for

advertising, publication, or promotional purposes.
Citation of trade names does not constitute an official
endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial
products.
The findings in this report are not to be construed

as an official Department of the Army position unless
so designated by other authorized documents.
0
UNCLASSIFIED
6 'CURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (Wh1en Des Entered)
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONS

BEFORE COMPLETING FORM
1. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER
SR-9/ I
4. TITLE (nd Subtitle) S. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED
Special Report
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR COASTAL STRUCTURES
6. PERFORMING ORQ,. REPORT NUMBER
DACW7-80-CT'006
7. AUTHOR(.) S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(O)
Moffatt and Nichol, Engineers
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT. TASK
Engineers AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS
Moffatt and Nichol,
P.O. Box 7707 D31234
Long Beach, CA 90807
I 11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE
Department of the Army January 1983
Coastal Engineering Research Center (CEREN-CD) 13. NUMBER OF PAGES
Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060 427
14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & ADDRESS(I. dilferent from Controlling Office) 15. SECURITY CLASS. (of this report)
UNCLASSIFIED
15.. DECLASSI FICATION/DOWNGRADING
SCHEDULE
16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)
Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the baact entered In Block 20, If dlfferent from Report)
IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side it necessary nd Identify by block number)
Asphalts Geotextiles Riprap

Coastal engineering Metals Quarrystone armor
Concretes Plastics Steels
Construction materials Protective coatings Timber
20, AeTU ACT r(Cmi

tuo a ,ve, .t Ff n mrery and Idaulfv by block number)
This is a comprehensive report describing design properties of materials
used in coastal protective structures and some harbor structures. '111mate-
rials include stone, earth, concretes, asphalts, grouts, stiuctural and shect
metals, wood, and plastics. The prinCipal physical properties of these mate-
rials and their importance in the selection of materials for different types
of projects are presented. The materials that have proved most effective a1d
durable in coastal structures, such as stone, concrete, steel, and timlber,
(Collt i ntued)
DD IFOM 1473 EDITION OF I NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE

SEUJAN
R UNCIASSIFEI)
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (WheRn Data E.nterod)
UNCLASSIFIED
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(Wfm. Does Balendw
are emphasized by detailed coverage of their properties. Synthetic materials

used for geotextiles are described in detail also.
The report describes the effects of common forces encountered in the coastal
environment on the materials' design properties. The effects of material place-
ment, joining, and repair methods and of treatments to prolong design life are
also presented. The report discusses in detail the impregnation of wood with
preservatives and the cathodic protection and coating of metals. Example proj-
ects illustrate the use of the materials in breakwaters, jetties, groins, sea-
wells, bulkheads, revetments, and harbor piers and wharves.
2 UNCLASSIFIED
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE("en Data Entered)
PREFACE
This report is published to provide coastal engineers with specific

guidelines for selecting materials suitable for construction in the marine
environment. The study is confined to the properties of these materials and
treatments or variations thereof that are applicable to coastal engineering
structures. The work was carried out under the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center's (CERC) Develop Functional and Structural Design Criteria
work unit, Coastal Structure Evaluation and Design Program, Coastal Engineer-
ing Area of Civil Works Research and Development.
The report was prepared by Moffatt and Nichol, Engineers, under CERC
Contract No. DACW72-80C-OO6. Preparation of the report was under the direc-
tion of L.L. Whiteneck, with assistance of L.A. Hockney and S.H. Anderson.
Consultation and technical writing was provided by R.J. Barrett, A.L. Roebuck,
C.M. Wakeman, W.J. Herron, Jr., and R.A. Morrison and L.J. Lee of Woodward
and Clyde Consultants. Cooperation and assistance were provided by Corps
of Engineers Divisions and Districts.
R.E. Ray was the CERC contract monitor for the report, under the super-
vision of Mr. R.A. Jachowski, former Chief of the Coastal Design Branch, and
* Mr. N. Parker, Chief, Engineering Development Division.
Technical Director of CERC was Dr. Robert W. Whalin, P.E.
Comments on this publication are invited.
Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th Congress,
approved 31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th Congress,
approved 7 November 1963.
Colonel, Corps of Engineers

Commander and Director
Accession For
4 I--TIS GRA&l-
DTIZ TJ'.E
Unannounced
3 t iatI i
-.
•Qr
4
CONTENTS
Page
CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC (SI) ..... 11
INTRODUCTION .......................................... 13
1. General .......................................... 13
2. Background ....................................... 13
3. Objective ........................................ 13
4. Organization of Report ........................... 13
II MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COASTAL STRUCTURES .......... 15

1. General .......................................... is
2. Structural Properties ............................ 15
3. Nonstructural Properties ......................... 16
4. Availability ..................................... 18
5. Compatibility with other Materials ............... 20
6. Maintenance and Preservation Requirements ........ 21
7. Environmental Considerations ..................... 22
III STONE ................................................. 23

1. Types and General Characteristics of Stone ....... 23
2. Categories of Stone Size and Gradation ........... 26
3. Stone Specifications ............................. 29
4. Quarrying Methods ................................ 34
S. Placement Methods ................................ 40
6. Repair of Structures ............................. 44
8. Uses in Coastal Construction ..................... 46
IV EARTH ................................................. 51
1. Component Types and Class of Soils ............... 51
2. Properties and Characteristics of Soils .......... 54
3. Methods of Soil Improvement ...................... 57
4. Placement of Soil for Coastal Structures ......... 61
5. Repair of Earth Structures ....................... 64
7. Uses of Soils in Coastal Construction ............ 64
A V PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE .............................. 70

1. Introduction ..................................... 70
2. Types of Portland Cement ......................... 70
3. Properties ....................................... 72
4. Components ....................................... 73
S. Preparation of Concrete Mixes .................... 95
6. Techniques to Enhance Durability ................. 102
7. Reinforcing-Prestressing Materials ............... 112
8. Joint Sealing .................................... 118
9. Repair of Concrete ............................... 130
10. Delivery and Placement ........................... 138
II. Environmental Considerations ..................... 144
12. Uses in Coastal Structures ....................... 147
VI OTHER TYPES OF CONCRETE AND GROUT ..................... 166

1. Bituminous Concrete .............................. 166
4
0
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
2. Preplaced Aggregate Concrete ..................... 183

3. Portland Cement Grout ............................ 188
4. Soil Cement ...................................... 190
5. Sulfur Cement Concrete and Grouts ................ 192
7. Uses in Coastal Structures ....................... 202
VII STRUCTURAL AND SHEET METALS ........................... 204

1. Types and Characteristics of Metals and Alloys... 204
2. Joining, Cutting and Repairing Metals ............ 213
3. Environmental Considerations......................218
4. Uses of Structural and Sheet Metal ............... 225
VIII WOOD .................................................. 231

1. General .......................................... 231
2. Physical Properties of Wood ...................... 231
4 3. Mechanical Properties of Wood .................... 235
4. Selection of Timber Piles ....................... 241
S. Characteristics of Common Construction Species... 243
6. Destructive Biota ................................ 244
7. Preservative Treatment of Wood ................... 250
8. Specific Applications for Treated Wood ........... 254
9. Joining Materials ................................ 263
10. Repair Materials and Methods ..................... 268
12. Uses of Wood in Coastal Construction ............. 275
IX PLASTICS .............................................. 282

1. General (Properties) ............................. 282
2. Geotextile Filters ............................... 283
3. Other Forms of Plastics Used in Coastal
Structures ..................................... 300
* X RECYCLED AND OTHER MATERIALS .......................... 309

1. Introduction ..................................... 309
2. Concrete ......................................... 309
3. Asphalt .......................................... 311
4. Concrete Blocks and Bricks ....................... 312
S. Salvaged Ships, Barges, Railroad Cars,
* Automobile Bodies, Refrigerators, and Others... 313
6. Rubber Tires ..................................... 314
7. Uses in Coastal Construction ..................... 316
XI PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS FOR MATERIALS ...................... 318

1. Corrosion ........................................ 318
* 2. Coatings ......................................... 321
3. Cathodic Protection .............................. 346
4. Cathodic Protection and Coatings in Combination.. 370
5. Marine Atmosphere Features Marine Exposure ....... 371
4
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
6. Uses in Coastal Structures ............................ 372
XII SLM1MtARY .................................................... 374

1. General ............................................... 374
2. Materials ............................................. 374
3. Some Present Investigations of Coastal
Construction Materials .............................. 386
LITERATURE CITED ........................................... 396
A P N I BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................... 402

APPENDIX
A SPECIFICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS FOR STEEL SUITABLE

FOR MARINE SERVICE ......................................... 405
B MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROUND WOOD PILES TREATED
WITH PRESERVATIVES FOR USE IN SALTWATER .................... 407
C GEOTEXTILE FILTER TESTS .................................... 412
D INFORMATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ................................ 416
TABLES
1. Classes of rock slope protection ............................... 32

2. Unified soil classification system (ASTM D-2487) ............... 52
3. Improvement of soils for coastal construction .................. 58
4. Characteristics of fill based on nature of borrow material ..... 63
S. Chemical limits for mixing water ............................... 74
6. Permissible chloride ions ...................................... 75
7. Typical analyses of city water supplies and seawater ........... 76
8. Characteristics and tests of aggregates ........................ 80
9. Maximum size of aggregate recommended for various types of
construction ................................................. 81
10. Recommended slumps for various types of construction ........... 95
11. Approximate mixing water requirements for different slumps
and sizes of aggregates ...................................... 97
12. Relationships between water-cement ratio and compressive
strength of concrete ......................................... 98
13. Maximum permissible water-cement ratios for air-entrained
concrete in severe exposures ................................. 98
14. Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate per unit of volume of
concrete .................................................... 100
1S. First estimate of weight of fresh concrete ..................... 100
* 16. Techniques to obtain maximum durability ........................ 113
17. Strength of steel wires ........................................ 116
18. Approximate yield point and proportional limit ................. 116
'I 6
L
TABLES (Continued)
Page
19. Secant modulus at proportional limit ........................... 116

20. Materials used for sealants in joints open on at least one
surface ...................................................... 125
21. Preformed materials for waterstops, gaskets, and sealing
purposes ..................................................... 128
22. Effect of commonly used chemicals on concrete .................. 146
23. Typical concrete armor units in use today ...................... 158
24. Concrete armor projects in the United States ................... 158
25. Applications of asphaltic materials for hydraulic structures... 176
26. Typical aggregate gradations for preplaced aggregate concrete
prepared with fine sand grout containing pozzolan and
fluidifier ................................................... 185
27. Classification of coppers and copper alloys .................... 211
28. Galvanic series in flowing seawater at ambient temperature ..... 212
29. Friction piles - specified tip circumferences with minimum
butt circumferences .......................................... 242
30. End-bearing piles - specified tip circumferences with minimum
butt circumferences .......................................... 243
31. Domestic softwoods ............................................. 244
32. Domestic and imported hardwoods ................................ 245
33. Preservative retention for timber treatment .................... 255
34. Preservative retention for treatment of wood piles ............. 256
35. Representative preservative penetration requirements ........... 261
36. Preservative retention for treatment of poles .................. 264
37. Construction limitations: quarrystone revetment ............... 291
38. Construction limitations: block revetments and subaqueous
applications ................................................. 292
39. Minimum geotextile filter physical property requirements ....... 293
40. Corrosion rate of some common metals ........................... 320
41. Types of coatings commonly used on different substrates ........ 324
42. Coating components ............................................. 325
43. Recommended coating systems .................................... 326
44. Qualities of various coatings .................................. 333
45. Residues permitted to remain on blast cleaned surfaces ......... 334
46. Recommended surface preparation for specified coatings ......... 335
47. Types, sizes and resulting profile of abrasives used in air
blast equipment .............................................. 336
48. Sand and airflow consumption ................................... 339
49. Approximate sand usage and labor rates on sandblasting ......... 340
50. Estimated loss of coating materials during application ......... 343
51. Chemical backfill for galvanic anodes in soil .................. 348
52. Approximate data for common galvanic anode alloys .............. 348
53. Current requirements for coated steel or wrapped pipe .......... 349
54. Comparison of galvanic and impressed current protection
systems ...................................................... 352
55. Potential readings for various reference electrodes ............ 356
56. Electrolyte IR drop in millivolts 1.5 meters from bare pipe .... 358
57. Copper wire resistance ......................................... 367
58. Typical uses of coatings ....................................... 373
47
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FIGURES
Page
1. Coral riprap in Kosrae, Micronesia .............................. 27

2. Random miscellaneous dumped soil, rock and rubble fill used as
shore protection, Sunset Cliffs, San Diego, California ........ 28
3. Fitted stone blocks in Hawaii ................................... 33
4. Angular block stones ........................................... 33
5. Power shovel loading trucks at Catalina quarry .................. 39
6. Placing armor stone on jetty, Marina del Rey, California ........ 43
7. Stone rubble revetment at Jacksonville Beach, Florida ........... 49
8. Reinforced earth seawall construction at Petersburg, Alaska ..... 56
9. Cross section of reinforced earth seawall at La Reunion Island.. 57
10. Fill being placed by tilt barge at Redondo Beach, California .... 61
* 11. Dredge Chequinquira at dock ..................................... 63
12. Wave erosion of Sunset Cliffs in San Diego ...................... 65
13. Sea cliff upper slope erosion protection by cloth bags filled
with sand supported by wood bulkheads ......................... 67
14. Sea cliff shore protection by cloth bags filled with concrete
placed on soil bank, Solano Beach, California ................. 67
* 15. Bascule bridge with lightweight concrete counter balances ....... 83
16. Exposed steel reinforcement due to spalling of concrete cover... 106
17. Test samples subjected to 150 cycles of freezing and thawing .... I1
18. Piles damaged by corrosion of steel reinforcement ............... 131
19. Concrete pile damaged by overloading ............................ 132
20. Concrete structure showing nipples through which epoxy resin is
injected ...................................................... 136
21. Concrete delivered by revolving-drum truck ...................... 140
22. Tremies in place before pouring ................................. 143
23. Pumped concrete applied with a pressure nozzle .................. 144
24. Concrete combination stepped and curved-face seawall ............ 149
25. Concrete revetment .............................................. 150
26. Articulated armor unit revetment ................................ 151
27. Interlocking concrete block revetment ........................... 152
28. Fabric tubes filled with concrete form a jetty .................. 153
29. Dolos rubble-mound jetty ........................................ 154
30. Quadripod rubble-mound jetty .................................... 155
31, Perforated caisson breakwater ................................... 156
* 32. Concrete armor units ............................................ 159
33. Pier 5, Port of Callao, Peru .................................... 160
34. Artificial island on continental shelf off Brazil ............... 161
35. Fixed single point mooring at Marsa El Brega, Libya ............. 162
36. Port Lotta, Tasmania, ore terminal .............................. 163
37. Hermosa Beach recreation pier ................................... 164
38. Comparison of penetration grade and viscosity grades of
asphalt cement ................................................ 169
39. Fuller maximum density curves on standard semilog grading chart. 171
40. Maximum density curves on Federal Highway Administration 0.45
power gradation chart ......................................... 172
41. Roller operated by a dragline compacts the asphalt revetment,
San Joaquin River, California ................................. 175
42. Seawall slope revetment ......................................... 178
43. Placing mix by spreader box ..................................... 178
* 8
FIGURES (Continued)
Page
44. Cross section, south jetty, Galveston, Texas .................... 179

45. Galveston jetty with asphalt seal ............................... 180
46. Lining ditch with prefabricated asphalt panels .................. 181
47. Typical ingot structures ........................................ .3;
48. Plot of Charpy V-notch test on a low carbon steel ............... 219
49. Representative Charpy V-notch absorbed energy curves for
several materials ............................................. 221
50. Typical steel sheet-pile profiles ............................... 228
51. Typical steel pile anchorage systems ............................ 229
52. Standard wale designs ........................................... 229
53. Typical cross section of a log .................................. 232
54. The principal axes of wood ...................................... 234
55. Tension parallel to grain ....................................... 23
56. Compression parallel to grain ................................... 2.
57. Compression perpendicular to grain .............................. 2
58. Shear parallel to grain ......................................... 2'
59. Fiber stress in bending ......................................... 22
60. Defects affecting strength of lumber ............................ 2.
61. Wakefield sheet piling .......................................... 2,
62. Teredo or shipworm .............................................. 24/
63. Typical work of the teredo ...................................... 247
64. Live limnoria in their burrows .................................. 248
65. Distribution of limnoria in North America ....................... 248
66. Collapse of wood wharf under railroad gondolas .................. 249
67. Specimens of wharf timbers damaged by dry rot ................... 251
68. Preparing cut off piles for coal tar-creosote treatment ......... 262
69. Typical bolted and pinned wood joints ........................... 265
70. Split rings, spike grids and metal plate connectors ............. 266
71. Pile dolphin tied with wire rope ................................ 267
72. Sketch of typical damaged pile and fiberglass form .............. 269
73. Piles repaired using fiberglass forms and grout ................. 269
74. Wood bearing piles with P.V.C. wrapping ......................... 271
75. P.V.C. wrapped pile ready for driving ........................... 272
76. Beach protection with "billboard" groins, Ninilchik Harbor,
Alaska ........................................................ 278
6 77. Piles laid on slope to prevent beach erosion, Ninilchik Harbor,
Alaska ........................................................ 278
78. Two methods of making fascine mattresses ........................ 280
79. Submerged current control screen made of "wattles" .............. 280
80. Examples of wood-formed cribs ................................... 281
81. Sand fence using brush for filter material ...................... 281
6 82. Geotextile filters in revetments ................................ 285
83. Two types of double layer fabric forms .......................... 300
84. Double-layer fabric forms being installed ....................... 301
85. Longard tubes being filled with sand for beach nourishment
project..................................................... 302
86. Concrete filled bags of synthetic fiber used for shore
* protection .................................................... 302
87. Oil containment boom made of synthetics......................... 303
88. Typical uses of molded high density polyethelene ................ 304
L
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6
FIGURES (Continued)
Page
89. Sea cushion with tire chain net ................................. 305

90. Corrosion process ............................................... 319
91. Corrosion process in pipelines .................................. 320
92. Examples of design details to aid coating application ........... 323
93. "Palmed" application of epoxy underwater coating ................ 329
94. Crossed linked epoxy phenolic ................................... 330
95. Surface blasting profiles ....................................... 336
96. Diagram of simple impressed current cathodic protection ......... 350
97. Copper sulfate electrode test circuit ........................... 354
98. Potentials related to time on interruption of cathodic
protection current ............................................ 359
U 99. Circuit for off potential measurement ........................... 360
100. Anode in carbonaceous backfill .................................. 364
101. Anodes in other backfill materials .............................. 364
102. Chart of anode spacing (impressed current method) ............... 366
103. Chart of anode spacing (galvanic anode method) .................. 366
104. Cross section of wharf used in example .......................... 369
10q
CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC (SI) UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
,U.S. customary units of measurement used in this report can be converted to

metric (SI) units as follows:
Multiply by To obtain
inches 25.4 millimeters
2.54 centimeters
square inches 6.452 square centimeters
cubic inches 16.39 cubic centimeters
feet 30.48 centimeters

0.3048 meters
square feet 0.0929 square meters
cubic feet 0.0283 cubic meters
yards 0.9144 meters

square yards 0.836 square meters
cubic yards 0.7646 cubic meters
O miles 1.6093 kilometers

square miles 259.0 hectares
knots 1.852 kilometers per hour
acres 0.4047 hectares
foot-pounds 1.3558 newton meters
millibars 1.0197 x 10- 3 kilograms per square centimeter
ounces 28.35 grams
pounds 453.6 grams

0.4536 kilograms
ton, long 1.0160 metric tons

O
ton, short 0.9072 metric tons
degrees (angle) 0.01745 radians
Fahrenheit degrees 5/9 Celsius degrees or Kelvins I
ITo obtain Celsius (C) temperature readings from Fahrenheit (F) readings,
use formula: C = (5/9) (F -32).
To obtain Kelvin (K) readings, use formula: K = (5/9) (F -32) + 273.15.
S I
•pm
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR COASTAL STRUCTURES
by
Moffatt and Nichol, Enjg-tneers
I. INTRODUCTION
1. General.
Construction materials for coastal structures may be classified into five

general categories: stone and earth, concrete, metals, wood, and synthetics.
Some of these categories are treated in more than one section in this report
in order to better clarify their use and performance in different structures.
For example, stone and earth are each discussed in separate sections, as are
Portland cement and other types of concrete and grout. The material require-
U ments are discussed in sufficient detail to permit the coastal engineer and
structural designer to evaluate materials based on the physical properties of
these materials and the past performance in coastal structures use. Coastal
structures generally considered are breakwaters, groins, seawalls, bulkheads,
revetments, jetties, piers, wharves, piles, and navigation aids, as well as
other less common structures.
2. Background.
There have been a number of excellent coastal engineering manuals and

guides that incorporate the best principles and criteria for design of coastal
structures that have evolved through several decades of experience and re-
search. However, most of these publications treat the subject of materials
adequacy lightly. An in-depth coverage of the pros and cons of each material
used would make these publications too unwieldy for efficient use. Thus the
subject is usually covered by references to a number of disparate and often
voluminous treatises on properties of materials, which places a heavy burden
of literature research on the design professional. Many of these treatises
cover aspects of the materials that have little relevance to coastal use in
addition to information of value to the coastal engineer. In some cases, the
reference may ignore unique effects of the coastal environment on the subject
materials.
3. Objective.
The objective of this publication is to condense the subject of materials

adequacy and suitability into a single document to support the coastal engi-
neering profession while eliminating the superfluous coverage. The study is
confined to the properties of those materials and treatments or variations
thereof that are applicable to coastal engineering structures. Emphasis is
* placed on full coverage of materials that have proved most effective and long-
lasting in coastal structures.
4. Organization of Report.
Experience has demonstrated the success and failure of many materials used
4 in the past to create various types of coastal structures. In this report the
principal physical properties of these materials and their importance in the
selection of construction materials are set forth. New synthetic materials as
13
0
well as protective systems, including coatings and cathodic protection of

-metals, are included so that an evaluation of the long-term use of metals in
the coastal zone can he considered in the material selection process. Problems
associated with the use of different materials are discussed when considering
their physical properties which may impact upon and establish a limited use
for the material.
Section XII briefly discusses the significant uses of each material as

well as some of the investigations and research that may improve the use of
these materials in the coastal zone. The specific material section and the
summary section will provide the coastal engineer with the fundamental
physical properties information with which he must be concerned. Specific
problems brought about by unusual or non-reoccurring local conditions may
require further investigation or research to ascertain the potential per-
formance of a given material in such a specific environment.
This publication is intended to assist the coastal engineer in the selec-

tion of appropriate materials for use in the coastal zone. While information
is included on the placement of materials, their repair, and the treatment of
materials to improve durability, this information should be considered as a
guide and not definitive instructions for field use of the material. Pro-
• fessional personnel experienced in areas such as wood treatment, protective
systems and cathodic protection should be consulted for implementation of
design parameters presented in this manual.
• 14
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II. MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COASTAL STRUCTURES
1. General.
Primary considerations in the selection of a material for coastal

structures are availability, strength, durability, life of the material as
compared to desired life of the structure, costs, and ease of maintenance
as compared to maintenance costs. The selection of materials for coastal
use must also consider the structural stability and flexibility. Also,
4 depending on location, the impact of the environment on the material may be
a determining factor.
2. Structural Properties.
a. Specific Gravity. This property must be considered if the material

is to be placed in the water, on the ocean bottom, or on dryland, or is to
be used as a floating structure. Rock and earth as well as concrete of
high-specific gravity are a must for submerged structures, while floating
structures must be of low-specific gravity materials such as wood and most
synthetics. Heavy materials are used for floating structures only if the
design provides for adequate buoyancy.
b. Material Strength. Material strength in tension, compression, and

flexure may determine the size and stability of a structure. Most metals
are high in tensile strength while unreinforced concrete is low in tensile
but high in compressive strength. Rock and soils may be of high strength
as individual pieces or particles but may require high strength adhesives
to create an acceptable coastal structure.
c. Resistance to Cyclical and Impact Loading. Resistance to cyclical

and impact loading, such as waves or coastal storm conditions, may require
consideration of material flexibility within its elastic limit or the
flexible limits of an adhesive used in the structure. For example, cement
used in making concrete has virtually no flexibility while asphalt as a
binder can oe quite flexible.
d. Resistance to Seismic Forces. These forces, which can be both

horizontal and vertical, may result in excessive structural stresses.
Seismic forces may require a structure to be stiff and rigid, such as
concrete or steel, or constructed of nonhomogeneous materials such that
seismic forces can be relieved in planned isolated areas of the structure.
e. Material Flexibility. This property includes the ability to bend

without breaking or to be adaptable to change in configuration. Wood has
some degree of flexibility; rubber and certain synthetic materials have
flexibility to a high degree. While structural steel is usually considered
a stiff material, steel shapes such as cable, wire rope and rods are highly
flexible.
f. Structural Size. The structural size may determine the material of

the structure. Large structures such as breakwaters are usually composed
of many pieces of one or more materials that may not be bound together to
create a homogeneous mass, or composed of sections of the same material
* 15
0
bound together to create a single structure. Small structures such as sand

fences may be a series of independent pieces or sections of a material
Pq acting in an independent manner.
Structures built of stone, earth and asphalt are generally not capable
of resisting tensile stress. They are capable of taking loads in compression,
shear and impact only and must be designed accordingly. Concrete and wood
may or may not be subjected to tensile stress or bending moments. If
9concrete is subjected to such stress, reinforcing steel or prestressed
cable must be employed to carry the tensile load. Steel is capable of
withstanding all types of stress when properly designed. The sections flex
or deflect when subjected to bending loads and this movement should be
considered in the design phase. Synthetics, particularly the sandbag and
filter-cloth materials, are mainly subjected to tension, impacts, flexing,
and fatigue. They are seldom required to accept a compressive load.
3. Nonstructural Properties.
a. Durability. Durability is the ability of a material to withstand
the effects of service conditions to which it is exposed. Many laboratory
tests have been devised for measuring durability of materials but it is
extremely difficult to obtain a direct correlation between laboratory tests
and field use. Due to the severe coastal environment it is important that
field experience be carefully assessed in selecting materials for coastal
structures. For a coastal structure to function properly the planned
structural life must be known; a structural life projected for a short term
(e.g., less than 10 years) may have a major impact on cost and material
selection for the structure. The location of the structure with respect to
local resources and materials will also impact on the selection of construc-
tion materials.
Durability is generally related to the desired lifespan of the structure

and the relation between first costs and maintenance. Among the stones,
igneous rock is usually the most durable rock. Depending on makeup, it may
be extremely durable or, after a few years, may fracture and partially
disintegrate. Sedimentary rock should be examined very carefully as it is
usually stratified, may not be well consolidated, and is subject to failure
through shear stress, impact, fracture due to changes of water content, or
" chemical deterioration.
Earth is generally considered durable unless changes in water content
or chemistry reduce grain size to the silt and clay range, resulting in
plastic flow.
* Concrete is considered durable and will generally last the planned life
of the structure so long as it is not exposed to adverse chemical reaction
or excessive abrasion.
Asphalt is generally not considered a durable material. It is of low

strength in compression or tension, subject to chemical reactions, and not
* resistant to impact or abrasion.
Steel is considered durable if properly maintained. However, it is

subject to rapid deterioration through corrosion and abrasion. Abrasion
* 16
6
can be severe at the sandline, particularly in a wet-dry tidal area, where

steel may deteriorate rapidly.
Wood is considered less durable than concrete but its lifespan depends
to a great extent on the characteristics of the wood, the usage, and the
quality of maintenance. It is an organic material and subject to attack by
both plants and animals. It is more subject to damage by fire than other
materials.
Synthetic materials are generally quite durable to chemical attack;

however, many will rapidly deteriorate when exposed to sunlight. They
require very little maintenance but with most synthetics, because of their
short history, their service life relative to the life of the structure is
yet to be determined.
b. Adaptability. For any given coastal structure there is usually
more than one material or a combination of compatible materials that can
satisfy the performance requirements of the structure. Selecting the
proper materials as well as design adaptable to the structure site is
important. The size of a structure and the accessibility of construction
materials to the site must also be considered.
Stone and earth structures can assume a wide variety of shapes. The
materials are generally available and, forming nonrigid structures, can for
example accomodate changes in foundation elevations or slope adjustments
without losing structural integrity or ability to perform their function in
the structure. Stone can be used under most weather conditions and will
accept major and rapid changes in temperature and moisture without major
failures.
Concrete is very adaptable, with or without steel reinforcement. Its

use is similar to stone except for the ability to resist abrasion and the
cost. Concrete can compete with steel or wood as piles or as sheet pile
both in strength and durability.
Use of steel, because of costs, is generally limited to piles, sheet

pile. and beams but is extremely adaptable for use in complex structures.
Wood is very adaptable except for limitations on the ability to function

well against large wave forces or in greater than moderate depths of water.
It resists impact and abrasion well, can resist tension, compression or
shear, and is easily handled in construction.
Synthetic and protective coating materials are usually special use

4 items and are not considered as having a wide range of useF.
c. Fire Resistance. Stone and earth are generally regarded as very

fire resistant, especially those that are from igneous or metamorphic
sources. Sedimentary stone, because of stratification, is less fire
resistant.
Concrete is generally fire resistant
unless exposed to very high
temperatures. Reinforced concrete when exposed to extreme temperatures for
0 17
I
an extended period of time may fail due to excessive expansion of the

steel, resulting in spalling and cracking of the concrete.
Steel, of course, is not combustible but if exposed to high tempera-

tures will tend to warp and lose strength. A rigid steel structure may
also tend to warp and buckle due to excessive expansion of its members.
Asphalt is vulnerable to relatively low fire-induced temperature rises

and is not considered fire resistant. Wood, the least fire resistant of
coastal construction materials, is vulnerable to fire.
Synthetics are also vulnerable to fire and may generate dangerous toxic
fumes.
* 4. Availability.
The availability of both the construction materials and the construc-

tion equipment necessary to build the structure may limit the selection of
materials; e.g.,, a lack of availability of the ingredients required for
mixing concrete onsite might necessitate use of more readily available wood
or the availability of utilities during construction might limit emplacement
methods and thus limit materials used. Site access with respect to local
resources and materials must also be considered. For example, in remote
areas bringing in steel and concrete may be difficult, while timber is
readily available. In this instance, all the properties of wood and its
durability must be carefully considered to determine if it is a suitable
substitute. This is one of the most important factors influencing the
selection, especially when considered in conjunction with transportation
costs.
a. Abundance.
(1) Stone. Stone is generally abundant in the continental United

States and most outlying areas. However, along the coasts of the Gulf of
Mexico and the South Atlantic, sources are 240 kilometers (IS0 miles) or
more from projects so handling costs can become a major factor. In many
areas, particularly the volcanic areas of the Pacific Ocean, the stone may
4 be of low density or will be so badly fractured as to not be suitable for
armor stone. The mere presence of large stone sources does not guarantee
suitability or availability of the stone. Only for a very large project is
it feasible to develop a new quarry from virgin rock. Even when a quarry
exists, it may not be equipped to produce the type and size stone needed
for a particular coastal project. Availability of handling equipment at
the quarry may be a critical factor. The cost of quarrying and transporting
will affect the choice of stone as compared to some other construction
material.
(2) Earth. In most parts of the world an adequate quantity of

earth material is available for fills, dikes, and beaches, with two excep-
4 tions: in some delta areas, the immediately adjacent earths may be pre-
dominantly silts and clays; in some rocky coast areas, beach sands may not
be available.
18
(3) Concrete. The cement, sand, and stone required to make
concrete are available in all parts of the United States. Some of the
smaller Pacific Islands may require the importation of cement.
(
(4) Wood. Wood used to be one of the most available construction
materials in the United States. It is generally produced within reasonable
shipping range of a coastal project. Now, certain types and sizes of
hardwoods are becoming more difficult to obtain. In cases where the
designer would almost automatically select wood, he now has to compare wood
to the relative costs and advantages of other construction materials.
(5) Asphalt. Asphalt is generally available in the United States

but may not be available for projects in other areas due to either lack of
the material or lack of handling equipment.
(6) Synthetics. Synthetics are a manufactured material, and the

location of the plants may not be near the construction site. However,
they are easily and economically shipped. There may be a timing problem as
some lead time, particularly for large orders, may be required for delivery.
b. Transportability.
(1) Transport Mode. Most construction materials for coastal

projects can be transported by conventional freight haulers, i.e., rail,
truck, barge, or ship. Armor stone for breakwaters and jetties may have
transport problems due to their large dimensions and extreme weight. The
design size of armor stone is frequently from 89 to 267 kilonewtons (10 to
30 tons) per stone. Most State highway departments have a load limit of
178 to 214 kilonewtons (20 to 24 tons) per truck. This is not a problem
with rail or barge haul but most coastal projects require some use of
public highways. This load limitation not only limits the design size of
the armor rock, but also requires careful load scheduling to maximize the
use of either trucks or railway cars.
(2) Handling Limitations. Coastal projects in isolated locations

must be carefully analyzed so that materialF selected are capable of being
handled by available equipment. This not only involves placement equipment,
but transport and processing equipment.
(a) Stone. The primary problem with stone is the handling of

armor stone. Quarry processing and loading equipment usually has greater
capability to handle large armor stone than public highways will permit.
The placement of armor stone on breakwaters and jetties not only requires a
certain tonnage lift capability, but the equipment must be able to reach
outward a sufficient distance to accurately place the toe rock.
(b) Earth. Earth can generally be handled with conventional

construction equipment. The availability of compaction equipment may control
the method by which an earthfill is compacted.
(c) Concrete. Many special designs of concrete structures may

require highly specialized handling equipment. The costs or availability of
such equipment may influence the selection of a concrete structure. Under-
water placement, the shaping of concrete armor units such as tribars and
:9
dolos, and the fabrication of reinforced or prestress concrete piles all
require specially designed handling equipment. This equipment may or may not
have a reuse capability.
(d) Steel. Most conventional steel shaped units can be handled

by conventional construction equipment. However, specially designed units,
very heavy units, or some types of underwater placement may require handling
equipment specifically designed for that particular job.
(e) Wood. Conventional construction equipment can usually

transport and handle wood members. However, some types of chemical treatment
may require special equipment to effectively penetrate the cells.
(f) Asphalt. For transport and use of asphalt, special heating

* or hot asphalt handling equipment may be required. If asphalt is placed under
water, specially designed handling equipment will be required.
(g) Synthetics. Special handling equipment may be required for

placement of synthetic materials, particularly for underwater placement;
however, great weights are not usually involved and the equipment can
usually be made or adapted in the field.
5. Compatibility With Other Materials.
Problems in compatibility may be physical, chemical, or a matter of

esthetics. For composite structures composed of more that one material,
such as reinforced concrete, the compatibility of the constituent materials'
properties must be considered. Steel of high tensile strength and concrete
of high compressive strength used properly together result in a substan-
tially improved structure, while asphalt with high adhesive properties to
aggregate can create high wear resistance and a cohesive structure.
Materials may noc be compatible due to abrasion effects, particularly

between different materials, or even between the same materials (i.e., two
stones of different hardnessess may not be compatible in the same struc-
ture). Combining flexible with nonflexible structural units may lead to
incompatibility. Materials with major differences in shrink-swell or
* expansion-contraction coefficients may induce physical stress. The weight
of heavy structural units on a fragile substructure may cause failure. All
these are generally stress, fatigue, or abrasion problems.
Chemical incompatibility is particularly critical in the choice of

cement and aggregates, selection of synthetics, use of asphalt, electrolysis
* or corrosion of steel members, and corrosive interaction of dissimilar
metals. The effect of incompatibility of materials may take a long time to
appear and, if chemical action is allowed to continue, can result in
structural failure.
Compatibility of traditional methods or materials with new and sometimes

untried construction techniques with a short experience record, must he
carefully considered.
20
I
6. Maintenance and Preservation Requirements.
These requirements and their annual costs are generally influenced b,'
comparison with the initial costs of construction. All materials require
some maintenance and preservation. The problem may be physical or chemical
maintenance and may vary not only between different materials but within
the same material.
a. Stone. It is unusual, but possible, that stone will deteriorate

chemically. The main problems are reduction in size through abrasion,
reduction in size through splitting or breaking, particularly of armor
stone, and loss of stone due to the power of waves or currents, or the
undermining of the structure. Preservation of stone as a material is not
generally feasible and maintenance is normally a matter of replacing damaged
or missing stones. Generally, damage to a breakwater, jetty, or groin does
* not cause severe resultant damage immediately but mobilization costs to do
maintenance work are high.
b. Earth. Little can be done to preserve an earth structure except to

protect it from erosion. Like stone, maintenance is a matter of replacing
lost material. Ease of access to the earth part of an installation will
* determine the maintenance cost.
c. Concrete. The quality and the life of concrete are largely con-
trolled by the methods of mixing and placing. Coatings are available which
improve the set period of the concrete and protect the surface from flaking
or dusting. In saltwater, and to a lesser extent freshwater, if the rein-
forcing steel is exposed to oxygen it will combine to produce corrosion.
The corroded surface of the steel expands greatly, resulting in cracks in
the concrete that admit more water and accelerate the process. The result
is physical spalling, cracking, or splitting of the concrete resulting in
total failure. Such cracks must be kept sealed to slow this process. As
cement has a calcium base, it may be necessary to protect it from chemical
change by pollutants or biological attack. Like stone, the primary need
for maintenance or preservation is to prevent deterioration. This may be
from abrasion by harder and sharper substances, such as quartz sands, or
from the force of storm waves overstressing the structure. Impact by
rocks, barges, ships or debris may overload concrete, as in the case of
dock structures. Seismic damage may occur. Maintenance may consist of
* sealing cracks, patching abraded or worn areas before the reinforcing steel
is exposed, or actually replacing individual concrete units within the
structure.
d. Steel. In contrast to stone and concrete, the primary purpose of

maintenance or preservation of steel structures is to prevent chemical or
* galvanic deterioration. Unless made of special and expensive alloys,
exposed steel is subject to rapid deterioration through oxidation or rust,
especially in the wet-dry tidal area and at the sandline. The latter can
be very severe in the surf zone where the corrosive process is accelerated
by the abrasive action of the sand continually removing the rust and exposing
new steel. The application of paint or some of the new protective coatings
0 can greatly increase the life of such steel members. The galvanic process
can be greatly reduced or eliminated by the installation and maintenance of
"cathodic protection systems."
21
0
Physical failure will not normally occur from wave or current forces if
steel structures are properly designed. Primary cause of failure will be
severe damage by ships, barges or debris, or in the case of a dock, through
overloading. Prompt replacement of buckled members is mandatory to prevent
further damage to adjacent members.
e. Wood. The greatest cause of deterioration of wooden structures is

biological attack. This may be by plant or animal life and may occur
completely above or below the waterline but is most likely to occur in the
wet dry tidal area. Most of these species require some sunlight but there
are some that are active in total darkness. Only below the mud line are
wood members safe from such attack. Two methods of preventive maintenance
are available--complete impregnation of the cells of the wood by
chemicals, or the application of a surface coating that prevents entry of
borers into the timber. Surface coatings may be coatings such as antifouling
paint or a coating material resistant to borer penetration, such as a
thick, 0.5-millimeter (0.020 inch), epoxy coating, a synthetic film wmupped
around the wood members or a membrane of concrete (usually about 50 milli-
meters thick) completely surrounding the wood members. Without such protec-
tion, a wood structure will deteriorate rapidly making a sustained mainten-
ance program of inspection and prompt replacement necessary to a long
service life of the structure.
Physical damage generally consists of broken members due to damage by

ships, barges, or debris, or by the force of storm waves. Prompt replacement
of broken members is necessary to avoid deterioration of adjacent members.
Damage through chemical reaction is largely confined to unusual events in
industrial harbor basins. A side benefit of pollution of harbor waters
from industrial activity may be the almost complete absence of marine life
that attack wooden structures.
f. Asphalt. This is primarily used as a surfacing material for
harbor roads, parking areas, and storage zones. It is subject to chemical
deterioration, abrasion, plastic flow under heavy loads, and vehicular
impact, particularly in areas subjected to high temperatures. Continuous
maintenance is required or damage will not only be extensive to the asphalt
structure, but also to vehicles and equipment using it. Where asphalt is
used on jetties, frequent inspection and replacement of broken or dislodged
asphalt is required.
"I
7. Environmental Considerations.
The physical properties and performance experience of each of the

coastal structural materials are discussed in detail in the following
sections. The environmental impacts considered on each of the materials
* are: corrosive and pollutant attacks on exposed surfaces, the effects of
sunlight, water penetration, waves and currents, severe temperature, ice,
marine organisms, periodic wetting and drying, wind erosion, burrowing
animals, flora, fire, abrasion, seismic effects and human activity. While
all of the above impacts do not effect all structural materials (for example,
fire does not change the physical properties of earth), those environmental
4 impacts that may effect a specific structural material to be considered for
use in coastal construction are discussed in the appropriate material
section.
22
L
III. STONE
1. Types and General Characteristics of Stone.
a. General. "Stone" refers to individual blocks, masses, or fragments

that have been broken or quarried from bedrock exposures, or obtained from
boulders and cobbles in alluvium, and that are intended for commercial use.
Stone is used for many purposes, which are generally divided into two main
classes: (1) "Physical" uses, in which the stone is broken, crushed, pulver-
ized, shaped, or polished, but its physical and chemical characteristics
remain essentially unchanged; (2) "chemical" uses, in which the stone is
changed physically or chemically to yield an end product that differs from
the raw stone in composition. The use in coastal structures is primarily of
a physical nature.
Crushed and broken stone includes all stone in which the shape is not
specified, such as that used as aggregate and riprap. Riprap is well-graded
within wide size limits. Quarrystone armor consists of comparatively large
broken stone that is typically a specified size and is used, without a binder,
principally for breakwaters, jetties, groins, and revetments, which are
intended primarily to resist the physical action of water.
Stone for coastal structures should be sound, durable, and hard. It

should be free from laminations and weak cleavages, and should be of such
character that it will not disintegrate from the action of air, seawater,
and undesirable weathering, or from handling and placing. In general, stone
with a high specific gravity should be used to decrease the volume of mater-
ial required in the structure and to increase the resistance to movement by
the action of waves or currents.
Characteristics that affect the durability of stone are texture, struc-

ture, mineral composition, hardness, toughness, and resistance to disintegra-
tion on exposure to wetting and drying and to freezing and thawing. Ordin-
arily, the most durable stone is one that is dense or fine textured, hard,
and tough, but exceptions to this general rule occur. The character of the
stone for any project depends on what is available, and often the choice of
material involves weighing the relative economy of using a local stone of
lower quality against using a better quality stone from a distance. Where
the local stone is markedly inferior, the greater cost of transporting dur-
*4 able, high-quality stone from outside the immediate area may be justified and
advisable. Because of the wide range in climatic conditions and, thus, of
the serverity of exposure in different regions of the United States, accept-
able standards of durability for these various regions will vary.
The stone industry recognizes the following stone classification (Gay,

1957) based mainly on composition and texture: (1) granite; (2) basalt and
related rocks; (3) limestone and marble; (4) sandstone; and (5) miscellaneous
stone (including chert, conglomerate, greenstone, serpentine, shale, slate,
mica schist, tuffaceous volcanic rocks, and coral).
b. Granite. The term "granite" is commonly applied to medium- to

coarse-grained igneous stones that consist mainly of feldspar and quartz,
and ordinarily contain subordinate proportions of ferromagnesian minerals.
Mica may also be present. In small quantities mica is not particularly
23
harmful; however, in larger quantities it sets up planes of structural
weakness and provides a starting point for disintegration. Granite occurs
mainly in large bodies, known as batholiths, which are exposed over many
square miles. Batholiths commonly consist of numerous individual bodies of
various granitic rock types, with contrasting colors, textures, and mineral
composition.
While granites vary widely in texture and appearance, most of them are
dense and have a porosity of less than I percent. Granite spalls badly
under the combined effect of fire and water, so it is not particularly
resistant to fire. Most unweathered granitic st.'nes are hard, strong,
tough, and resistant to abrasion, impact, and chemical attack. The average
unit weights range from approximately 24.3 to 27.5 kilonewtons per cubic
meter (155 to 175 pounds per cubic foot). These properties make granitic
stones well suited to use as riprap and quarrystone armor units.
c. Basalt and Related Stone. In commercial usage, the term "basalt"

is applied to any of the dense, fine-grained, dark-gray or black volcanic
stone. The term ordinarily includes stone types that geologists classify
as dacite, andesite, basalt, trachyte, or latite. Basaltic rock has
solidified by the cooling of lava, either as flows on the Earth's surface,
or as shallow intrusive bodies beneath the surface. It is composed primarily
of feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals in crystals that range in size from
submicroscopic to clearly visible. Commonly, an appreciable percentage of
glassy material is present. Some effusive basalt is vesicular and the
vesicles may have become filled with potentially reactive substances such
as opaline, silica or zeolites which render the rock unfit for use as
aggregate.
Basalts are one of the heaviest stones with an average specific gravity
of 2.9 to 3.2 and average unit weights of 28.3 to 31.4 kilonewtons per
cubic meter (180 to 200 pounds per cubic foot)); however, in certain areas
they may contain many small cavities (vesicles) which result in stone with
low densitities. Basaltic stones are characteristically hard, tough, and
durable, so they are well suited for use as aggregate, riprap and quarry-
stone armor units.
d. Carbonate Stone. Carbonate stones are broadly divided by geologists

into (1) limestone, which consists almost entirely of calcite (CaC0 3); (2j
dolomite, which consists mainly of the mineral dolomite (CaCO 3 . NlgCO); and
(3) marble, which is the metamorphosed crystalline equivalent of either
type. All gradations exist between limestone and dolomite and between very
fine-grained and very coarse-,rained material.
In the stone industry the term limestone is applied to many types

0 rock that contain a high percentage of calcium carbonate, although lziijze
proportions of other substances also may be present. Such snhstince-
include siderite (FeCO 3 ), magnesite (MgC0 3), and rhodochrosite (M1n'0.
They also commonly contain clay, silt, and sand grains. A high nercTtlc
of clay commonly weakens carbonate rock, making it unfit for ose .i, Totlk..
A high content of sand grains or silica may harden carbonate rock. ',1.11),
is similar to limestone chemically, but has been subjected t,( a
process which has made it more crystalline in structure, h;:rler, ani
better able to hold a polish.
* 24
Fir use as stone, carbonate rock should be physically sound, dense, and
relatively pure. Porosity of limestone generally ranges from approximately
I to 15 percent. Limestones have an average unit weight of approximately
Y22.0 to 25.9 kilonewtons per cubic meter (140 to 165 pounds per cubic
foot). Marble has an average unit weight of 25.1 to 26.7 kilonewtons per
cubic meter (160 to 170 pounds per cubic foot). Carbonate stone that is
tough, strong, and durable is well suited for use as concrete aggregate,
riprap and quarrystone armor units.
e. Sandstone. Sandstone is clastic sedimentary rock composed of

particles mainly in the size range of about 0.25 to 6.4 millimeters (0.01
to 0.25 inch) in diameter. Although some sandstones consist almost
wholly of quartz grains, most sandstones are feldspathic; some contain a
high proportion of ferromagnesian minerals. The strength and durability of
sandstone are mainly determined by the type of material that cements the
grains together. Only well-induraed sandstone, cemented with silica or
calcite (rather than with the weaker cements, clay or iron oxide), is well
suited to use as crushed and broken stone. The porosity of sandstone is
typically high, ranging from 5 to 25 percent. The average unit weight
ranges from approximately 21.2 to 25.1 kilonewtons per cubic meter (135 to
160 pounds per cubic feet).
f. Miscellaneous Types of Stone.
(1) Chert. Chert is a sedimentary rock composed almost entirely

of silica, in the form of opal, chalcedony, or microgranular quartz. It
commonly occurs in thin-bedded deposits. The most desirable form of chert
is hard and dense, which is well suited for use as crushed and broken stone
and riprap. Some chert, however, is too laminated or contains too much
silt or shale for such use. It is generally not used for large quarrystone
armor units.
(2) Conglomerate. This stone is clastic sedimentary rock containing

abundant fragments of pebble size or larger in a matrix of sand and finer
grained materials. Conglomerates show various degrees of induration which
depend largely on the nature and amount of cementing material--clay, calcium
carbonate, iron oxides or silica--in the matrix.
Conglomerate is not abundantly used for riprap or quarrystone armor

* because relatively few deposits of conglomerate are sufficiently well
indurated for this use.
(3) Greenstone. Greenstone is a general term applied by geologists

to basic or intermediate volcanic rocks that contain abundant green secondary
minerals. In the stone industry the term is also applied to a variety of
* fine-grained green rocks, including arkosic sandstone, graywacke, impure
quartzite and various pyroclastic rocks. Physically sound greenstone may
be used for aggregate, riprap, or quarrystone armor, if it is available
economically.
(4) Serpentine. This stone is an ultrabasic igneous rock composed

* mainly of the mineral serpentine, a hydrous magnesium silicate. Serpentine
rock is moderately soft, but commonly massive and dense in structure, and
25
very resistant to chemical and physical weathering. These properties make
it desirable as crushed and broken stone for riprap, but generally not for
quarrystone armor units.
(5) Shale. Shale is a very fine-grained, thinly bedded sedi-

mentary rock composed mostly of clay-size and silt-size particles. Pre-
Mesozoic shales are commonly well indurated, if not metamorphosed. Most
r Mesozoic and Tertiary shales are moderately to poorly indurated. Most
types of shale are too weak to be suited to the ordinary uses of crushed
and broken stone.
(6) Slate. This stone is a thinly foliated metamorphic rock

composed essentially of muscovite (sericite), quartz, and graphite, all in
grains of microscopic or submicroscopic size. Slate is formed by compaction
and partial recrystallization of shale, and is commonly dark colored and
moderately hard. Slate is desired mainly for use as dimension stone.
Because slate has been subjected to intense pressure during formation, it
has a low porosity and, consequently, a high strength. Its modulus of
rupture is relatively high, and it is also resistant to weathering and to
mechanical abrasion. The average unit weight ranges from approximately
26.7 to 28.3 kilonewtons per cubic meter (170 to 180 pounds per cubic
foot).
(7) Tuff. The term "tuff" includes pyroclastic volcanic types,

most of which would be classed as rhyolite or dacite tuffs or tuffaceous
sediments. Most tuffaceous rocks are only moderately hard, although on
exposure to air they commonly harden appreciably. Because of its softness,
tuffaceous rock is unsuited to most uses of crushed and broken stone.
(8) Coral. In southeastern United States and certain Pacific

Island areas, it is often necessary to make use of coralline limestones for
coastal construction, since more uurable stone (such as granite or basalt)
is unavailable. These materials are partially recrystallized coral forma-
tions which have sufficient resistance to breakdown and erosion to be
acceptable for breakwater or revetment construction (Fig. 1). They are
less resistant to mechanical breakage than denser, harder stone and there-
fore, require special care in blasting and handling. However, it has been
possible to produce large stones 89 to 267 kilonewtons (10 to 30 short
tons) from coralline limestones.
2. Categories of Stone Size and Gradation.
a. General. The category of crushed and broken stone includes all

quarried stone that is not cut or shaped to specified dimensions. It
ranges in size from granite blocks weighing 222 to 267 kilonewtons (25 to
* 30 short tons) used as quarrystone armor units, to ground shale of very
small size to smaller than 200 mesh (0.075 millimeter) used as insecticide
carrier. The larger categories of crushed or broken stone (greater than
75 millimeters or 3 inches) are generally used in coastal construction.
b. Fill. Most fill material is natural earth obtained as surplus from

* excavation or from borrow pits, and would not be classed as stone. Crushed
stone is used for special types of fill, such as the cores of dikes or
jetties. Only the least expensive grades of crushed stone, commonly
26
*6
6
[..
6• Figure 1. Coral riprap in Kosrae, Micronesia (photo

courtesy of Woodward-Clyde Consultants).
crusher run fines or unclassified waste from production of riprap, are used
for fill. Miscellaneous soil, rock and rubble fills may be used as random
r or temporary shore protection (Fig. 2).
c. Rockfill. Sound rock is ideal for producing rockfill materials.

Some weathered or weak rocks, including sandstones and cemented shales (but
not clay shales), may also be suitable (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
1971b). Rocks or stones that break down to fine sizes during blasting,
excavation, placement, or compaction are unsuitable as rockfill; such
materials should be treated as soils. Processing by passing rockfill
materials over a grizzly may be required to remove excess fine sizes or
oversize material. Quarry-run and quarry-waste materials are commonly used
as core materials for breakwaters and jetties. This material should be
reasonably well graded and no skip grading or scalping of certain sizes
* should be allowed. The material should also generally contain no more than
5 to 10 percent fines.
d. Riprap. Riprap is generally heavy irregular fragments of broken

stone or other resistant substances, well-graded within wide size limits,
and randomly placed without mortar to provide protection for an embankment
* or bluff toe from the physical erosive action of water. The stability of
the stone layer depends on the density and mass of the stones, and on the
evenness of their gradation. The stability increases as the stones become
more well graded. This means that, for riprap of small stones, finer
material is included in the gradation, making voids smaller, the face
smoother, and wave reflectance higher. As long as the physical require-
* ments for stone are fulfilled, any type of rock may be used for riprap;
chemical and mineral composition of the rock is generally of minor
importance.
27
IA
gv 11C
280
e. Armor Stone. Armor stone, chosen to be of nearly uniform size and
,t compact, sometimes blocky shape, depends on density and mass to resist
_rV the force of waves or currents. The voids between the armor rock, to a
certain extent, absorb energy through creation of turbulence. To a lesser
extent, wave energy is absorbed by wave runup on the sloping outer face.
f. Underlayers. The underlying rock layers are usually randomly
pla,:ed and serve to support the armor rock. By size gradation, and some-
times in several layers or zones, they may also absorb wave or current
ene2rgy through turbulence in the voids. Rocks used for these underlayers
are considerably less costly per unit volume than armor rock.
. Bedding Layers. In breakwaters, jetties, and groins constructed on
relatively flat sand or mud bottoms, a bedding layer consisting of smaller
well-graded stones is required to prevent the fine bottom material from
piping upwa rd through the structures. Piping and subsequent erosion of the
foundation soils could result in settlement of the upper layers of rock,
particularly the large heavy armor stones. Settlement could in turn cause
ultimate collapse of that part of the structure.
h. Filter Layers. In revetments, seawalls, and bulkheads a layer of
filter material is required. While this layer of fine well-graded stones
may in part act as a supporting bedding layer for sloped revetment or
seawall structures, its primary function is to relieve hydrostatic pressures
(die to changes in water elevation on the seaward side or changes of ground
water elevation on the landward side. It is designed as a true filter to
permit the passage of water in either direction, but to prevent the dis-
turbance of the sand or clay foundation. The gradation of the filter
material depends on the characteristics of the backfill core or beach
materials and on the voids of the riprap or armor units. The filter
;:iaterial should be uniformly graded from fine sands, coarse sands, gravels
and stonCs such that it will not wash into the rubble. The material could
IcL-in two or more layers. It should also be noted that filter cloth is
t''.q!ioently used in place of a graded granular filter.
i. Other Categories. Filler stone, consisting of well-graded gravel

si.t material, 6.3 to 100 millimeters (0.25 to 4 inches), is commonly used
to fill the voids in core stone. Toe stone is used to protect the base of
a coastal structure from erosion or scour. This stone typically ranges
from approximately 0.89 kilonewton (200 pounds) to more than 8.9 kilonew-
• tons (2 000 pounds) in weight and should be reasonably well graded. Chink
stone is used to fill voids in riprap or armor stone. Coarse and fine
aggregates are used for making concrete.
j. Fill for Gabions and Cribs. Gabions are wire baskets that can be
cJ1oLctUd and filled with stone. The baskets must be solidly filled, or
[ wires will be abraded by movement of loose stones. The stones must be
[ trre enough, generally 10 to 25 centimeters in diameter, to prevent loss
, stone through the gabion mesh. Cribs may be filled with similar stone
; .,terialsto form a gravity type structure.
"tone Specifications.
aI. General. The character of the stone to be used in coastal struc-

Stlcs is of primary importance. Materials may be obtained from any approved
~29
6
local source. Material from new sources should be tested by the Government
for quality to determine acceptability. When the contractor desires
rim.terials from a source not listed, or if the Government elects to retest a
source that is listed, suitable samples for quality evaluation should be
taken by the contractor under the supervision of the contracting officer.
,amples are generally delivered by the contractor to the nearest Corps of
Ini:ineers laboratory for testing.
No standard testing procedures have yet been developed for the determina-
tion of the quality of stone. The Waterways Experiment Station (WES) and
.")IIe Corps Division laboratories have devised tests to evaluate such
:.iteri'l, but the test procedures employed in these different laboratories
,irv somewhat. In any case, judgment is necessary in applying the test
results. Any testing program for the determination of the quality of rock
for use as stone in coastal structures should include petrographic examina-
tion: determination of absorption and bulk and specific gravity {AS11
Standard C97-47 (77) or C127-77); a soundness test {American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Test T-104-46 or ASTM
Standard C88-76}; and an abrasion test {ASTM Standard 535-69 (75)}. Other
tests that may also prove useful include a slaking or wetting-and-drying test,
and a freeze-thaw test. See Lutton, Houston, and Warriner (1981) for details.
Properties contributing to durability of stone may be both physical and

chemical. Tests usually measure physical properties and therefore the
results provide only an indication of how chemical change has already
affected the stone, not the susceptibility to future chemical change.
Vetting and drying tests have been used to evaluate rock which disintegrates
badly as a result of chemical change, but there is still a question as to
what the test actually measures and what the results mean. Chemical
changes can best be evaluated by experience.
'!he best data for evaluating stone to be used in coastal structures are
service records. If a stone has not been previously used, the quarry
shouid be visited and old surface outcroppings examined for signs of
weathering.
h. Stone Size. To make optimum use of local materials, designs should
,tot only have a wide range of stone sizes to choose from, but also an
Al adequate number of classes within this range. Each class available for a
specific use should be limited in range. Physical limitations in the size
oft irmor stone that is feasible to use must also be considered. These may
!,(tr,uck or highway capacity or the handling limits of the quarry equipment.
[it,geoloical structure of the rock quarry may also limit the quantity and
:.i:e of stone that can be obtained.
The total weight or size of the armor units, the side slopes, the
density of armor material, and the degree of interlocking or wedging
bozt,,,,a units are interrelated and comprise the principal factors in the
dkZigrL ~,f a stone structure. Armor stone may be rubble mound placed at
random, individually placed, or it may be rectangular blocks of stone
caretF'lly fitted together. Several empirical formulas have been derived
for determining the size of armor stone required for the stability under
,tve action. These are contained in the appropriate design manuals.. In
thc Hunson equation for design of armor stone {U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
(',aastail Engineering Research Center (CERC) 1977}, the required size of
6 30
1i1u11 ,u1l armor stone is roughly inversely proportional to its density.
Ihis fltxibility of size versus density of stone permits some latitude in
,hoice between two quarry sites. Stones larger than about 223 to 267
kilonewtons (26.1 to 30.0 short tons) are generally not easily handled.
The greatest dimension of each individual large stone should be no greater
th,in three times the least dimension.
Flhe reverse of this size-density factor can be used for a more efficient
consideration of choice of rock source for core and underlayers where
density is not a critical design consideration. Frequently a savings in
cost can be affected by bidding the armor stone in tons and the underlying
stone in solid cubic yards. Underlayers placed beneath the armor units
should be an adequate size to prevent withdrawal of the units through the
interstices of the cover layer and to prevent excess movement and subsequent
tceakage. The weight of underlayer stone may range from 3 to more than 30
ki lonewtons.
The most frequently used core is of a quarry-run material, the gradation

of which is governed by economics or by the desired degree of imperme-
ability. A rubble structure may also need protection from settlement
(resulting from leaching, piping, undermining, or scour) by use of a bedding
-* layer or blanket. The gradation requirements of a bedding layer depend
primarily on the littoral chracteristics in the area and on the foundation
conditions. However, quarry spoil, ranging in size from about 4 newtons (1
pound) to about 220 newtons (50 pounds), will generally suffice.
T1ypical classifications from the State of California Standard Specifica-

tions for rock slope protection are shown in Table 1 (California Department
of Public Works, 1960). The weights by which the classes are designated do
not necessarily correspond to the weights called for by the various design
tormulas. For example, if a shore protection formula, such as Hudson's
cquition in the Shore Protection Manual (SPM) (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
CIRC, 1977), should call for S-ton (44 kilonewton) armor stone, it may be
proper to use the 8-ton (71 kilonewton) class, as approximately 80 percent
of this class would be larger than S ton. For the same example, the SPM
-:ggests that for a cover layer with a two stone thickness, approximately
%' percent of the stones may be greater than 5 tons and the range should be
,ctween approximately 3.73 and 6.25 tons (33.3 and 55.6 kilonewtons).
* ,. Stone Shape. Stone block structures may be closely fitted seawalls,

ro ins, jetties, or breakwaters such as are built along the coasts of
Hawaii (Fig. 3), the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. For these
:triCtures the stone blocks should be rectangular and of sufficient uni-
formity in size and shape to be closely fitted together. These structures
depend on the close fitting of the armor stone and chinking or grouting to
* prevent loss of the underlying rubble stone through the interstices of the
fitted armor stones. However, there must be sufficient space or openings
between the armor stones to relieve the hydrostatic uplift pressures that
occur' during storm waves.
Rounded stones, particulary for the armor layers, are to be avoided

*~ wfineever possible. They are difficult to place and are not stable, either
due to wave forces or their inherent instability on steep slopes. For
these reasons, field or streambed stone are generally not acceptable.
31
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rps!W
Figure 3. Fitted stone blocks in Hawaii.

-I
Angular stones (Fig. 4), particularly for the armor layer, have two
advantages: (1) the voids are maximized, increasing energy losses through
turbulence; and (2) the stones tend to interlock with their neighbors,
increasing their resistance to movement by wave or current forces.
IQ
I:i(tII T. ngular b1lock stones.
I 33
While angularity is most desirable, the stones should be approximately
rectangular in shape. For large stone, the greatest dimension should be no
greater than three times the least dimension. Sharp points should be
avoided as they may cause a stone to wobble or the point may break off
under stress, disturbing the stability of the section. Even if dislodged
or partially dislodged, an angular stone will tend to find a stable
position, whereas a rounded stone will tend to roll to the toe of the
structure.
d. Specific Gravity. Required stone size is a function of the specific

gravity and, unless unreasonably low, specific gravity should not be a
limitation on its use. In fact, excellent results have been reported for
lava with a specific gravity of 1.5. Once the stone size has been selected
on the basis of a certain specific gravity, specifications should then
prohibit the use of stones with specific gravity appreciably lower. Low
density stone may be used in the core (and underlayers), and high density
armor stone can be used, providing an adjustment is made in the thickness,
for the armor layer. Armor is generally priced by the ton. Core and
underlayer materials may be priced by volume to control the use of over-
weight stone in these zones.
* e. Absorption. There is a general correlation between absorption and

weathering. Use of the absorption test is more significant when the rock
is to be used in areas subject to freezing and thawing. A limit of 2-
percent absorption is reasonable.
f. Soundness. Rocks that are laminated, fractured, porous, or other-

wise physically weak are subjected to a soundness test (use of sodium
sulphate). Stones showing a loss of less than 5 percent should be satis-
factory.
g. Abrasion. The Los Angeles rattler test and Wetshot rattler test
measure resistance to abrasion. Use of these tests is more significant
when the rock is to be used in shore protection where it is subjected to a
pounding surf carrying sand, gravel, and smaller stones. Stones having
relatively high losses in these tests have performed satisfactorily in
shore protection and therefore a rather lenient value is permissible. A 40-
percent maximum loss for the Wetshot rattler and 45 percent for the Los
* Angeles rattler are considered reasonable.
4. Quarrying Methods.
a. Quarry Development. Quarries produce most of the rock required for

construction in this country. In most quarries, all the material mined is
usually consumed as an end product. The size and quality of material
obtained from a quarry depend largely on the geology of the site and the
method of blasting (duPont de Nemours and Lo, 1977). Depending on the
area's topography, a quarry will generally be developed either as a side
hill or as a pit-type operation. Where the area is hilly and the rock
outcrops, the quarry will be developed by opening a face into the side of
the hill. The point of entry is usually at the bottom of the rock seam or
in a .ery thick seam. A convenient point should be chosen to provide an
almost level floor with just enough slope for natural drainage. When the
34
II
.r~lrin is almost flat, it is necessary to ramp down into tihe rock creating
pit that is entirely below the surface of the surrounding terrain.
the height of the quarry face may be determined by the thickness of the
oriii-ition. However, since most formations being mined exceed the practical
iits of bench heights, the determining factor in the choice of
bench
hci htS is usually that of safety. Bench heights must be selected to be
cimnattble with the loading equipment so that the broken rock can be safely
iwc uv~d from the muck pile. If a single piece of loading equipment, such
.s a shovel or front-end loader, is incapable of reaching high enough to
ai
:'ide all unstable rock from the broken bench face, then it is customary
t' use a dozer to work the rock down to a safe height for the loader. The
aJse of the proper blast design will result in the utilization of the
~aximum safe bench heights and the optimum use of loading equipment.
A somewhat special method used in quarry develorment is called "Coyote
LUi,,ling." This is a method in which tunnels are excavated into a bluff
,,,hillside and partially filled with explosives. In a crude sense, they
:cht be considered large-diameter horizontal boreholes, wi.th the additional
,pt onn of turning corners or excavating "tee" sections. With this method,
it is extremely important that the natural jointing characteristics of the
Sz-ck have the capability of producing the desired material, since there is
rclati:ely limited additional fragmentation by this blasting method itself.
Tie iiiethod is economically attractive if there is a vertical or steep rock
Iace and the rock has the desired jointing characteristics. For example,
it has proved to be very successful for producing riprap in columnar
ha-alrs, and for producing crusher feed in diced basalts.
Oiniension stone quarries may be developed in some formations such as

,r!,stone, marble, or granite. Drill holes are generally spaced close
to,,ther along the desired break line and small charges of blasting powder
,ia, used in these quarries. The purpose is to move a block of stone a
<.rt distance in one piece without any damaging cracks.
il.
bast Design. In general, the blasting method is determined by the
<, ,iO(,v of the material to be broken, the fragmentation required, the hole
~a ,ctu, and the type of explosive. The type of equipment available for
i 1dlling and loading should also be taken into consideration (e.g., in
,ictermining bench height).
(1) Geology. The geological and physical characteristics of the

f,,,terial to be broken are the most important factors in determining the end-
p'rudu.t stone size and the overall blast design. There are at least a half
,,,:en or more factors reported by researchers as being related to the manner
in which rock is fragmented under the action of explosives. These include
>'Wh
. factors as the maximum sonic velocity, the minimum sonic velocity, the
i-ti(,of these two (the sonic anisotropy), the lowest tensile strength, the
.cii, ,ravity, and the number of joints intersecting a blasting round.
i:,,-t,,rs such as hardness and brittleness may also be included, but these are
il,,ited to those previously mentioned. At least a part of these properties
.1, ie,.ied or estimated in a typical site investigation for a quarry.
St. th, moSt cursory of quarry investigations will provide an estimate of
k itl.l I it and mointing. In turn, rock quality and jointing are probably
t%() T,(,st important factors used in preliminary design of blasting
35
tests. fowever, it is generally true that both the design of blasting
rounds and the chances of their success largely depend on the previous
experience and skill of the blaster.
In many cases, a very hard, brittle rock will break with less difficulty
th'in a soft, spongy rock. This is dramatically true if the hard rock is
closely jointed and the soft rock is massive. The orientation of the
primary joint system in a formation is a very important factor in the blast
design. When the primary jointing is dipping at a steep angle, it is
LOlO11v1 advantageous to develop the quarry face at no less than 450 (and
prefrabl 90) to this jointing angle; however, this is not universally
true. In determining the angle of the quarry face, consideration should
also he given to the desired end product (e.g., crusher feed versus riprap),
slope stability questions, ease of development, traffic flow, and equipment.
trequently, the direction of development is not a controllable factor. In
such cases, it is important to make certain that blast designs and exca-
vating procedures take into account the geometric relationships between the
jointing, explosives action, excavating sequences, and final surfaces.
(2) Fragmentation. The degree of fragmentation desired depends on

the end use of the product mined. In quarrying, where the stone will be
-. sized for construction use, it is usually undesirable to produce a large
percentage of stone less than 5 centimeters (2 inches) in size. Even under
the best conditions, it should be anticipated that up to S-percent fines
(fine sand, silt, and clay) will be generated by the blasting operation.
because many of the various parameters involved in blast design are

strongly interrelated, it is difficult to isolate each factor and discuss
,rs relationship to the final product. However, it is possible to make
certain statements which are generally true about some of these parameters.
Voi example, a high powder factor (quantity of explosive per unit volume of
rock) will produce a greater degree of fragmentation than a lower powder
tactor if other factors are kept the same. Similarly, greater fragmenta-
timJ will he achieved in a massive rock by using a larger number of smaller
diameter holes at closer spacing, rather than larger diameter holes at
;rceater spacings. Also, it appears that the best fragmentation is achieved
when holes are detonated individually rather than simultaneously.
V (3) Hole Diameter. The proper hole diameter depends largely on the
physical properties of the formation, the fragmentation required, and the
height of the quarry face. The hole diameter should be selected to be
compatible with the geological and physical characteristics of the forma-
tion, since it is the only factor in the overall blast design that cannot
h- altered. Unfortunately, this selection is sometimes made on the basis
of the total volume of rock to be mined, the duration of the project,
production rates, capital costs, and depreciation rates, with no considera-
tion given to geology.
.1) Type of Explosive. On large-scale projects, it can be reason-

hy]v assumed that the first choice of explosive will be made for economical
ra ther than technical reasons; for dry quarry work, explosives will usually
hc ;riwionium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO). If water is encountered, the choice
[,.:,l nirmally be a specially packaged ANFO or some form of slurry or water
Pespite its relatively low price, ANFO is a good, general-purpose
*O 36
explosive. Its low brisance is compensated for by its high gas volume.
licnce, it is capable of producing as much work as some of the more expensive
bri ,,nt explosives.
The majority of blast-induced fractures produced in the rock are radial

from the charge location, and are associated primarily with the propagating
stress waves (duPont de Nemours and Lo, 1977). Spalling at the bench face
from reflected stress waves produces very little fragmentation with the
burdens normally used under typical field conditions. Thus, it is apparent
that the inherent fracture planes in the rock are important and should be
considered in determining the fragmentation; hence, they should also be
considered in determining the blast design. If the inherent fracture
planes are closely spaced, the material can be broken more easily and with
larger diameter holes at greater spacing.
Production of large stones is usually a more difficult problem than

production of crusher feed. If the rock is overblasted, and the particles
are too small, there is no way, of course, to make them larger. However,
if rock sizes are too large, it is at least physically possible to break
them to smaller sizes, although at greater cost. For the production of
large stone, it is customary to detonate simultaneously a row of holes
* behind an open face, using relatively light charges.
c. Loading Equipment. The degree of fragmentation required is also

related to the type and size of the loading equipment, and the size and type
of crusher available. Obviously, larger equipment can tolerate larger rock
fragments. However, the main advantage of larger equipment is its ability to
handle a larger volume of material, not simply larger particles. It is poor
cconomy to use larger blast-hole spacings and burdens to produce larger rock
sizes because large loading equipment has been acquired. Under these circum-
stances, the loading and crushing equipment is not being utilized to its
maximum capabilities. It is much less expensive to do more work with explo-
sives. Of course, if the needed product is large-size stone, such as riprap,
it is essential to have equipment capable of handling it.
d. Processing of Materials. The properties and quantities of the

var;ius types of materials are not only dependent on the onsite geological
conditions, but also on the construction procedures; therefore, it is
imperative that suitable processing methods be used in the quarry operation.
-* Further, it should be anticipated that variations and changes from the
antiLipated geologic conditions in the quarry may occur and methods of
construction may vary.
The large number of material types generally obtained from a quarry

require separating materials into various sizes and gradations. Very large
* material, up to 267 kilonewtons (30 short tons), may require special equip-
ment. It is anticipated that large stone material, e.g., 1- to 8-ton
'trne, will be separated by the excavating equipment. The material larger
thain 0., meter (24 inches) and smaller than 38 millimeters (1.5 inches) is
qenerilly removed and separated by some type of screening process. Removal
of fines (maiterial passing a No. 200 mesh sieve) may require some type of
'.hing process. The various operations could have a significant effect on
the material gradation and generation of fines which would ultimately
iffcct the available quantity of some of the material types. It is there-
37
,ore important that the sequence of operations, type of equipment, rate of
i'uction, and number of times the material is handled be cevluated and
'.
cit I-ol led.
Ihe best time to control the gradation of quarried stone is during the
'ring. Control of gradation to meet specifications is usually carried
littLv visual inspection. In order to calibrate the judgment of the in-
>Pccto1-, it is very helpful to establish, at a conven;ent location in the
Z-'-v,' pile of stone with the desired gradation. This standard pile
*il, contain 44.5 to 89 kilonewtons (5 to 10 short tons) of material, and
.ail Le formed by measuring and selecting the individual stones to be
ibincd in the correct proportion. In the case of riprap, or other large
toii:, there may need to be a larger volume in the pile used for visual
iiibrit ion.
I
projects may permit the use of "quarry run". i.e. , ihateve'r

Soml i
i,,.ilitynd gradation of stone that may come from the quarry without any
:,vCial ,ontrol or processing. However, "hen speci fi cations are being
o iied, it is very important to the proJect OWTW r that any limitations be
CliCLt. I N' identi fi ed He may expect quarry run to be the product of very
cIat iniis blasting using controlled methods and be may encounter either a
dtii p "oblem or contractual problem i f ent r.i di fferent flethods are
a:, b the contractor.
It should be anticipated that even ftreh r-,1, -ii conta in up to 5-

p. rccrit fines due to blasting and careful handlinit, tnd that the quantity
* of fines can be increased substantially dcperndrng on the equipment and
mcrthod., used in handling. Commonly, another 7-erc'nt fines are generated
in cruhiig and processing. Of course, the greater the number of times the
miterial is handled and processed, the greater the percentag( of fines
enerated or material lost (such as in stockpiling).
1')minimize further degradation of the materials, the contractor should

1.,c large-size loading equipment in the borrow area and rehandling should
b kept to a minimum. With large-size loading equipment, it should not be
,cce arv to use dozers -n the muck pile. Such use can be expected to
",1,"o a significant deg. .1ation of the stone particles. Further, the use
St 1-iirge loading equipment minimizes the need of using excessive quantities
ut ixploives to provide excessive rock fragmentation.
Sx,.Avation of materials is usually carried out with power shovels, drag-

,i , scrapers, front-end or side-delivery loaders (Sherard, et al., 1963).
I,.-rcries, the most common items of equipment are shovels and front-end
Io J,i's. Plower shovels provide the greatest reaching capacity and greatest
Ii,'.;ing capacity in poorly fragmented or poorly loosened materials (Fig. 5).
fiis digging capacity is important when production of large stone is

ii _J tor riprap. The reaching capacity often contributes greatly to
.l fficiency by permitting higher benches. Large front-end and side-
.\I loaders are probably the most economical in a medium-size operation
, ii crusher feed, where blasting is designed to produce fine fragment-
l
i,i, 'jiI on those projects where high mobility is desirable. (It is a
,, ,.,,:es to move a large shovel any distance.) Small front-end loaders
i)y the least efficient, since they can only handle small-size
6 38
p.6
Figurc S. Power shovel loading trcwicks at C:)tal ria

Hu~arrv.
initerial s in a loosened sve This requires- hea'.' blost int 1 V nsI

recworking with a dozer. Ini 11 :ases, the type Oft CeJUJpflklt 12 1 p 1i y
the general handli i ic a i and rates of eccavat ions I !le docu-
mented and the efct ~a of the ove-rail operat i oin on t mate
iA 01" : 1lt ion1
evalutated. Thi-, i, daone by observing the operi- sawmp i i ',
*Wm,tlrc
and determining the grahdl ton of the material fror)i, the-, mjjae'. K 1 ,Crior
(-xcaivat ion and aftt nIi I nv- the equipment .
'Ihfe basic mcthod .. aring the stone m.'ItcrCaiIrp .

tra-Lc ks, and belIt cuwnv- (I' ihe t ype of t ruck gene ral1 ij j In
fluen-ee on the propert ies a processing of the embah~n~mont rojtci-, .In
rECcnt years, thvre ""'OKn ai dramatic increase iii the use O1f IC)0
hvlts, due partly r(, lmpio\'menits in belting materials ard c ~~which

per-ini t the cofl\'Lycrs t@--1,K 'iovid more rapi dly. (:1ear ly, I ick ; LAi lit v
is a serious limitat ian. i is;also important to Cunsidcr a F'IV thli
S 1 Ze
t- nd g radat ion o f t L' :, 'onc pro-ducts and the ci evaIt i na ' e ('il-od
C-tr ransport . Mkost i: o)nveino 1 are eas il y damacu h"n PiJrcae -?11 11'
s1)e c a I d es-i g ns ar r L(4 I't 1 1 '; Ste ep t o pog 1ra1pli
It is not comr;ioii ,it r .: ro e ts t 1o (.-o 1 1! :11i

5fl1itting of duuis is toea . 1%hen such 1ptodiaT ."a 1'CW1 I i a) Iiv folr
Fry jagv of complCtc-,i straci, te it is.- crutolIIr\ to K [-cs'
rOJIrIiitS
A.; twon 1 be done to:. airv rem ninfacttire- -, po~ia t ()i Ix ~ r i cI
rrrrrher of sites Ii- -J, t!! f(,_ j')lodrICigj im i ; ' i
j'Philiton requ i-cs5 tn )oliiP Ii ~
I Ir- 7.ol 1 i' I
39
0
5. Place'ent Methods.
a. General. Stone should be placed by equinment and methko: .d.

for handling materials of the size specified. Placement of te " -ii '
begin at the bottom of the section and should continue in :1 : ,
produce a graded mass of material with maximum interlocking ::i
voids. In general, the larger stones should be placed so that
joints are broken with the long axis of the stone set approxi .i_,-a",
to the structure slope and pointing inward toward the center of t,;t, t-.
section. Stone should be placed to the lines and grades shon,: '!C. (111
tract drawings. Typical extreme tolerances for finished slra-e-
rcntly contained in various Corps of Engineers specifications, a-
centimeters (12 inches) when placing under water and ±15 centimt,,-rs ,
inches) when placing in the dry. Tolerances of ±7.5 centimeters , ,
may be required for smaller underlayer and bedding layer stone. ,c
centimeters (18 inches) may be allowed for large armor stone. 'i.L' eXtr ,'C,
of tolerances for underlayer stones and large armor stone should ;.?-rail\'
not be continuous over areas of structure surface greater than at,'o~ itely
18.5 and 93 square meters (200 and 1 000 square feet) respectivel I.
Army Engineer Division, North Central, 1978). Rubble-mound striot ,
exposed to wave action during construction should be completed in zc-
tions (including placement of armor stone) to minimize damage. F'a'ticular
care must be taken when building structures such as groirs and jetties that
pass through the surf zone. Placement of extra stone on and arount the end of
the structure as it progresses seaward may be required to prevent ,a::iaging4
scour in the surf zone during construction. Damage to unprotected dikes is
g4enerally the responsibility of the contractor.
To firmly place stone, particularly in the armor layer, it !wust be

placed or seated on the underlying stones so that it does not tend to ,lip,
tilt. or wobble, either under wave attack or from the weight of ,L,,ne
placed on top of it. This is commonly known as seating the stone. Smal
urmor stone and armor stone placed in areas of very rough seas may have to
he randomly placed. If so, design allowance must be made for a iss stable
structure. Controlled placement methods are preferred for the belz ,se of
armor stone; this depends to a great extent on the skill of thet .traetar
personnel.
b. Filter, Bedding, and Core Material. The method used in iaicemenl

of filter, bedding, or core material should be such that the soft and
organic materials on the bottom are displaced outward toward the etreTne
outside toes of the required sections of the structure and in the tirectieF
of the construction. The stone should be handled and placed in s,c, a
manner as to minimize segregation and provide a well-graded mass. if the
materials are placed by clamshell, dragline, or other similar eqvpiiu:t
the stone should not be dropped from a height exceeding about O."
feet) above the existing bottom or previously placed materia:l. 'il usc ot
bottom dump scows and self-unloading vessels may be permitted wi h th(
vessel in motion along the centerline of the structurc and the :t ci:11
dropped as near to and directly, over its final location as pobss.h
tinish surface of the material should be free of mounds or wirdrc,-.
In areas where the stone is to be placed on .eotextile filhei <1or,

care should be taken so as not to rupture the cloth and the toneu ho, I
40
S•
110t be dropped from a height greater than about . . meter
,M.aximum heights from which stones may be dropped oi geotext i I
are spec ified for varying sizes of stone in SOLt ion IX.
c. Underlayer Stone. Underlaver stone shonld be pluc -, I,
thickness in one operation in a manner to avoid displacing the ,.!y

material or placing undue impact force on underlyino materi ,
ing subsoils. The underlayer stone should be placed in a na.,s , ,
a resultant graded mass of stone with minimum voids. Rearr:luiyn . i!!
dividual stones may be required to achieve this result. Pl1 )V
method which is likely to cause segregation of the various ;m:,s :',
's
permitted. Unsegregated stone can be lowered in a bucket o1 on1 1iiCr uc!16

placed in a systematic manner directly on the underlying material. (.
or dropping stone more than 0.6 meter or moving by drifting and ',,ni
lat ing down the slope is generally not permitted (U.S. Armn I imulw'cr
Division, North Central, 1978).
d. Cover (Armor) Stone. The SPM (U.S. Army, Corps of Lnin. rs, (IDL.
1977) and White (1948) show the placement of cover or armor _ torne is :'!c, .
uniform, special, or random.
* (1) Uniform Placement. This is applicable only to concr,,t: armor

units and cut or dressed quarrystones in that they are of a uniform size
and shape, and thus, lend ,hemselves to an orderly placement pattern.
Since quarrystones (as opposed to cut stone) are of random size and shape,
uniForm placement of quarrystone is impracticable.
(2) Special Placement. This is only applicable to parallelepiped-

shaped stone and involves the longest axis being placed perpendicuiar to
the slope of the structure face. For special placement, the longest axial
dimension of the stone should be at least twice as long as either of the
other two dimensions. The special placement method and the associated
stability coefficient should not be used unless quarrystone meet-, these
dimensional specifications, and prospective contractors for the pcoject can
assure the developer that they can obtain the quarrystone and plae it iith
the long axis normal to the face of the structure slope.
In general, due to the turbidity of the water at a construction site,

the special placement method can only be used above the water surlace, as
*O it is not possible to observe or place stones accurately below the water
surface using this method. Even then special care must be taken to ensure
proper orientation and seating at the interface of the change-in-placement
and at the slope-crown interface.
The special placement method will require close inspection ajn,! cleai
* instruction to the contractor to ensure proper placement procedurs. This
method requires more time than random placement and should, therefore,
increase the selection, handling, and placement costs of the qlarrvstonh:.
(3) Random Placement.Random (formerly pell-mell) placemeiit is a

term used to describe a variety of placement techniques ranging F-om,
Sdumpinig the armor stone under water from a scow to careful, iadidJuzil
placing of the angular quarrystone in the above-water section. 0a),-rryst,(,
placement by a contractor cannot only vary above and below the ier lev,c
41
and along the axis of the rubble structure, but can vary from one
the next. Placement can also vary from one contractor to another. i,,
variables and difficulties in placing armor units one at a time, oj diIi .
by skiff, above and below water, present the engineer with a diffimi;,t
desion problem. The extent of interlocking achieved is unprediczaV,I i-h
usiIIg random size (but still within specified limits) quarrystonei.
Generally, in specifying quarrystone armor units, the dimension oI thec
maximum axis is no greater than three times the minimum axis. This "ppl1e:
onl) to armor stone, as this ratio was devised to forestall the u.e of flat
or piatelike stone that, if laid flat on the structure slope. iwoul]i
he less stable than a more cubic stone. Because of these unpredi,.*,blc
vari.ibles all methods of placement, except for uniform and special f;laLC-
ments, have been lumped together as "random placement" to encompas- the.
~~,eo,f placement methods.
.. er or armor stone should generally be placed individually and in aI

P..niner to avoid displacing underlying materials, to avoid placing nMduC
iimnit force on underlying material, and to minimize chipping the stones
r. \imy Engineer Division, North Central, 1978) (Fig. 6). The
st.,n,.s should be placed with minimum voids and with maximum interiet king of
-tOns. All stone when placed should be stable, keyed, and interlocked, with
no overhanging or "floaters." Keying is the wedging and interlocking of the!
i ,iiidual pieces of armor stone so that the individual stone is not only
firmly seated but is wedged in by the adjacent armor stones. Keying should
not be confused with "chinking" by small nondesign stones. These will be
removed by the first severe storm and provide little or no stability. The
various sizes of cover stone should be so distributed as to produce a uniform
well-graded mass. Adjacent stones should be selected as to size and shape an
carefully keyed-in to provide a compact and integrated surface course.
Smaller stones should be used to fill the space between larger ones, so as to
leave a minimum of voids. Equipment used for placing large stone should be
capibie of placing the stone near its final position before release and
caplehie of moving the stone if necessary to its final position. Dragline
bucket-; and skips should generally not be used for placement of armor stone.
,ast i n or dropping of stone more than 30 centimeters or moving by drifting or
minipnating down the slope should not be permitted (U.S. Army Engincer Division,
North Central, 1978). Final shaping of the slope should be performed during
pisiccirent of stones.
e. Riprap. Stone for "dumped riprap" should be placed on the filter

bedding layer or filter cloth in such a manner as to produce a reasonably
well-tzraded mass of rock with the minimum practicable percentage ot voids.
Riprap should be placed to its full course thickness at one operation, ion
in sich a manner as to avoid displacing the bedding material. e Liver
* stones should be well distributed and the entire mass of stones .n t heir
final position should be roughly graded to conform to the specified !rtdl-
tton. The finished riprap should be free from objectionable pockets ,f
small stones and clusters of larger stones. Placing riprap in laye.rs
,;hOtuld not be permitted. Placing riprap by dumping into chutes or he
similar methods likely to cause segregation of the various sizes sho:ld Ino
be permitted. The desired distribution of the various sizes of stoae,
thtog.hoot the mass may be obtained by selective loading of the m;ut er 1!
the qjrry or other source, by controlled dumping of successive lol:-
42
0
U 4
0 c
0
I
43
S
during final placing, or by other methods of placement which will produce
the specified results. Rearranging of individual stones by mechanical
equipment or by hand may be required to obtain a reasonably well-graded
distribution of stone sizes. Pushing material up the slope or dumping down
the slope should not be permitted.
f. Other Stones. Stones to be used as filler material or toe protec-

tion stone should be distributed evenly over the required area. Filler
stone can be placed on and dumped with core material. Toe protection stone
should be placed so as to produce a reasonably well-graded mass of stone
with the minimum practicable percentage of voids. Larger stone should be
well distributed.
Chink stone should be spread uniformly to form a fairly flat surface,

even with the top of the riprap. Placing of materials which tend to segre-
gate particle size should not be permitted. Placement of chink stone may
be by hand. In this case the stone should be forced into the riprap voids
by rodding, spading, or other satisfactory methods.
6. Repair of Structures.
One of the advantages of stone structures is that they are relatively

flexible and are not easily impaired nor weakened by slight movement
resulting from settlement or other minor adjustments. Damage to stone
structures generally consists of wearing, erosion, dislodging, or removal
of the stone. The repair consists primarily of rebuilding the stone
structure or replacing the stone with new material. In some cases repair
can be achieved with concrete or asphalt grout.
a. General. In its natural environment, most of the varieties of

stone normally used in coastal structures are very durable, taking centuries
to erode and become part of the sediments of the earth. In coastal struc-
tures, this property of durability plus its density is what makes stone a
valuable material. Except for the environmental considerations specifically
discussed, stone is not significantly affected by the coastal environment.
b. Periodic Wetting and Drying. The gain or loss of moisture when a

stone is alternately exposed to a damp or wet situation and then dried will
be the most rapid if the pores are large or straight, and least rapid if
they are small or tortuous. The leaching action of water which is not
chemically combined may remove cementing materials from the stone and
weaken it.
c. Freezing and Thawing. Freezing and thawing whether in fresh or

salt water can affect the durability of stone. For eximple, if water is
absorbed in the pores of stone and is subsequently frozen, it will expand.
The forces developed in filled pores will causekthe stone to crack or
spall, and the porosity will be increased. As the pores grow, repetition
of each cycle will damage the rock. Stone can be disintegrated by freezing
and thawing only if the pores are virtually filled with water.
44
d. Chemical Attack. Calcareous stones are subject to decomposition I)y
acids which may be formed by the combination of moisture and gases, such as
sulfur dioxide, which may be present in the air. A sandstone in which the
-cementing material is calcium carbonate may also disintegrate under such
action, whereas a silicate would be more resistant.
e. Rock Borers. Rock borers found in saltwater may penetrate ,ind

destroy soft rock such as unconsolidated sandstone and hard clays.
f. Exposure to Waves. Coastal structures are often located so that

pa,rts of the structure may be subjected to nonbreaking, breaking, :and
broken :ave forces. Pressure due to nonbreaking waves will be essentially
hydrostatic. Breaking and broken waves exert additional pressures due to
the dynamic effects of the turbulent water in motion and the compre-s-iof of
entrapped 'ir pockets. These pressures may be much greater th", tlose due
entirely to hydrostatic forces. Therefore, structures or parts of struc-
U tures located in areas in which storm waves may break should be designed to
withstand much greater forces and moments than those struct'ires which would
be sub jected to only nonbreaking waves. Coastal structures may be damaged
more by the dislodging of stunes from the structure by wave action than by
disintegration or breaking of individual stones. The deteri.ration of
stone due to abrasion may be most significant when it is subject to a
-pounding surf carrying sand, gravel, and smaller stones.
g. Exposure to Ice Floes. An analytical method of determining ic

forces on coastal structures is not known (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
1971a); however, some data are available on ice pressures. Floating ice
fields may exert a major pressure on maritime structures when driven by
strong winds or currents by piling up huge ice masses. Stones frozen to
ice sheets may also be carried away by drifting ice. These factors should
be considered when designing structures on the Great Lakes and other
northern locations.
h. Effects of Temperature and Fire. Stones, like most other materials,

expand upon being heated and contract when cooled. Unlike most other
materials, however, they do not quite return to their original volume when
cooled but show a permanent swelling. This swelling is determined using a
coefficient of temperature expansion, which is the change in length per
unit length per degree temperature change, for vari 8 us stones Mills,
A Hayward, and Radar, 1955). These coefficients per Celsius ( Farenheit)
range as follows:
(i) Granites, 0.000 005 60 to 0.000 007 34 (0.000 003 11 to

0.000 004 08);
* (2) limestones, 0.000 006 75 to 0.000 007 60 (0.000 003 75 to

0.000 00 20);
(3) marbles, 0.000 006 50 to 0.000 010 i- (0.000 003 6l to

0.000 005 62); and
* O(4) sandstones, 0.000 009 02 to 0.000 Ol 96 (0.000 005 01 to

0.000 006 22).
45
Practically all stones are injured if exposed to such 1i10h t pLr: Uts,
as may be encountered in fires, and particularly if exposed lo thi, :,,;2i jed
action of fire and water. The cause of disintegration is u:u.ll attli-t1t11d
to internal stresses resulting from unequal expansion of un((faUl 1Y heJted
parts of the material. Experience has shown that granites ai, :),:'I
I
larly poor resistance to fire and are susceptible to crackiag!4 aa.isp: lii
This is probably due to the irregularity of the stone structure :rId ll
complexity of the mineral composition. The coarse-grained ,,ranir', are
most susceptible to the action of fire and water, and the gneisst.s olteli
suffer even more severely because of their banded structure.
Limestones suffer little from heat until a temperature som~ew,,It above

1000 Celsius (2120 Fahrenheit) is reached; at this point the decompositio,
of the stone begins, due to the driving out of carbon dioxide. The stone
then tends to crumble, because of the flaking of the quicklime formed.
Marble, due to the coarseness of the texture and the purity of the mater-ial,
suffers more than limestone. The cracking is irregular, and the surface
spalls off similar to that experienced by granites.
Sandstones, especially if of a dense, nonporous structure, suffer from

high temperature and sudden cooling less than most other stones. The
4 cracking of sandstones that does occur appears mostly in the planes of the
laminations. Sandstones in which the cementing ingredient is silica or
lime carbonate are better fire resistants than those in which the grains
are bound by iron oxide or clay.
8. Uses In Coastal Construction.
a. Offshore Structures.
(1) Breakwaters. Stone is one of the principal materials used in

breakwater building. It is used from the core to the armor in various
lifts and layers each having a different gradation. Not all cores are made
of stone but when a stone core is used it usually is made of impermeable
quarry run stone. The core is covered by a blanket of filter material
graded to protect the core from eroding away due to the action of waves and
currents and to allow changes of hydrostatic pressure in the core without
loss of core material. The next layer is usually the underlayer graded to
be stable against the anticipated surge and current action. The final
* layer of armor stone is placed in the area where waves impinge on the
breakwater. Armor stone is graded and sized to remain stable under the
impact. of unbroken, breaking, and broken waves. Where storm waves may
overtop the b-eakwater, armor stone must be placed on the backslope as well
as the seaward face. The elevations and width of crest will depend on the
desired use as well as the degree of porosity. Porosity or void ratio is
important in dispersing the wave energy and reducing the impact load of the
waves striking the breakwaters.
The design size of armor rock for a breakwater is a function of slope,

density, and wave height (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, 19"la). Ife ncu. the
primary concern in the selection of armor stone is density, durability, and
available s;.ze. Armor stone may be required in pieces varying from :lbol)t 1)
to 270 kilonewtons (1 to 30 short tons). It is usually difficult to
qua'ry, transport, and place stones larger than 270 kilonewtons ill , ic.
46
I
6
Therefore, as design wave heights increase, it becomes more m,., - V

use the more efficient concrete shaped structures such ZIs
tribars, and dolos (see Section V).
(2) Fill Material for Caissons. Due to its dens~ty '.:d

low cost, stone fill material is frequently used to hallast :.,.
sheet-pile cells. Rockfill should be well graded and free of loi: ,i,.
organic material in order to have the highest density and minir, i ;c :
ment or, in the case of a perforated caisson, minimize the iss , at rial
due to currents or wave action.
(3) Toe Protection. One of the major causes of failLrc, or s*ru--

tural damage, of breakwaters has been the undercutting of the toe of th_,
structures. When waves impinge on these structures, they not only ,:ert
large impact forces on the armor stone, or face of a vertical str',t,
but they may also impose strong uplift forces on the lower armor ;,one .,_id
U toe stone. Thus, the armor stone must be carried to sufficient dV[:Tis to
resist these forces. An additional problem is the turbulence created ii,
these depths, particularly in the case of waves breaking directly on th,,
structure. This can create scour of the sandy bottom and result in undet-
mining the toe stone resulting in general collapse of the armor layer and
exposure of the smaller stone of the underlayers. This can be controlled
either by carrying the armor and bedding layers to sufficient depth or the
toe section can be overbuilt in anticipation of the quarrystone settling
into scour holes. The design of such toe protection is dependent upon wave
height and relative depths of the toe protection as compared to the depth
of the natural bottom (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, CERC, 1977). The
same care must be taken as in the design of the rubble structure.
b. Shore-Connected Structures.
(1) Breakwaters, Jetties, and Groins.
(a) General. The primary difference between a breakwater and

a jetty or a groin is that the jetty or groin must have a sand-tight corc
in order to prevent the passage of littoral materials or currents throigh
the :structure, whereas breakwaters may be designed to be either permeaI1c
or impermeable. All these structures may be subjected to very 1;:,1e
breaking or nonbreaking waves. Overtopping of breakwaters and groins
the breaker or uprush zone may be acceptable, but overtopping of fetties
must be restricted to prevent passage of sand into navigation chanels.
Breakwaters connected to shore would otherwise be designed to usc ,JoIc 1n
the :same manner as offshore breakwaters.
(b) Jetties. Jetties are usually constructed From the sic. re-
line through the breaker zone seaward to 12- to 18-meter (40 to 6) fort)
deptns. They are generall perpendicular to the shoreline. However, du..
to pcrhaps as much as a 30 skew,or because of variable wave dire. tions,
thtIir ilinement may vary from 0 to 90 from the direction oF Wave tI 1\ (,.
Bfc,,use of variable depths, different parts of the structure may be c xp r J
to tuibcokun, breaking, or broken waves. Thus with careful desiorn, the
el,.e.ction, total cross section, and size of armor rock can be r:od to
produce an economical structure. As jetties are used to detin).- ,'-orh o,
river access to the sea they may be subjected to major tidal or river
47
currents or a combination of tidal and river flow. This must be careful)v
Lonsidered, particulary in design of the inner toe of the structur,. A-S
the jetties' primary purpose is to prevent the passage of littoral material
through the littoral drift zone, the uprush area must be impermeable or
sand tight. Other design considerations are much the same as for ':rc:k-
water.
(c) Groins. The structural design and the selection of stone

si-es and gradation for a groin are much the same as for a jetty. The
primary difference is that whereas in a jetty, no sand should pass through
or over the structure, most groins are part of a beach stabilization
program and it is usually desirable to permit some littoral sand to pass
around, over, or through the groin. This is not to imply that the perme':-
bility of armor stone can be designed to allow a selected amount of sand to
bypass, since current design procedures are not capable of designin.
successful functioning permeable groins. Many attempts have been made to
design groins with a varying degree of permeability. For rubble-stone
groins, it is usually adequate to design the elevation of the impermeable
core through the nearshore and foreshore area to the desired beach profile.
The voids in the armor rock will generally be adequate to pass the surplus
sand through to the downdrift beach. Groins usually terminate just seaward
of the breaker zone in from 1.8 to 3.6 meters (6 to 12 feet) of water
(MNLW), and the seaward end is designed against the largest breaking wave
possible at that depth, taking tidal elevations into account. The breaker
zone is an area of constant turbulence and care must be taken to properly
place, as well design, the bedding layer or the structure will fail.
Considerable success has been experienced in recent years in replacing this
bedding layer of stone (or combining it) with filter cloth.
(2) Seawall or Revetment. A stone rubble seawall or revetment is

u, !,Ato protect the shore, or a shore structure, against erosion by wave
:iction or currents (Fig. 7). It may be a trapezoidal gravity seawall-type
': ructure, backfillel by shore material, or it may be a form of sloped
re'.etment against a shore bank of earth, wood, steel, or concrete.
(a) Current Protection. A revetment designed to protect

,Aiust currcnts, tidal or river, is designed much the same as a river
r'\.,utment except that, in the case of tidal currents, the flow may be
v,:Vcr:sible. When river and tidal currents combine, tidal elevations must
h.. coniidered to determine the stage of maximum or critical velocities.
Also in bays or large river mouths, consideration must be given to local
wind ;,aves, residual swell, or seiching from the open sea. In the case of
river MIouth entrances, the revetment may simply represent a transition
section from the steady flow river revetment to the wave exposed jetty. fn
other cases, where a jettied entrance connects the open sea to a bay or
,ide mouth and the channel is of such width as to create currents, the
shoreline facing the channel must be revetted. In the same manner ;as for a
breakwater, there must be a layer of armor rock, an underlayer, and a
filter layer. Special consideration should be given to ensure stability of
the toe of the structure because of the unidirectional fHot of most
<r rents.
(b) Wave Protection. The design of a rock rubble face of a

1oral revetment against wave forces is similar to that of the scIward
48
6A
Figure 7. Stone rubble revetment at

Jacksonville Beach, Florida.
face of the breakwater. The armor stone must be designed against the force
of breaking waves, nonbroken waves, or broken waves. The design size of
armor stone will be a function of density, slope, and wave height. in
contrast to some breakwaters, almost all seawalls or revetments mu; be
designed to an elevation to prevent wave overtopping. Care must also ie
taken to construct an adequate toe structure to prevent undermining of the
structure during severe wave action. This may not he a serious problem ilt
lakes or bays where advantage can be taken of prolonged periods of 'n~al or
no wave action to construct the toe trench. Conversely, aloii.i thc' oien
seacoast, where the action of the surf is continuou:;, it is generai ly not
possible to excavate to a sufficient depth to reduce scouring velocities.
The usual alternative is to overbuild the toe structure in the anticipation
* that as sand is scoured from under the toe, the excess rock will drop into
place and maintain toe support of the structure.
Fixed structures generally have smooth and vertical, or near vertical,

f;ices on the seaward side. The effects of turbu lcnce due to wave ction or
scouring velocities due to currents can be stronger :ind more seriol:s on
* these structures than on rubble structures. In these cases the too struc-
ture can serve two functions:
(1) Designed as a submerged rubble structijre, it w:ay risc a,

appreciable height above the natural bottom and ser'e to rdul',
wave or current stresses on the fixed or solid :trm'tur, (1. .
* Army, Corps of Engineers, CtiRC, 1977); or
49
S III "-
(2) designed as a filter blanket or bedding layer, it may be
used to prevent scouring of the natural bottom material which might
", result in undercutting of the wall.
(3) Piers and Wharves. Revetments at pier abutments must be

protected the same as any open revetment and in addition must be designed
to protect the abutment from loss of foundation. Piers in sandy areas are
subject to scour around pilings where strong currents also exist. They can
be protected by laying down a quarrystone blanket under the pier in the
scour area.
c. Anchors. Deadweight anchors can be any object that is dense,

heavy, and resistant to deterioration in water. The type of ocean opera-
tion and the availability of materials usually dictate the shape, form,
size, and weight of a deadweight anchor. Common examples include stones,
concrete blocks, individual chain links, sections of chain links, and
railroad wheels. In most instances, a deadweight anchor functions simply
as a deadweight on the sea floor that resists uplift by its own weight in
water and resists lateral displacement by its drag coefficient with the sea
floor. The use of stone as deadweight anchors becomes increasingly im-
practical as the holding capacity requirement exceeds 6.7 kilonewtons
(1 500 pounds).
50
... .
I V. FARTI I
PI 1. Component Types and Class of Soils.
Under the words "earth" or "soil," a large assortment of materials of

various origins is covered; for engineering purposes these are generally
classified as gravel, sand, silt, clay, and organic material. Most soils
are composed of a mixture containing two or more of these materials.
Different geological processes (such as alluvial, residual, glacial, or
loesial), and parent materials (sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic)
will affect the type and nature of the soils formed. A soil can be de-
scribed by its grain-size classification, appearance and structure, and
compactness or hardness.
There are several soil classification systems, but the most widely used
in engineering is the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The USCS
is presented in the ASTM Standard D2487 and MIL-STD-619A. A summary of
the classification system is presented in Table 2 and the general soil
characteristics are discussed in the following paragraphs. Table 2-3 in TM
S-818-1 is another useful version of USCS. A more detailed presentation of
the classification systems and soil properties can be found in the report
entitled "Geotechnical Engineering in the Coastal Zone," Callender and
Eckert (in preparation, 1983).
a. Coarse-Grained Materials. Gravels and sands are known as coarse-

grained soils. Coarse-grained materials are such that 50 percent or more
of the materials by weight are retained on the No. 200 sieve. They are
recognized either visually and manually or by means of the following
parameters:
- Effective grain size (D1 0 ): grain size such that 10 percent by

weight of the materials are finer.
D6 0
- Uniformity coefficient (Cu) = D1
2
SD30 )
.• - Coefficient of curvature (Cc) = D 10 .D 6 0
Because most soils are composed of more than one type of constituent,
the USCS makes the following distinctions for sands and gravels:
- Well-graded gravel (CW) yr sand (SW): all particle sizes are

represented within the constituent limits, C is greater than
4 or 6, respectively, C is between 1 and 3 and the fraction
smaller than the No. 20b sieve size does not exceed S percent.
- Poorly graded gravel (GP) or sand (SP): some particle s ize

are missing or are in excess within the constituent limits,
• gradation requi irements for ((1W) or (SW) are not met, ana tio
fraction smaller than the No. 200 sieve size does not cxceed
5 percent.
0 51
TablIe 2. Un i fji soil classification syst em (A-SPI1-1
* Groupo
is
AA.., D,v,uons vmonoit Trp cal Na.-es ~OSOt C1/li5C1 Xi'i C
GIN Weltqiado ,auei sand nsu

9ae Di- 9-. r~a 4 C
. ute's, iei 01 no lines Did01 0,'D,

- 0
6 GP Poorly graded 9'avels. gravel-Sand -. m-
-
C us
z
E d;
c r't,5 ~d . 1-
SI~ ~Attetberg
lin 0, p
limts below
ess than 4
P I lt~esn~i
"A" Allcs
b,ee,
A ;ne -lhrt Is
4 an 7 are boifet
lie cat' e se .1
u0 GC Clayey gta"Is gravel sand clay mix. 'C Attorberg limits belows dual syinr!u
21 i tutes iii 0 0I., 0 ine it~h P.1. greaterth~an 7
0 SWN Well-gtaded sands., gravelly sands. little 0

2. L greater than 6. CC I -- It I~'arid 3
Co 00O
C a SP' Poorly gracded sands. gravelly sands. c - Not meeting &Isgradiation requiremsents to0 Stly
0 0 -
0 Cs
2~ Sily sandcss
sajls~r
S-1 cn
c
Arsetbg limn
e 0, POIt less than 4
L it hbtched
%. C,o~' ~iiPIbt~e
Pill1~~ln 4nl~lt~
- - Clayiey sands, tand clay mnixtures r. Attrbf limits abv **A* and 7naip iof dal~li cs
0 - line .v,th Pi greater than 7teltnquiofdi yi
o it boAttrtt
Inorganic silts and v.ery fine sands

IVML tack hlout. silty Ot clayey fine sands%,
-~ of clayey slus with slight plasticity
Z c Plasticity C'hart
- Inorganitc clays of low to medium 60
CL pdlatt-cty gravelly clays, sandy clays,
~ i ~ OL Organic sills and organic silty clays of

____so._ __________________ CHJ
S inorganic sills. oT~caceous at dialoma . 30

2 MH ceous fine sandy of silty soils. elastic OHf and kIH
E ~~' CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity. fat ~ 2
- OH Organic clays 0f ttedium to high M n
0 10 2030 40 5060 70 9o 90 100

a Liquid limit
Ist PE11t0and dinr lhighly Organic lsi&
I a I
,Suibdivisioni is basedo n Arse ibit

a Division of GM ond SMy groups into SlJodivisiottt of d and u ate for toads and airfields only
p i,M,Ist suffix d used whsen LL. is 280or less and the P.1. is 6 or less; the siffix u used 'when L.L. is gr'eater thatn 28.
a orderl ne clossifications, used for loalt oossessitlg characteristics of two groups , ore destgnoted by combinaton% of
group symtbols. For OxamPle! O*-OC , weil -graded gravel-t td itlure wth clay binder.
52
-SilIty Irav c N r -sanrd :mremo t fi, n I '~rli 1
-ire finer thani 1:c ilo s ie e c, and thle tf ne h1(-
11 I tt
plastic ity.
-Clavey gravel coi- sand (SC) : mioreC tha~n I I perA. cni 1% 1).
are finer ian the No. 200 sieve, aind the, Cin~s :1ie_ ")"I
When the fraction sinai 1cr than the No. 200 sjv ceo is Io t han
5 percent and 1less than 12 percent , a dual symb-,ol s hou Id 1e ;e
Well and poor]ly graded gravels and sands are further def i aed> i canT
gravels or sands; silty or clayey gravels and sands ma: he ret(-vcr to Ais
dirty gravels or sands. It should also be notedl that thle part I,:[ IIshPe has
an influence on the density and the stability of the coars;e-grirJ-, soils.
(1) Gravel (G) . The UISGS defines gravel ats the materiI I
size ranges between 76.2 millimeters (3 inches) and the 'No. I Sej
Materials larger than1 76.2 millimeters are designated ascbls. ae
may be man-made (crushed stone) or may come from natural depo, its Krk
run). Gravels are cohesionless materials.
(2) Sand (S). A material is defined as sand when its igrain size
is between 4.76 and 0.075 millimeter (No. 4 and 200 sieves, respectively).
The USGS developed further classification: the sand is coarse iwhen its
grain size varies between 4.76 and 2.00 millimeters (No. 4 and 10 s;ieves,
respectively); medium when between 2.00 and 0.42 millimeter (No. 10 and
40 sieves, respectively); and fine when between 0.42 and 0.075 m-,illimeter
(No. 40 and 200 sieves, respectively). Sands are cohesionless materials,
however, they present an apparent cohesion when damp or Moist dllC to
surface tension effects, of pore fluids. These effects disappear when the
sand is saturatedI.
b. Fine-Grai ned Matrials, Silts and clays Lire known as fine-g rained
soils. Fine-grained materials are such that 50 percent or more of the
materials by weight paiss the No. 200 -sieve. They are distinguished either
vi suil lv and manual ly or- b\, mneans of the Atterberg limits. The U1SCS,
contrary to most other claIssification systems, does not make any size
distinction between silt and clay. This is because the engineering proper-
ties of fine-grained soril ire more closely related to plasticity character-
istics than to grrivisie
The IISCS dlistingmlrihsh the Following:
-~ Silt, clay, aind or ' mm. silIt and c lay having iqIdIL
l imits less t hali i I. CL, and 01., respect ivel y
- Sil.camn mo silt and clay ha i ni I iqul d

l imits LgrAtcr ttb in 50: IM, !Il, and OHi,rebcvl.
Fine-,grainied aos tatllii I1% hae al low permireahij~ I i tv ( fl ) a -

Cent meter- lPer I th~ , I t sol
SO S l s somesla,, fl~O~ HICT 0 han
*c IlaI ev onles. OrM,,lic !.1 L-s
iti 1 t end to lower th St( 0hclc : ri st acs
of thle soilI , lower the I a dlis itv, increaseC 1 he t ime cc(5I1 I ilt iofl
Anid increase the njat i;'a' i ,c a~talit.
53
IA
0
(1) ] It (M11) Si It is a fine-grained soil o l, stiity v Iich

may exhibit an apparent coiesion due to capillary forces. >)iits iiart
relatively poor strength ch:iractcristics, except when they are dry or in
the form of siltstones and ire poor foundation materials in cold climates
due to frost heave. Confincd, relatively dense silts may perform satis-
factorily as foundation soil, but must be evalu..ted on a case by case
basis. Most coastal silts are found in combination with sorie cl v which
will increase cohesion and improve foundation characteristics.
(2) Clay (C). Clay is distinguished by its fine particle size and
cohesive strength which is inversely related to its water content. For
this reason, a clay's performance as a foundation material is strongly
influenced by its stress history. In situ overconsolidated clays, clays
which have been loaded to higher stresses than the present load may per-
form quite well in foundations. Normally consolidated or underconsolidated
q clays typical of estuaries will generally experience large settlements when
loaded. The minerals included in the clay composition influence the
properties of the soil; e.g., mon-morillonite is a highly active mineral,
and a soil containing such a miner:al will present high swelling and shrink-
age characteristics. Two other commonly occurring minerals are illite
(less active than montmorillonite and commonly found in marine clays) and
'. kaolinite (the least active mineral).
c. Organic Materials (0). Peat, organic mulch, and muskeg are highly
organic soils which usually have a spongy nature and a fibrous texture.
Organic materials come from the decay of vegetable matter. They are
recognized by their odor, which is intensified by heating, and by their
dark color (although some dark soils may be inorganic). Usually organic
soils have high moisture and gas contents and a relatively low specific
gravity.
2. Properties and Characteristics of Soils.
The major significant engineering properties of soil are shear strength,

compressibility, and permeability. Th- types of geotechnical problems
encountered in the design of coastal structures which utilize these charac-
teristics are slope stability, bearing capacity, settlement and erosion. A
detailed discussion of the properties and characteristics of soils and the
test3 required to determine them can be found in Geotechnical Engineering
- in the Coastal Zone (Callender and Eckert, in preparation, 19,'3). The
potential contaminants derived from industrial wastes, such as toxic heavy
metals (mercury, cadmium, Ic0i, and arsenic), chlorinated organic chemicals
(DDT and PCB's) and pa thogens (bacteria, viruses, and paras Ites/ ;hould
also be considered in the evaluation of the use of any soil in coastal
structures. In general "polluted" soils should not be used.
a. ShearStrength. The three types of tests conmonly performed to
determine soil strength are des ignated as
(1) linconsolidated-H;dr:ii ned triaxial test, connonl% known is

a Il-Test or Q-Test,
(2) Consolidated-lind r ined tri axial test, commonly known as a1

(11-lest or R-Test, an,1
54
6
(3) Consol idated-[ra ied t riax ia I test, commonl known as
a CD-Test or S-Test.
The Q, R, and S designat ions are standard use in Corps I iterature. The
descriptions are indicative of the conditions under which the tests are run.
From the results of these tests the stress-strain characteristics are estab-
lished under the various loading conditions noted, and of equal importance,
the conditions of failure for the soil are established. The strength of a
. soil is usually defined in terms of the stress ueveloped
stress-strain curve and is presented in the form of Mlohr at the peak
circles and of the
a Mlohr
fai lure envelope. The strength is then expressed in terms of cohesion and
the angle of internal friction.
b. Compressibility. The simplest compressibility or consolidation test

is the one-dimensional, laterally confined compression test (often referred
to as oedometer test). In this test the soil sample is placed within a
restraining ring and loaded with special types of plates on either top or
bottom or both. The change in sample height is measured by a deflection
gage and is used to calculate the change in void ratio (e) at different
normal pressures (P). If the soil is saturated, the sample is placed
between two porous disks that permit the water to drain away during com-
pression. This in turn leads to information which permits plotting of the
so-called e-log P relationship. From such plots for either sands, silts or
clays, or mixtures oC them, normally moduli are estimated which can then be
used for consolidation and settlement estimates. It should be emphasized
that in such tests the lateral expansion is restrained. In real situations
this is only approximated by the loading of relatively thin layers of com-
pressible soil through load distribution over a large area.
(1) Compressibility of Sands. The most important property of the

sand, which governs the stiffness of the sand, is relative density. The
relative density of the sand is usually determined in the field by means of
standard penetration tests or Dutch cone penetration tests.
(2) Compressibility of Clays and Silts. The predictions of static

settlement of silts and clays are usually made on the basis of consolidation
or oedometer tests. The rate of settlement and the time for essential com-
pletion of primary consolidation can be predicted on the basis of this test.
Typically, silts are less compressible than clays.
c. Permeability. Permeability is the soil property that indicates the

relative ease with which a fluid will flow through the soil. The coefficient
of permeability (k) of a soil is defined as the average percolation velocity
(v) divided by the hydraulic gradient (i) in the soil at that particular
point. It is seen then that the coefficient of permeability has units of
velocity, commonly centimeter per second or foot per minute. Permeability
depends on the characteristics of both the pore fluid and the soil. Viscos-
ity, unit weight, and polarity are the major pore fluid characteristics.
Particle size, void ratio, composition, fabric, and degree of saturation are
the major soil characteristics. In general a qualitative approximation of
the permeability of the materials can be made on the basis of grain size.
0 For example, clean gravels will have permeabilities ranging from 10+1 to
10* 2 centimeters per second. Clean medium to coarse sands will have perme-
abilities ranging from 10-2 to 1 centimeter per second. Very fine sand
55
1-14
I'.,.
tt
will have permeabi Iitiv-s raingiih from l0_r to 1(i'';~rLitV
Organic and inorganic SiltS, MI XtUrCs Of sanld, sl1it Hidi1
r and some stratified clav deposits wil1 have probilte Wra iI0,
to 10-5 centimeters per second . Clays , which Ire pr~r ct i,,1 I I ipc r s-11Amd
commonly used for core materials in water-reta jin In, mank ;t,. '
permeabilities ranging froml 19)' to 1-7cent imeter'; pei s)>.
d . Other Properties and Characteristics. Other s&) i I propcti- ;rikd

characteristics that are useful to know for the design of coaistal I t roi:turesC
include dry density, water content, specific gravity, res'-ist iv ty aiill
corrosion potential, gratin-s;iz7e d istributionl, plIast i cit v chajraoteI rv c
chemical properties, and duril Iity.
3. Methods of Soil I morov oment
Methods of soil improvement oenerally include densificatioi, dr;iinagoe,

changing soil properties at depth by grouting or in -jection, surface sta-
bilization by admixtures, and reinforcement with metal or fabric strips or
mesh. Most of these methods have been utilized in one manner or another to
improve soils used in the construction of coastal structures. The most
A widely used, and generally the most practical, are densification and drain-
age. A somewhat newer method developed in Europe, and now being more
widely used in the United States is reinforced earth (.igs n 9.Sm
of the methods available for improvement of soils are classified according
*to the basis of soil improvement, as shown in Table i (Mitchell, 1976).
37'-9 1 36 -1
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-1. Placement of Soil for Coastal Structures.
[arthfills for coastal developments can be placed from the land by

dumping or shoving into place, from water by deck and bottom-dump barges, or
hydraulically from dredging operations. The method and equipment used
depends on the type aad source of material, the area of placement (above or
below the water level), the depth of water (for operating bottom-dump
barges), the purpose and design of the structure or fill, the availability
of equi pmlent , the impact on the environment, and the economics of the
operation. The material may also be placed with or without compaction to
alter the soil density.
a . lumped Loose l.Ills. Soils obtained from land sources are typically
transported by and dumped 'loom trucks, scrapers, conveyor belts, or possibly
shovels. The materialis are then shoved into place and leveled. Soils
Iobtained trom marine sources are typically excavated by shovels, draglines
or bucket-dredge, and either dumped di rectly in place or placed in trucks
or barges and transported to the site. The soils placed in trucks would be
dumped the same !s a landfill. Soils placed in barges would be transferred
to shore equipment 0r dumped through the water (Fig. 10). Soils placed in
this latter manner will typically have low to medium relative densities.
The placement of fill landward of a bulkhead driven into a mud bottom

may resLIlt in the formation of mud waves. Such mud waves can progress
F igure 10. F ill being p1 aced by tilt ba rge at Redondo Beach,

Ca Iifo rn ia (photo courtesy of Woodward-Clyde
Consultants).
4 61
0
* ahead of the advancing fill and overload the bulkhead causing its failure
before the landfill reaches it. The mud should be removed before fill
placement or the bulkhead designed for thle increased pressures of the nmud
wave. Care should also be taken to place select fill behind the bulkhead
before placing the general fill to ensure that the active pressure zone has
the shear strength planned in the design.
Excessive turbulence in dumping fill material through water should be

avoided in order to prevent segregation of the materials or extremely flat
4 slopes at the edge of a fill. Uncontrolled bottom dumping from barges
through great depths of water will encourage segregation and spread fill
over a wide area. Berms or dikes of coarse-grained material or stone can
be used to confine the material.
b. Compacted Fills. Where compaction of fills above the water level

g is desired, either the method of compaction or the desired compaction can
he specified. A test section is usually required to determine the effective-
ness of the methods before specifying a )articular method. Otherwise, the
required density, moisture limits, and lift thickness are specified, allow-
ing the contractor some selection in compaction methods.
0 Coarse-grained, cohesionless soils with less than 4 percent passing a

No. 200 sieve for well-graded soils, or with less than 8 percent for uniform
gradation, are generally insensitive to compaction moisture. These soils
should be placed at the highest practical Moisture content and compacted by
vibratory methods. W1.here materials with sizes Up to 150 millimeters (0
inches) maximum are used, thle large sizes will interfere with the compaction
of soil smaller than a No. 4 sieve or 19-millimeter (0.75 inch) -,ize.
* Where large parts (more than 30 percent by weight) of gravel and cobbles
are present, a slight reduction (several percent) in the required density
* of the sizes smaller than a No. 4 sieve may' he toleraite'..
C. Hydraulic Fills. hlydraulic fills' aire DICd onl Lind Or underT waIter
by pumping material through a pipeli te or by ter si u cic throuigh al conl-
veyor . Borrow Mater ialIs used for these fill sare v I
dredging (Fig. 11). The chairacteristics of such bdrat1i, :11 11.1y he
generally classified according to the natulre Of bet i lhitmn
1970). This classi fication is shown in kTable1
0Generally, material with more than 1.--percent lnwtp lII, t Illecs or 10-
per-cent plastic fines passing ai No. 2010 s ieve shouild iot !) i. ed tinlder
wate2.. The wash water for hydrau Ii callIy laced ft Ii )1 1111 11h1ti(
Id run
Off' inl -such a manner thait fines; ;1e no0t -OlcltTrtt rt c ill ;io~ket . I ii. mo'na
requiire advanrcing thle fill from one s;ide( or- c:O'rncrl Jf l IrA *ittipt i g
to force out any soft fines ahlead of the f'il t, it is Illral ic
IIicd
ffi IIs p)laiced beh ind wall1s o r bu Ileads shunl Id be I)iccd in1 1 1 Its 'thin
enough to permit runoff of wash wvater withlout hMi dll,,Ill ti a
Jt itI11 i.,tt iOf
hydrostatic Pressure.
l)redging aind handling opet-at ions wil I poduce' sl ii cant textulrall

d i ffe renc es bettween original bottom s ed i!ient s ;ill, s ed imtn ts d epo sit ed at
0the fill site. I general, these di fferenccs aire anl increaise in thle meain
gralin size als fines are lost anid a dcreaCse inltheL tin it fontitV cueffi ci ct
(See Fable1 2) Of deliVere0d ver'sus liottot sands. lTe vol umetr ic losses
* 62
resu 1 t i m', troill winnlow jug associalted
with this process; appear to be oil
thle order of Ii) percent or- more,
depending onl the original bottom
iat e r i a1I
'i. Artificial Beach Restoration.

The l akcmervt of sandf illI tong ai
pa rt of Shore front for bealch
res;toraition may be done in t~iree
waySI. It may,1be niaced directI v
on'to the shore- to, he protected or
deveI
oedis a bealch; it maI~y be
a,:Cd il allare
I~ ad iacent to and
Iapi ali ft of the. aIrea to he protected;
, It mllay beC ):la offshore
1-C. 1ThaIt
* t :'INv be, di ri tIv 1 lCe
1acOto r :1 1 ecle r beach
dc~a
gcito 1)(- eroded by walves and
t iJaa ca r-ren t s nd transpor-ted vi a
aonca'She t ransport to the areai to
* h ('wteCted , or, mlce is biar
de a'ac~tbetanMsp)orted inshorek-
.us
11, Icarreot) t T1o be
c t tsore
;i~ res toratIin
'ti~ H' t ~e p1 ;cil ill tile
tag i 1
1 ( tc 5 il01 10 eftie ilt Of
1-Jw PiIM
d piagIas i t as11i11
a a p laig
1os 110 t dan no
t p'' ator carllvx'ummler to tae
11a1*a.1,c o " tw esesonial bealch Figure 11. Dredge Chequinquira
a Jaj ot rc he .anuaa periodi of at dock (photo courtesy of
it cj ) U tortwvsoodward-C lyde Consultants).
Ao
iharctr
It ic of fill1 based on nature of borrow
:1aa t t.r, i;a
N.ature )t, Fro'rrow Mazterial Characteristics of Fill
Lii r le ci cart sand Reasonably uniform fill of

moderate Liens itv. (relative
density of' 40 t'o 00 nercenit
SiIt v or- cl: :anm! \'erv. heteroLgeneous till oi-

*Ia r,_e vo id rat io ( l ow
1'e Iat '.e cilS t
t it a 'aSkeleton
'i cs'. of ciZav balls, with
mat rix ofV sand atrld clI ;i
Sof C coIt> ' I alamittci trornia I''onlso I idatecl

01t tLft'011501 I dated ci av.
63
I
S. Repair of Earth Structures.
Damage to earth structures or earth parts of structures generally

consists of erosion or removal of the soil. The repair consists primarily
of replacing the earth material or the protective layer. If permeability
or stability of the structure is a problem, the voids can be filled with
concrete or asphalt grout.
a. Physical Effects. The nature of the soil pore fluid and temperature
can influence the behavior of clay soils. A loss in shear strength of
marine clays may be realized by removal of the salt due to leaching by
freshwater. Changes in moisture content can cause swelling or shrinking of
clay soils. Decreasing the temperature of a cohesive soil can cause an
expansion of the soil. Fine-grained soils are also susceptible to frost
heave.
The most significant environmental effect on the physical properties of

soils is liquefaction (resulting in loss of strength) due to a seismic event
or water wave action. Liquefaction due to either of these causes could result
in failure of the structure. The soil properties generally related to this
phenomona are saturation, grain size, relative density, and permeability. The
problem is generally associated with loose fine sands and silts below the
water level at sites in highly seismic areas or areas subject to high breaking
waves. Liquefaction of foundation soils under gravity ocean structures due to
water wave forces on the structure has been found in offshore work. Liquefac-
tion can generally be minimized or mitigated by densification or treatment of
the soils, or by providing drainage (rock drains). A discussion of soil
response to both seismic and water wave-induced dynamic loads is presented in
Callender and Eckert (in preparation, 1983).
b. Erosion Effects. The erosion and subsequent deterioration of both

natural landforms and manmade coastal structures is of concern. Shore
erosion is a major problem along the ocean coastline and the Great Lakes.
Erosion is caused principally by storm-induced wave action and associated
longshore currents. The processes are further complicated by erosive
forces that may come from ice, wind, rain, burrowing animals, or human
activity. Shore erosion problems become more critical when beaches become
*g eroded or submerged, and adjoining highly erodible upland areas are subject
'o direct wave attack (Fig. 12). Unconsolidated sands and silts are
generally the most easily eroded, clays and gravels are slightly more
resistant, and cemented soils and rock are the least erodible earth
materials. Vie soils may be protected from erosion by various devices such
as revetments, seawalls, and bulkheads. Groins may be used to maintain
beaches. A detailed discussion of beach erosion is presented in Chapter 4
of the SPM (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, CERC, 1977).
7. Uses of Soils in Coastal Construction.
a. General. Earth can be used for almost any kind of coastal struc-
ture. Coastal structures are generally associated with three types of
projects: port and harbor development (including marinas), land reclama-
tion, and coastal protection. Design considerations and criteria are
64
fI
* Al
AU7
0 65
4
discussed in detail in Callender and Eckert (in preparation, 1983). Soils

are used in coastal structures for backfill materials, core materials, slopes
and beach restoration. The use of the material is generally associated
with the type of development and the type of structure. The choice of
material depends on the economy and availability of the material, depth of
water, expected water or wave forces, and the purpose of the structure.
Some of the various uses are presented in the following paragraphs.
b. Offshore Construction.
(1) Breakwaters. In rubble-mound breakwaters, submerged reefs,

and other coastal rock structures, sand may be used as core material
providing other materials are used to protect against wave damage and
piping. Clay may be mixed with the sand to reduce permeability, but is
generally not adequate core material by itself. The structures may be
designed as permeable or impermeable. The soils are usually dredged
materials and are placed hydraulically. The core may be covered with
filter material and quarrystone riprap or armor units; the number of
covering layers depends on the water depth, the design storm waves, and the
desired degree of permeability.
4 (2) Caissons. Concrete caissons and sheet-pile cells may be

filled with sand and clay. If the surface is to be paved and used for load
bearing, sand is preferable to clay because of its higher bearing capacity.
A filter layer and armor rock must be provided to cover the fine soils
where waves or water currents are expected to impinge on earthfill.
c. Shore-Connected Construction.
(1) Breakwaters, Jetties and Groins. These structures of rubble-

mound construction, caissons, or sheet-pile cells may be filled with soil
as described for offshore construction.
(2) Low-Cost Shore Protection, Fabric Bags. Low-cost groins and

breakwaters have also been constructed by means of fabric bags filled with
medium sand or sand-cement. The bags are generally made of nylon, and may
be coated with polyvinyl chloride or acrylic to delay fiber degradation by
ultraviolet rays. The bags may be filled with available beach sand and
used as a low-cost shore protection device. The bags may be filled using a
A 19-millimeter diaphragm pump or, for more efficiency, a small front-end
loader, a hopper, and a jet pump. Typical filled bags measure approximately
3 by 1.5 by 0.5 meter (10 by 5 by 1.5 feet), hold about 1.9 cubic meters
(2.5 cubic yards) of sand, and weight about 31 kilonewtons (7 000 pounds).
The sand used should be saturated so as to eliminate air pockets which
would cause a buoyant force on the bags. Small bags filled with sand (Fig.
4 13) or concrete (Fig. 14) may be used for protection against erosion.
(3) Bulkheads, Quaywalls, and Seawalls. Usually soil materials

are used as backfill or foundation materials for bulkheads and walls.
Their primary purpose is to provide a level surface or to fill a void
behind the structure. The materials can be placed from land, end-dumped
from trucks or conveyor belts, or the), can be placed hydraulically from
dredges; however, the relative density achieved by each method may be
widely different. The backfill may be composed of a mixture of all or part
66
1.
4
* Figure 13. Sea cliff upper slope erosion protection by

cloth bags filled with sand supported by
wood bulkheads, Lu~ecadia, California (photo
courtesy of Woodward-Clyde Consultants).
ix.-
hags filced with Concrete placed in

* ~so
il hank , So lana Beach , Cali forn ia
(photo Cou~rtesy of Woodward-CI vde
Consultants).
67
0
of the four component types of soil (gravel, sand, silt, clay) ; however,
not all soil mixtures are eqLallV effective in a given situation. Organic
-. materials are usually considered detrimental and are not used, since they
tend to be more compressible and have lower shear strengths. Highly
expansive clay should also generally not be used for backfill of coastal
structures.
A filter layer of gravel or crushed stone is often used (with or with-

out a geotCxtile filter) under and behind walls to provide for relief of
hydrostatic pressure and to prevent piping. These materials should meet
filter design criteria.
(4) Wharves and Piers. The use of earth for wharves and piers is
generally as fill behind or for slopes underneath the facility. The natural
in-place soils generally provide support for the structures, and foundations
are designed in accordance with conventional geotechnical procedures. The
purpose of the fill is to help provide stability and rigidity to the struc-
ture and to provide useful working areas behind the structure, Most soils
may be used for this purpose, but they generally need some type of protec-
tion, such as rock riprap and a filter, to mitigate erosion. Coarse-
grained granular soils are preferable for use as backfill materials, since
they are typically stronger and less compressible. The properties of the
backfill soils of use in the design include dry density, water content,
shear strength, and compressibility. Other important properties may be the
compact ion characteristics, permeability, and corrosive characteristics.
(5) Land Reclamation. Land reclamation may include dredging for

marinas, construction of fills for water-oriented land developments,
enlargement of streams, and other related activities in waters and wetlands.
These L-tivities generally involve discharge of fill material onto the
adjacent shoreline or into waters or wetlands for construction of struc-
tures; site development fills for recreational, industrial, commercial,
residential, and other uses; causeways or road fills; dams and dikes;
artificial islands, property protection; groins and beach restoration;
levees and artificial reefs. These fills may be obtained from land sources
and dumped by land methods or from water sources and placed hydraulically
by dredging. The properties of soils most useful to know in land reclamation
projects are the strength characteristics, consolidation characteristics,
and chemical properties after placement of the fill.
(6) Di kes. Dikes can be constructed of sand, clay, or a combi na-

tion of both. Earth dikes are usual lV utilized as containment structures
for dredged materials, but may aIso be used as protectiye devices such as
hurricane barriers. They generally requi re some type of protection when
subjected to wvave action. Clay' dikes ,ain] dikes with a sand core ;and clay
cove r have also been bui i t w i th seawa rd s lopes of 1: 0 to I 10 with a crass
cover.
(7) Protect i ke Ie;ch and L1ne RestorI t ion. The p 1 a'rCment Of

sandtfi I I alon" a part of, shore fIont is a nonstructur;I erosion control
technique, referred to as beach nou rishment, thaNt is utIi ied C"Ithe
protect ionoa" heach areas or lorthe creation of protecl iye hea, :es ill
areis where none exist. Artificial restoraition projects s1old general v
define the of matcri: I, the met hod at p1 acClen nt, allld !I,'
oauree .ra in-si
* 68
distribution and amount of sand. The sources of material may be either
from land or offshore. The methods of placement include placing sand
directly on the beach along the entire length of the project, placing it in
stockpiles at a feeder beach at one end of the site, and placing it as an
offshore bar. The grain size of the materials used should be larger than,
or at least the same size as, the original beach material. If coarser
sands are used in the beach restoration, the equilibrium slope will be
steeper than the existing one, and vice versa for finer particles. A more
detailed presentation on beach nourishment may be found in Chapters 5 and 6
of the SPM (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, CERC, 1977).
A subsand filter system (gravel filter bedding layer placed in the

foreshore or offshore zones) may be useful in the stabilization of offshore
profiles. Preliminary studies have indicated that such filters may have a
stabilizing effect on the bed material in the offshore zone and that they
I may be effective in speeding accretion in the foreshore zone. The latter
use may be employed for berm building or berm replacement (Machemehl,
French, and Huang, 1975).
The construction of dunes is another type of nonstructural erosion

mitigation. Dunes are constructed or enhanced by the placement of sandfill
A and by the planting of stabilizing vegetation. Snow fences may also be
used to physically retain initial sand. Dunes are generally constructed
parallel to and behind the beach proper and serve to trap and absorb sand
which is transported by onshore winds, storm overwash, or offshore winds
blowing over overwash plains. The construction and stabilization of sand
dunes is discussed in Chapters 5 and 6 of the SPM (U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, CLRC, 1977).
69
V. )IQIIf ANP CL .MLNT CONCt[IM1E
1. Introduction.
PConcrete, a diversified construction material, exists in two physical
states--the first as a semifluid or plastic state while being mixed,
transported and placed in final forms; the second as a solid after havin'
set and cured. These features of concrete give it a wide application of
use in coastal and waterfront structures under many special conditions.
Ingredients for making concrete exist in virtually all areas of the world
and the use of it in coastal structures depends only on the understanding
and knowledge of the materials, design, and processes required for its end
use. Concrete has proven to be an excellent construction material. The
use of concrete is adaptable to many coastal structures. With good
planning it will probably find many additional uses in the future to take
U advantage of its physical qualities.
Concrete can be considered to be made of two components, aggregates

and paste. Aggregates are generally classified into two groups, fine and
coarse. Fine aggregates consist of sand with particle sizes smaller than
6 millimeters (0.25 inch); coarse aggregates are those with particle
sizes greater than 6 millimeters. Aggregates make up about 60 to 80 percent
of the concrete. The paste is composed of cement, water, and sometimes
admixtures and entrained air. Cement paste ordinarily constitutes 25 to 40
percent of total volume oF concrete, cement being 7 to 15 percent and water
14 to 21 percent. Air and admixtures contents may range up to 8 percent.
Formulation of concrete in this manner was developed in Portland,

England. Subsequently, the term Portland cement concrete has been used to
describe cement concretes generally.
The durability of Portland cement concrete, defined as its ability to

resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process
of deterioration, is a major factor in its excellence as a coastal con-
struction material. Durable concrete will retain its original form,
quality, and serviceability when exposed to its environment.
This section discusses the material used in making concrete, including

additives that enhance its ,),perties, the mixing of concrete, and the more
important causes of concrete deterior;i ion in coastal structures. It gives
ruigesti,,s on how to nreveni such damagc. with particular attention to
6 damage caused hV fre1:ina, ,id thawing, aggressive chemical exposure,
abrasion, reactive aggreg:ites, and corrosion of embedded materials.
Repair methods for concrete that has not withstood the forces of deterior-
ation, and the use of prottactive coatings to enhance durabilitv are also
•d i scussed.o
* 2. Types of Portland Cement.
Portland cement types aiid characteri stics for coastal strititures are
StanLdards (C13 ..7 8:
spvciftied in AS .IM
1j) I'Vpe I ce ,{ i i s ,t inA o lill r V tr' ll tllr;il C Ar 't a r
* tioun t ion{ls , ca:ds., ,]: h - , :051 onI ~'t tOii lt aOL l/ iit abicc( I t}
iilirille cxposlire 0o " i. , 1 t i 1 & i j a
70
6
0
(b) Type IA is t nrai air -ntraining Port :1id ceIment for Use
in concrete structures as ment ioned for type I cement , st Ijcct to
freezing climates.
(c) Type 11 ceim..iit is :I mild sol phate-i-esi , jng cement and can
be used for concrete in a marine environment not subject to fireezing
and thawing, if ty-pe V (listed below) is not available. IIoever,
type II cement concrete is not as durable in seawater as :a type V
cement concrete.
(d) Type IIA cement should be used for concrete in freezing

atmospheres.
(e) Type III cement is used where a high early strength is needed.
Concrete made with this cement will attain a strength in 7 days
Uequivalent to that made with type I cement in 28 days. It should not
be used for marine concrete.
(f) Type IIA cement contains an air-entraining agent hut other-

wise is the same as type III.
* (g) Type IV cement provides a low heat of hydration in concrete

where a heat buildup may occur. It is used in structures such as
dams, or in other mass concrete where such heat may be undesirable.
(h) Type V cement has a greater resistance to sulfates than all

the others and should be used in all marine environments. It has a
maximum tricalcium aluminate (C3A) content of 5 percent. Addition
of an air-entraining agent is mandatory in freezing climates.
(i) Low alkali cement. Federal specifications state that the

summation of percentages of Na 2 0 plus 0.658 of the percentage of
K 2 0 shall not exceed 0.6 percent of the total cement content. Low
alkali cements are usually well below the 0.6-percent limit.
(j) For concrete piles used in soil containing from 0.10 to 0.20
percent water soluble sulfate (as SO) or used in water containing
from 150 to 2 000 parts per million SOL, the concrete should be
made with cement containing not more than 8 percent tricalcium
• aluminate (C3A) such as type II or a moderate sulfate-resistant
(MS) cement. In environments where the water soluble sulfate
exceeds 0.20 percent or the sulfate solution contains from 2 000 to
10 000 parts per million, Portland cement with the tricalcium
aluminate content limited to 5 percent (e.g., type V) should he
used. For very severe sulfu'te exposure (more than 10 000 parts per
* million), type V cement with a flvash admixture should be used.
(k) Where silica in the aggregates is reactive with alkali of

the cement, a cement containing less than 0.60 percent alkali should
be used. The foregoing alkalis if present in certain ammunts may
cause swelling oi" ccrt ain agtregates, such as opail or (h.1lce,!ony.
* Such swelling can ottcn be reduced by usin low aIlka li cenlent.
71
II
There are many other cements, used for sPecial poWSe_, :,

sive cements, which cause the concrete to expand aft eI* set IIIi ,V.;d
for marine concrete) , waterproof Portland cement , p11 s tie ccment (I (:..dfor
making stucco and plaster), oil well cement, and snecial-ulen'Vd ,it(,ru and
rpolymer cements.
3. Properties.
The basic properties of concrete are placeability. consistcncy, strength,

durability and density. Thee properties will v,-ry depending on the
specific components and ratios of components added during mixing. Mell-
established relationships governing these properties are disctnesed below.
a. Placeability. Placeability (including satisfactory finishing

properties) encompasses traits loosely accumulated in the terms "'Worka-
bility" and "consistency." Workability is considered to be thait property
of concrete which determines its capacity to be placed and consolidated
properly and to be finished without harmful segregation. It is affected by
the grading, particle shape, and proportions of aggregate, the amount of
cement, the presence of entrained air, admixtures, and the consistencv of
the mixture. These factors are to be taken into account to achieve sat is-
factory placeability economically.
b. Consistency. Consistency, loosely defined, is the wetness of the
concrete mixture. It is measured in terms of slump--e.g., the higher the
slump the wetter the mixture--and it affects the ease with which the
concrete will flow during placement. In properly proportioned concrete,
the unit water content required to produce a given slump will depend on
several factors. Water requirement increases as aggregates become more
angular and rough textured (but this disadvantage may be offset by improve-
ments in other characteristics such as bond to cement paste). Required
mixing water decreases as the maximum size of the well-graded aggregate is
increased. It also decreases with the entrainment of air. Mixing water
requirement may often be significantly reduced by certain admixtures.
c. Strength. Strength is an important characteristic of concrete, but

other characteristics such as durability, permeability, and wear resistance
are often equally or more important. For a given set of materials and
conditions, concrete strength is determined by the net qlrantity of water
used per unit quantity of cement. The net water cont-nt excludes water
absorbed by the aggregates. Differences in strength i'or a given water-
cement ratio may result from changes in maximum Size of aggregate, grading,
surface texture, shape, strength, and stiffness of o: gregate particies;
differences in cement types and sources; air contev.; and the i:s, of
admixtures which affect the cement hydration process or develop cemcnt itious
properties themselves. lowever, in view of their number and complexity,
accurate predictions of strength must be based on trial batches (r"cxprcrience
with the materials to be used.
d. PIra)i I ity. The ai I ity of concrete to Withst;nI (', '. 0 111,WV J

exposure is called d. duIaIcilit (Ionerete must h :rI,
'l t() on,'lii Ih,,
expos rcs w ihc m; i depr1-I1, t (,) i' 1 I , k.... f1 .,,. I2, 1)d
thiawing. , ,ttin., and drvin 1), .At i ng and cooling, he i 'a S, ,, , I In
agents. UIse ot a lo , wat er- emc nt raIt i 0 wi 1 pro -e tn tI i ' ,I t
72
by reducing the penetration of aggressive liquids. Resistan"v to "were
weathering, particularly freezing and thawing, and to salts Usqd for jc'
removal is greatly improved by incorporation of a proper distribution of'
entrained air. Entrained air should be used in all exposed concrete in
climates where free:ing occurs. By using a suitable cement :nd a prperly
proportioned mix, concrete will resist sulfates in soil, ground w tcr, or
seawater, provided that concentrations are not in excess of TV. r May 1
grams) of Na 2 SO per liter of witer. High-quality concrete will rist
mild acid attack, but no concrete has good resistance to strong ac.ids;
special protection is necessary in this case.
Sometimes concrete surfaces will wear away as the result of abrasive

action. In hydraulic structures, particles of sand or gravel in flowing
water can erode surfaces. The use of high-quality concrete and, in extreme
cases, a very hard aggregate may provide longer durability under these
exposures. More detailed discussion of the exposures that impact durability
of concrete and of the techniques to resist these impacts is discussed in
subsection 6.
e. Density. For certain applications concrete may be used primarily

for its weight characteristic. To the extent possible, selection of con-
crete proportions should be based on test data or experience with the
materials actually to be used. Where such background is limited or not
available, estimates given herein may be employed.
4. Components.
Concrete is composed principally of cement, aggregates, and water. It

will contain some amount of entrapped air and may also contain purposely
entrained air obtained by use of an admixture or air-entrained cement.
Admixtures are also frequently used for other purposes such as to accel-
erate, retard, and improve workability, reduce mixing water requirement,
and increase strength, durability, density, and appearance. The required
characteristics are governed by the use to which the concrete will be put
and by conditions expected to be encountered at the time of placement.
These are often, but not always, reflect:d in specifications for the job.
a. Mixing Water For Concrete.
(1) General Requirements. Almost any natural water can be used as

mixing water For making concrete. Potable freshwater is usually acceptable
as satisfactory mixing water but should meet ASTM Standard C94. Water
suitable for making concrete, however, may not be fit for drinking. ater
high in chlorides should not be used in concrete containing steel reinforce-
ment.
Water of questionable suitahility can be used for making ,,ncrcte if

mortar cubes made with it have 7- and 28-day strength; equal to at least 90)
percent of comparison npc,-imen; made w,ith tapnwater. ',Mortar ciies ..ho,,lld be
made and tested according to ASIM Standard C 109. In addition, Vi't needle
tests (..*SI;" Standird (111, Yhuld he m dc to ensure that ',,i . in the
minxi nr water do not :Idii xr ]Iv shorten or cxt end the .ettin, K, fhe
clcvnt, Fxcessivu imp riti, iln mixin4 water also !iia" c 1 ',;e , I' , 7-1- e,
st a ining
u , or corro- lol of
'I rrnetor'.
lt ,it'a'cemlit . i i n ,
73
limits may be set on chlorides, sulfates, alkalies, and sulid:l in thc
mixing water. A water source comparable in analysis to any o" the watcrs
in Table 5 is probably satisfactory for use in concrete.
Table S. Chemical limits for mixing water.
Maximum
concentration,i lest
Chemicals (ppm) method2
Chloride, as CL ASTM Std.

Prestressed concrete or concrete in D512
bridge decks 500,
I
Other reinforced concrete in moist
environments or containing aluminum
embedments or dissimilar metals or
with stay-in-place galvanized metal
forms 1 0003
Sulfate, as SO4 3 000 ASTM Std.

D516
Alkalies, as (Na2 0 + 0.658 K2 0) 600
Total solids 50 0o0 AASHTO T26

(Sec. 3.1)
1
Wash water reused as mixing water in concrete can exceed the listed con-
centrations of chloride and sulfate if it can be shown that the concentra-
tion calculated in the total mixing water, including mixing water on the
aggregates and other sources, does not exceed the stated limits.
2
Other test methods that have been demonstrated to yield comparable results
can be used.
3
For conditions allowing use of CaC1 2 accelerator as an admixture, the
chloride limitation may be waived by the purchaser.
Water containing less than 2 000 parts per million of total dissolved
solids can generally be used satisfactorily for making concrete. Water
4 containing more than 2 000 parts per million of dissolved solids should be
tested for its effect on strength and time of set. Water containing 2 000
to 3 000 parts per million, not including Na2 SO'4 , of dissolved solids is
acceptable if free of organic matter. American Concrete Institute (ACI)
dommittee 201 (1977), limits chloride ions to percentages of weight according
to types of concrete (Table 6).
4
Water for use in prestressed work should be more definitely restricted
in salt, ilt, ard organic contents. It should 'ontain
74
L
-
Table 6. Permissible chloride ions.
Type of Concrete Maximum (pct)
Prestressed concrete 0.06
Conventionally reinforced concrete

in a moist environment and exposed
to chloride 0.10
4Aboveground building construction

where concrete will stay dry (does
not include locations where concrete
will be occasionally wetted such as
waterfront structures). No limit for corrosion
(a) no impurities that will cause a change in time of set

greater than 2.5 percent nor a reduction in 14-day strength
greater than 5 percent as compared with distilled water;
(b) less than 650 parts per million of chloride ion (some
authorities permit up to 1 000 parts per million);
(c) less than 1 300 parts per million of sulfate ion (some
authorities limit this to 1 000 parts per million); and
(d) no oil.
Seawater may be used, if no other is available, and no steel reinforce-

ment is present. The early strength of seawater concrete will be somewhat
stronger than that made with freshwater but after about a month the strength
of the freshwater concrete will be stronger. At the Port of Los Angeles,
thousands of specimens were made for long-time testing using seawater for
gaging and tapwater for control specimens. Storage environments were as
follows: fog room for controls, air, freshwater and seawater. Compression
tests were made at increments of 1 day, 7 days, 28 days, 6 months, 1 year,
and thereafter each 5 years through 35 years.
The results showed that in the early phases of the program (within the
first year) strength gains for the seawater-gaged concrete (compressive
strength, modulus of rupture, and rnodulus of elasticity) slightly exceeded
those of the tapwater controls. However, beginning at about 1 year, the
tapwater control increased above that of the scawater specimens. At the
end of the 35-year period the tapwater series were roughly 15 percent stronger
then the seawater series. All concrete mixes were of excellent quality,
structural grade concrete and, of course, no form of reinforcement was
used. Table 7 compares tapwater to seawater for total dissolved solids.
Seawater containing up to 35 000 parts per million of dissolved salts
is generally suitable as mixing water for unreinforced concrete. The
strength reduction can be compensated for by reducing the water-cement
ratio. Quality concrete can he made with seawater if the mix is properly
•adjusted.
*
75
e
0T
Table 7. Typical analyses of city water supplies and seawater.
In tapwater (analysis no.) In

r Dissolved Solids 1 2 3 4 5 6 seawater 1
(ppm)
Silica (Si0 2 ) 2.4 0.0 6.5 9.4 22.0 3.0

Iron (Fe) 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 -
Calcium (Ca) 5.8 15.3 29.5 96.0 3.0 1.3 50-480
Magnesium (Mg) 1.4 5.z 7.6 27.0 2.4 0.3 260-1 410
Sodium (Na) 1.7 16.1 2.3 183.0 215.0 1.4 2 190-12 200
Potassium (K) 0.7 0.0 1.6 18.0 9.8 0.2 70-550
Bicarbonate (HC0 3 ) 14.07 35.8 122.0 334.0 549.0 4.1
Sulfate (S0) 9.7 59.9 5.3 121.0 11.0 2.6 S80-2 810
Chloride (Cl) 2.0 3.0 1.4 280.0 22.0 1.0 3 960-20 000
Nitrate (NO3 ) 0.5 0.0 1.6 0.2 0.5 0.0
Total dissolved
solids 31.0 250.0 125.0 983.0 564.0 19.0 35 000
IDifferent seas contain different amounts of dissolved salts.
When suitable freshwater is not available, seawater can also be used

for making reinforced concrete. Its use may increase the risk of corro-
sion, but the risk is reduced if the reinforcement has sufficient cover and
if the concrete is watertight and contains an adequate amount of entrained
air. Reinforced concrete structures made with seawater and exposed to
marine environment should have a water-cement ratio of less than 0.45 and
the reinforcement cover should be at least 75 millimeters (3 inches). Seawater
should not be used to make prestressed concrete in which the prestressing
steel is in contact with the concrete. Sodium or potassium salts present
in seawater used for mix water can produce substances that combine with
alkali-reactive aggregates in the same manner as when combined with cement
alkalies. Therefore, seawater should not be used as mixing water for
concrete with known potentially alkali-reactive aggregates, even when the
alkali content of the cement is low.
(3) Impurities. The following resume discusses the effects of

certain impurities in mixing water on the quality of plain concrete.
(a) Alkali Carbonate and Bicarbonate. Sodium carbonate can

cause very rapid setting, bicarbonate can either accelerate or retard set.
In large concentrations the salts can materially reduce concrete strengths.
When the sum of these disolved salts exceeds 1 000 parts per million, tests
for their setting time and 28-day strength should be made.
(b) Chloride and Sulfate. Concern over a high cloride

content in the water is chiefly due to the possible adverse effect of
chloride ions on the corrosion of reinforcing steel or prestressing strands.
The chloride level at which corrosion begins is about 7.6 newtons per cubic
meter (1.3 pounds per cubic yard). Placing an acceptable limit on chloride
* content for any one ingredient, such as mixing water, is difficult consider-
ing the several sources of chloride ions in concrete. An acceptable limit
76
6 * " JI" l i - - I l
in the mixing water depends upon how significantly mixing water contributes
to the total chloride content. Suggested limits are shown in Table 5.
Water containing less than 500 parts per million of chloride ion generally
is considered acceptable. However, the contribution of chlorides from
other ingredients also should be considered.
(c) Iron Salts. Iron salts in concentrations up to 40 000

parts per million do not usually affect mortar strengths adversely.
(d) Miscellaneous Inorganic Salts. Salts of manganese, tin,

zinc, copper, and lead in mixing water can cause a significant reduction
in strength and large variations in setting time. Of these, salts of
zinc, copper, and lead are the most active. Other salts that are espe-
cially active as retarders include sodium iodate, sodium phosphate,
sodium arsenate, and sodium borate. All can greatly retard both set and
I strength development when present in concentrations of a few tenths
percent by weight of the cement. Generally, concentrations of these salts
up to 500 parts per million can be tolerated in mixing water.
Another salt that may be detrimental to concrete is sodium sulfide;

even the presence of 100 parts per million warrants testing.
(e) Acid Waters. Generally, mixing waters combining hydro-

chloric, sulfuric, and other common inorganic acids in concentrations as
high as 10 000 parts per million have no adverse effect on concrete
strength. Acid waters with pH less that 3.0 may create handling problems
and should be avoided.
(f) Algae. Water containing algae is unsuited for making

concrete because the algae can cause excessive reduction in strength
either by influencing cement hydration or by causing a large amount of air
to be entrained in the concrete. Algae may also be present on aggregates,
in which case the bond between the aggregate and cement paste is reduced.
b. Polymers in Concrete.
(1) General. The following three types of concrete materials

utilize polymers to form compo'ites: (1) polymer-impregnated concrete
(PIC), which is a hydrated Portland cement concrete that has been impregnated
4with a monomer and subsequently polymerized in situ; (2) polymer-Portland
cement-concrete (PPCC), which is produced by adding either a monomer or
polymer to a fresh concrete mixture and subsequently curing and polymerizing
the material in place; and (3) polymer concrete (PC), which is a composite
material formed by polymerizing a monomer and aggregate mixture.
A monomer is an organic molecular species which is capable of combining

chemically with molecules of the same or other species to form a high
molecular weight material known as a polymer. A polymer consists of
repeating units derived from the monomers which are linked together in a
chainlike structure. The chemical process through which these linkages
occur is known as polymerization.
(2) Polymer-Impregnated Concrete. The selection of suitable
monomers for polymer-impregnated concrete (PIC) is based on the impregna-
6l 77
0
tion and polymerization characteristics, availability and cost, and the

properties of the resultant polymer and PIC. Liquid vinyl monomer systems
have generally been used. Monomers are normally supplied containing an
pinhibitor to prevent premature polymerization of the monomer. Since
polymerization begins immediately on adding a promoter, its use in PIC
would be restricted to shallow impregnations.
The basic method of producing polymer-impregnated concrete (PIC)

consists of the fabrication of precast concrete specimens, ovendrying,
saturation with monomer, and in-situ polymerization.
For full impregnation, good-quality concrete having a cross section of

up to 305 millimeters (12 inches) will require soaking in monomer for about
60 minutes under a pressure of 69 kilopascals (10 pounds per square inch).
Concrete may be only partially impregnated when improved strength is not
* needed but greater durability is desired.
(3) Polymer-Portland Cement-Concrete. Polymer-Portland cement-

concrete (PPCC) has been prepared with both premixed and postmixed poly-
merized materials. The premixed polymerized materials include latexes and
polymer solutions or dispersions. The postmix polymerized PPCC has been
made with a number of resins and monomers.
(a) Polymer Latexes. At present, latex-modified concretes

represent the large majority of commerical applications of polymer-modified
concretes in the United States. Suitable latex formulations greatly
improve the shear bond, tensile, and flexural strength of cements and
mortars.
(b) Polymer Solutions. Thermosetting water-soluble polymers

which have been added to fresh concrete include epoxies, amino-resins,
polyesters, and formaldehyde derivatives. Thermoplastic materials include
polyvinyl alcohol and polyacrylamides.
PPCC process technology is based upon overcoming the incompatibilities

of most organic polymers and their monomers with mixtures of Portland
cement, water, and aggregate. The mix proportioning of latex PPCC will
vary in much the same way as do normal concretes and mortars.
(4) Polymer Concrete. Most of the work on polymer concrete (PC)
has been with polyester styrene resin systems, and to a lesser extent with
furan, epoxy, and vinylester resins systems. The polyester resins are
attractive because of moderate cost, availability of a great variety of
formulations, and moderately good PC properties.
Most of the monomer and resin systems for PC are polymerized at

O ambient temperatures. Vinyl monomer systems can be polymerized with
catalysts such as benzoyl peroxide with an amine promoter. The polyester-
styrene systems are polymerized with promoter-catalyst systems such as
methylethyl ketone peroxide with cobalt napthanate promoter. Other
systems include amine curing agents for epoxy resins.
5Mixing and placing techniques for PC are based on adaptation of existing

equipment and methods for producing Portland cement concrete. A knowledge
78
41
6
of polymer chemistry is helpful, but not essential; directions for curing

mixes are available from the resin manufacturers. Curing of PC may be
performed by thermal catalytic, promoter-catalysts or radiation techniques.
MPromoter-catalyst systems are frequently best suited for PC, with curing
times varied, as needed, between a few minutes and several hours. Full
strength is attained when polymerization is completed. PC has been made
with epoxy, polyester, and furan resins, and more recently with sytrene
monomer systems.
c. Aggregates.
(1) Normal Aggregates. Normal aggregates consist of clean sand,

river-washed gravel, and crushed rock. In certain locations volcanic rock,
such as basalt, may be used. They should have clean, hard and uncoated
particles and comply with ASTM Standard C33. Other ASTM tests for concrete
* aggregates are shown in Table 8.
Harmful substances may be present in aggregates. These include organic

matter, rubbish of all kinds, silt, clay, coal, lignite, dolomitic lime-
stones, chalcedonic cherts, opal, cristobalite, some types of volcanic
glass, and pyrites. An aggregate containing these substances may be con-
sidered as reactive. Materials finer than the No. 200 sieve may form
-I coatings on the aggregates which weaken the bond between the aggregate and
the cement paste. Soft particles of aggregate affect the wear resistance
and durability of the concrete.
Tests used to qualify aggregates to be used to make durable concrete

are as follows:
(a) Abrasion resistance tests;
(b) sulfate soundness tests (used for many years as an index

of quality, however, experience has shown that it does not correlate
well with the actual performance of aggregates in concrete);
(c) tests for organic impurities (on aggregates from new

sources);
(d) laboratory freezing and thawing tests (of limited value, but
do furnish useful information for new source material); and
(e) tests to determine presence of opal and chalcedony (on

aggregates from new sources) by making mortar bars and testing
them according to ASTM Standard C342
It is an interesting fact that the water requirement of a given con-

sistency for concrete decreases in inverse proportion -- the maximum size
of the coarse aggregate. For example, a 19-millimeter (0.75 inch) size
coarse aggregate would require about 1.49 kilonewtons (335 pounds) of
water, per 0.76 cubic meter (1 cubic yard) of concrete; a 50.8-millimeter
* (2 inch) aggregate would only need about 1.22 kilonewtons (275 pounds) per
0.76 cubic meter (I cubic yard). The latter would lower the water-cement
79
SI
Table 8. Characteristics and tests of aggregates.
Requirement of
Characteristic Significance ASTM Standard item reported
Resistance to Index of aggregate C131 Maximum percent-

abrasion quality; wear resis- C295 age of weight
tance of floor C535 loss
pavements
Resistance to Surface scaling, C295 Maximum number

freezing and roughness, loss of C666 cycles or period
thawing section, and un- C682 of frost immunity;
sightliness durability factor
Resistance to Resistance to C88 Weight loss, par-

disintegration weathering action ticles exhibiting
by sulfates distress
Particle shape Workability of C295 Maximum percentage

and surface fresh concrete D3398 of flat and elon-
texture gated pieces
Grading Workability of C117 Minimum and maxi-

fresh concrete; C136 mum percent
economy passing standard
sieves
Bulk unit Mix design calcula- C29 Compact weight

weight or tions; classifica- and loose weight
density tions
Specific Mix design calcula- C127,

gravity tions fine aggregate
C128,
coarse aggre-
gate
C29, slag
* Absorption Control of concrete C70

and surface quality C127
moisture C128
C566
Compressive Acceptability of C39 Strength to

and flexural fine aggregate fail- C78 exceed 95 percent
strength ing other tests of strength
achieved with
purified sand
iefinitions of Clear understanding C125

constituents and communications C294
80
S1
ratio and, of course, produce concrete of a greater strength than that
containing the 19-millimeter aggregate. Table 9 shows maximum aggregate
sizes for various uses.
PV
Table 9. Maximum size of aggregate recommended for

various types of construction.
Section Use or Features Aggregate Size

(mm) (in)
190.5 mm wide heavily reinforced floor 19 0.75

and roof slabs; parapets,
cobels and where space
*is limited
>190.5 mm wide 38.1 1.5

with clear distance
between reinforcement
bars 57 mm
>30S mm wide unre- Piers, walls, baffles and 76.2 3

inforced sections and stilling basin floor slabs
in which satisfactory
>457 mm wide rein- placement of 152.4 mm or
forced sections with cobble concrete cannot be
clear distance between accomplished even though
reinforcement bars reinforcement spacing
>114.3 mm but < 229 would permit the use of
mm larger aggregates.
Massive sections with Retaining walls, piers 152.4 6

clear distance and baffles; in which
between reinforcing suitable provision is
bars 229 mm made for placing concrete
containing the larger
size aggregate without
producing rock pockets
or other undesirable
results.
Gap-graded aggregates can often be used effectively in areas where ASTM

C33 standards cannot be met. A typical gap-graded aggregate may contain
0 only one size of coarse aggregate together with sand. In this respect, the
resultant concrete would resemble that made with prepacked concrete.
When natural aggregates are found to be unacceptable through service

records or tests, they may sometimes be improved by removing lightweight,
soft, or otherwise inferior particles by processing.
S (2) Lightweight Aggregate. There are a number of materials used

to produce lightweight concrete. Among the natural aggregates are: tuff,
81
0
0
pumice, volcanic cinders, scoria, and diatomite rocks. Pumice is fre-

quently used in structural concrete. For example, parts of the large
concrete counterweights on a bascule bridge (Fig. 15), were composed of
normal structural concrete (weight about 23.6 kilonewtons per cubic meter or
150 pounds per cubic foot), lightweight pumice concrete of 15.4 kilonewtons
per cubic meter (98 pounds per cubic foot), and heavyweight concrete of 35.3
kilonewtons per cubic meter (225 pounds per cubic foot). Cancrete made with
pumice weighs from 14.1 to 15.7 kilonewtons per cubic meter (90 to 100 pounds
per cubic foot).
In the artificial lightweight aggregate family is perlite. This produces

a roor grade of concrete weighing from 7.9 to 12.6 kilonewtons per cubic
meter (50 to 80 pounds per cubic foot), which is often used as an underlayer
for built-up roof decks. It will not produce structural grade concrete.
Expanded clay aggregates produce a lightweight, structural quality concrete
with densitie, ranging from 14.1 to 17.3 kilonewtons per cubic meter.
Although there are other manufactured lightweight aggregates for making
concrete, this report will conclude with vermiculite. Concrete made with
the vermiculite (not used for structural concrete) is used extensively as
an insulating material and weighs from 5.5 to 11.8 kilonewtons per cubic
meter (35 to 75 pounds per cubic foot).
(3) Heavy Aggregate. Heavyweight concrete is made with normal
coarse aggregates (ASTM Standard C33) and heavy natural or manufactured
aggregates such as magnetite (specific gravity 4.2 to 4.4), limonite
(specific gravity 5.0 to 5.5), and barite (specific gravity 2.5 to 3.5).
Some of these minerals could contain pyrite, which can decompose on weather-
ing, and should not be used in concrete. Magnetite and limonite should be
tested for the presence of pyrite before using in concrete.
Manufactured heavy aggregates are usually iron and steel products.
Concrete from these productF can reach more than 47.1 kilonewtons per cubic
meter (300 pounds per cubic foot). More information on heavy aggregates is
provided in "De, gn and Control of Concrete Mixtures" (Portland Cement
Association, 19/9).
(4) Regional Aggregates. For the sake of economy, it may be
desireable to use aggregates from the nearest source, unless they contain
harmful minerals such as pyrite or chalcedony, even if they do not fully
meet with the requirements of ASTM Standard C33. If it is essential to use
:,gregates containing reactive minerals, pozzolon admixtures are added to
reduce or eliminate potential expansion from alkali reactive aggregates.
(5) Coral. Coral deposits are found in many oceans of the world.
When mined and prepared for use as an aggregate for makin,2, concrete, the
physical and chemical orrerties of coral may vary widely. hen coral
aggregates are used to produce structural concrete, a strength factor is
established by using trial mixes until the proper strength has been attained.
Cores were taken in 1972 from coral aggregate concrete (made by tl, Japanese
many years prior to 1911), on the island of Kwajalein. The average com-
pressive strength of the cores was 13.8 kilopascals (2 000 pounds per
square inch).
0) helIcal Reactions of Aggregates.
(a) 'voes ml' Reaictions. Chemical reactions, aggregates

coic'ete car aff'ect the performance of concrete. Some reactions 'nay be
82
IT
Fow
A Okl
83
beneficial, but others result ill serious damage to tile concrete by causing
abnormal expansion, cracking, and loss of strength (Woods, 1968). The
reaction that has received greatest attention and was the first to 1)e
recognized involves a reaction between alkalies (Na:,0 and K2 0), from the
" cement or from other sources with hydroxyl, and certain siliceous con-
stituents that may be present in the aggregate. This phenomenon was
originally, and is still sometimes, referred to as "alkali-aggregate
reaction," but in recent years it has been more properly designated as
'alkali-silica reaction."
Deterioration of concrete has occurred in certain sand-gravel aggre-

gates. The deterioration has been regarded as a chemical phenomenon and is
a reaction between the alkalies in cement and some siliceous constituents
of the aggregates, complicated by environmental coiditions that produce
high concrete shrinkage and concentration by drying (ladley, 1968). It has
U also been clearly demonstrated that certain carbonate rocks participate in
reactions with alkal. es that, in some instances, produce detrimental expan-
sion and cracking. Detrimental reactions are usually associated with
argillaceous dolomitic limestones which have somewhat unusual textural
characteristics (ladley, 1964). This reaction is designated as "expansive
alkali -carbonate react ion."
4 Other damaging chemical reactions involving aggregates include the

oxidation or hydration of certain unstable mineral oxides, sulfates, or
sulfides that occur after the aggregate is incorporated in the concrete
e.g., the hydration of anhydrous magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, or calcium
sulfate, or the oxidation of pyrite) (Mielenz, 1964). Still other reactions
may result from organic impurities (such as humus and sugar). Engineers
should be aware of these possibilities and supply corrective measures where
necessary. Careful testing and examination of the aggregates will usually
indicate the presence of such reactive impurities and their use in concrete
can be avoided. The alkali-silica, cement-aggregate, and expansive carbonate
reactions are most important.
(b) The Alkali-Silica Reaction. This reaction can cause
expansion and severe cracking of concrete structures and pavements. The
phenomenon is complex, and various theories have been advanced to explain
field and laboratory evidence (Diamond, 1976). Unanswered questions
remain. Apparently, reactive material in the presence of potassium,
sodium, and calcium hydroxide derived from the cement reacts to form
*1 either a solid nonexpansive calcium-alkali-silica complex or an alkali-
silica complex (also solid) which can expand by imbibition of water.
I Laboratory Tests for Alkali-Silica Reactivity.
Laboratorv tests should he made on aggregates from new sources and when
service r.cords indicate that reactivity may be possible. The most useful
*are:
(a) Petrographic examination (ASTM Standard C295),
(b) mortar bar test for potential reactivity (ASTNl Standard

C227). and
* (c) chemical test for potential reactivity (ASTM Standard

289).
84
6
A
a Petrographic Examination. Petrographic examination

provides a recommended practice for the petrographic examination of aggre-
gates. Recommendations are available which show the amounts of reactive
rpy minerals that can be tolerated. The reactive rocks and minerals that have
been more frequently encountered since 1960 appear to have larger potassium
proportions and are harder to recognize in petrographic examination.
of 350
Highly deformed quartz with an angle of undulatory extinction
to 50 or more and with deformation lamellae appear characteristic of the
reactive quartz-bearing rocks. Relatively coarse-grained micas have also
been regarded as reactive constituents; fine-grained micas are reactive in
argillites (Dolar-Mantuani, 1969).
b Mortar Bar Test for Potential Reactivity. This

test is the method most generally relied on to indicate potential alkali
reactivity. Acceptance criteria are given by ASTM Standard C33 for evaluat-
I ing these test results. The procedure is useful not only for the evaluation
of aggregates, but also for the evaluation of specific aggregate-cement
combinations. However, criteria have not been developed for the metamor-
phic siliceous and silicate rocks.
c Chemical Test for Potential Reactivity. This test

•. is the method used primarily for a quick evaluation of natural aggregates.
The results are obtainable in a few days as compared with 3 to 6 months or
more with the mortar bar test. Acceptance criteria for this test are given
in AS14.Standard C33. Care must be exercised in interpreting the results
of this test. This test method has given questionable results when evaluat-
ing lightweight aggregates; therefore, it is not recommended for this
purpose (Ledbetter, 1973).
2 General Criteria for Judging Reactivity. When avail-

able, the field performance record of a particular aggregate, if it has been
used with cement of high alkali content, is the best means for judging its
reactivity. If such records are not available, the most reliable criteria
are petrographic examination with corroborating evidence from the mortar bar
test (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, 1971c), sometimes supplemented by tests
on concrete although these have not been standardized. The chemical test
results should also be used in conjunction with results of the petrographic
examination and mortar bar test. It is preferable not to rely on the
results of only one kind of test in any evaluation (U.S. Army, Corps of
'0 Engineers, 1971c).
3 Recommended Procedures with Alkali-Reactive Aggregates.

If aggregates are shown by service records or laboratory examination to be
K potentially reactive, they should not be used when the concrete is to be
exposed to seawater or alkali environments if nonreactive aggregates are
available (Highway Research Board, 1958). When reactive aggregates must be
used, this should be done only after thorough testing, and preferably after
service records have established that, with appropriate limits on the alkali
content of the cement, or with the use of appropriate amounts of an effective
pozzolan, or both, satisfactory service can be anticipated. In cases where
seawater or alkaline soil environments are not involved, and there are no
sound materials available economically, reactive materials may be used
provided certain limits are set in the specifications:
85
I.
7I
(a) Specify a low alkali cement having a maximum of 0.6
percent equivalent Na 2 0.
(b) prohibit the use of seawater or alkali soil water as

Pmixing water;
(c) avoid addition of sodium or potassium chloride; and
(d) where low alkali cements are not economically available,

use a suitable pozzolanic material as prescribed by ASTM Standard
C618 and tested in accordance with ASTM Standard C441 (to
determine their effectiveness in preventing excessive expansion
due to the alkali-aggregate reaction).
Whenever the use of pozzolanic materials is considered, it should be

remembered that if these materials increase water demand, they may cause
increased drying shrinkage in concrete exposed to drying. Increased water
demand results from high fineness and poor particle shape. The rate of
strength development in correctly proportioned pozzolanic concrete can
equal that of Portland cement concretes, i.e., 28 days.
(c) Cement-Aggregate Reaction. Recent research indicates

* that the cement-aggregate reaction is mainly a reaction between the alkalies
in the cement that produce high pH and abundant hydroxyl and siliceous
constituents of the aggregates. However, the field performance of con-
cretes made with reactive sand and gravels does not correlate well with
cement alkali content. The concrete deterioration results from moderate
interior expansion caused by alkali-silica reactivity, and surface shrinkage
caused by severe drying conditions. Evaporation at the surface of the
concrete causes an increase in alkali concentration in the pore fluids near
the drying surface, and a net migration of alkali toward this surface.
Under these conditions even a low alkali cement may cause objectionable
deterioration, particularly near the surface. This alkali distribution is
altered by the leaching of alkalies near the surface during periods of
heavy rain (Hadley, 1968).
1 Identification by Laboratory Tests. Although special

tests, such as ASTM Standard C342, have been devised to indicate potential
damage from this phenomenon, their reliability is doubtful.
* 2 Recommended Procedure to be Employed with Potentially

Deleterious Cement-Aggregate Combinations. The use of potentially de-
leterious cement-aggregate combinations should be avoided where possible.
However, if they must be used, a suitable pozzolan that does not increase
drying shrinkage and 30 percent or more (by weight) of coarse limestone
should be used with potentially deleterious cement-aggregate combinations.
Concrete tests should be used to determine whether the resulting combina-
tion is satisfactory.
(d) Expansive Alkali-Carbonate Reactivity. Certain limestone

aggregates, usually dolomitic, have been reported as reactive in concrete
structures. There are many unanswered questions, and more thvin one mech-
anism has been proposed to explain expansive carbonate reactivity. The
affected concrete is characterized by a network of pattern or map cracks
86
usually most strongly developed in areas of the structure where the concrete
has a constantly renewable supply of moisture, such as close to the water-
line in piers, from the ground behind retaining walls, beneath road or
sidewalk slabs, or by wick action in posts or columns. A distinguishing
feature from alkali-silica reaction is the general absence of silica gel
exudations at cracks. Additional signs of the severity of the reaction are
closed expansion joints with possible crushing of the adjacent concrete
(Hadley, 1964).
1 Identification by Laborato-y Tests. The most useful

laboratory tests are discussed below.
a Petrographic Examination. This examination of

aggregates may be used to identify the features of the rock. The presence
of all or any dolomite in a fine-grained carbonate rock makes it desirable
to perform the rock cylinder test (ASTM Standard C586). This is recommended
whether or not the texture is believed to be typical, and whether or not
insoluble residue including clay amounts to a substantial part of the
aggregate. As expansive rocks are recognized from more areas, the more
variable the textures and compositions appear to be.
b Expansion of Concrete Prisms Test. This test is

performed with prisms made of job materials and stored at 100 percent
relative humidity at 230 Celsius, (730 Farenheit), or (in order to accel-
erate the reaction) the prisms may be made with additional alkali and
stored at elevated tempeiature. The comparison is usually made with the
expansion of prisms containing a nonreactive control aggregate.
c Petrographic Analysis. A petrographic analysis of

the concrete can confTirm the type of aggregate present and its character-
istics. Distress that has occurred in the aggregate and surrounding matrix,
such as microcracking and macrocracking, may be observed. Reaction rims, which
do not necessarily signify harmful results, may be observed in certain
aggregate particles and may be identified as negative or posit ve by acid
etching. Secondary deposits of calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, and
ettringite (calcium sulfoaluminate) may be found in voids within the con-
crete; however, there are no deposits of silica, hardened or in gel form,
associated with the suspect aggregate pieces.
d Other Laboratory Tests. Additional tests on alkali-

carbonate reaction include identifying by visual observation sawed or
ground surfaces. X-ray examination of reaction products is also sometimes
useful.
e Criteria for Judging Reactivity. Several criteria

are available for judging the reactivity of aggregates. These include
definitive correlations between expansions occurring in the laboratory in
rock cylinders or concrete prisms and deleterious field performance which
have not yet been established. The factors involved are complex and include
the heterogeneity of the rock, coarse aggregate size, permeability of the
concrete, and seasonal changes in environmental conditions in service,
principally availability of moisture, level of temperature, and possibly
the use of sodium chloride as a deicing chemical.
87
It is not certain that rapid determination of potential reactivity can
always be made by using the rock cylinder test, because some rocks showing
an initial contraction may develop considerable expansion later on.
Expansions greater than 0.10 percent in the rock cylinders are usually
taken as a warning that further tests should be undertaken to determine
expansion of the aggregate in concrete. Fortunately, many carbonate rocks
that expand in rock cylinders do not expand in concrete.
2 Recommended Procedures to Minimize Alkali-Carbonate

Reactivity. Procedures that can be employed to mitigate the effects of the
reaction include:
(a) Avoiding reactive rocks by selective quarrying;
(b) dilution with nonreactive aggregates, or use of a

smaller maximum size; and
(c) use of low alkali cement (probably 0.4 percent combined

alkali or lower), which will prevent harmful expansions in most
cases; however, in pavements where sodium chloride is used as a
deicing chemical, this cannot be taken as certain.
* Of these measures, the first is the safest and usually the most econ-
omical.
(e) Preservation of Concrete Containing Reactive Aggregate.

There are no known methods of adequately preserving existing concrete which
contains the elements that contribute to the previously described chemical
reactions. Water or moisture is partly involved in at least two of these
reactions. The destructive effects of freezing and thawing are more pro-
nounced after the initial stages of destruction by these chemical reactions.
Therefore, any practicable means of decreasing the exposure of such concrete
to water may extend its useful life.
d. Admixtures.
(1) General. An admixture is defined as a material other than

water, aggregates, and hydraulic cement, that is used as an ingredient of
concrete or mortar and is added to the batch immediately before or during
its mixing. ASTM Standard C494 classifies certain chemical admixtures in
* terms of function as follows:
(a) Type A, water-reducing admixtures,
(b) Type B, retarding admixtures,
* (c) Type C, accelerating admixtures,
(d) Type D, water-reducing and retarding admixtures, and
(e) Type E, water-reducing and accelerating admixtires.
These admixtures are discussed according to the type of materials con-

situting the admixture or to the characteristic effects of their use.
88
I
0
(2) Water-Reducing and Retarding Admixtures. Water-reducing

admixtures are used to improve the quality of concrete, to obtain specified
strength at lower cement content, or to increase the slump of a given
Vmixture without increase in water content. They also may improve the
properties of concrete containing aggregates that are harsh or poorly
graded, or both, or may be used in concrete that must be placed under
difficult conditions. Set-retarding admixtures delay the onset of harden-
ing, prolonging the period when the concrete is workable. Both types of
admixtures are useful when placing concrete by means of a pump or when
using a tremie process. The materials that are generally available for use
as water-reducing admixtures and set-retarding admixtures fall into four
general classes:
(a) Lignosulfonic acids and their salts;
(b) modifications and derivatives of lignosulfonic acids and
I their salts;
(c) hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their salts; and
(d) modifications and derivatives of hydroxylated carboxylic
acids and their salts.
*Q Hydroxylated carboxylic acid salts act as water-reducing, nonair-
entraining retarders. Lignosulfonates are available as the calcium,
sodium or ammonium salts. Admixtures of classes (a) and (c) can be used
either alone or combined with other organic or inorganic, active or essen-
tially inert substances. They are water-reducing, set-retarding admixtures.
Admixtures of classes (b) and (d) are water-reducing admixtures offered
as combinations of substances designed either to have no substantial effect
on rate of hardening or to achieve varying degrees of acceleration or
retardation in rate of hardening of concrete; these admixtures may include
an air-entraining agent.
The composition of the Portland cement affects the air-enraining

properties of lignosulfonate admixtures in concrete. Concrete containing
a lignosulfonate retarder generally requires 5 to 10 percent less water
than comparable concrete without the admixture. Compressive strengths at
2 or 3 days are usually equal to or higher than those of corresponding
concrete without the admixture and the strength at 28 days or later may be
10 to 20 percent higher.
Lignosulfonic acid salts, carboxylic acid salts, or modifications or
derivatives thereof can be mixed or reacted with other chemicals that
entrain air, modify setting time, or affect the strength development of
concrete. Calcium chloride, neutralized wood resins, alkyl aryl sulfo-
nates, and triethanolamine are examples of additives that have been used.
* The use of compounded or modified water reducers usually causes a water
reduction of 5 to 10 percent at equal air content. Compressive strengths
at ages greater than 2 days are usually from 10 to 20 percent higher than
those of similar concretes without admixture.
(3) Accelerating Admixtures. Accelerating admixtures are added to

concrete either (a) to increase the rate of early strength development, (b)
to shorten the time of setting, or (c) for both purposes. Chemicals which
89
[
accelerate the hardening of mixtures of Portland cement and water include
some of the soluble chlorides, carbonates, silicates, fluosilicates, and
hydroxides (Steinour, 1960), and also some organic compounds such as
triethanolamine (Newman, et al., 1943). Calcium aluminate cements and
finely ground hydrated Portland cement have also been advocated.
Some of the soluble chlorides, particularly calcium chloride (Highway

Research Board, 1952) and to a much lesser extent triethanolamine, have
general applicability as admixtures in concrete. Some of the other materials
are suitable only for use in the preparation of quick-set cements.
By far the best known and most widely used accelerator is calcium
chloride. Many other materials have been found to accelerate the strength
gain of concrete but, in general, they are seldom used, and only limited
inform-tion concerning their effect on the properties of concrete is
available. Most of the information given on acceleratorj applies mainly to
the use of calcium chloride. The effects of accelerators on some of the
properties of concrete are as follows:
(a) The setting time, initial and final, is reduced. The amount
of reduction varies with the amount of accelerator used, the
temperature of the concrete, and the ambient temperature. Excessive
amounts or the accelerator may cause rapid setting.
(b) Less air-entraining admixture is required to produce the

required air content. However, in some cases larger bubble sizes
and higher spacing factors are obtained.
(c) Earlier heat release is obtained but there is no

appreciable effect on the total heat of hydration.
(d) Compressive strength is increased substantially at early

ages. The ultimate strength may be reduced slightly. The increase
in flexural strength is usually less than that of the compressive
strength.
(e) It is generally considered that the volume change is

increased for both moist curing and drying conditions. There
is 4 question of the degree of the effect caused by the accelerators
as opposed to other factors influencing volume change.
(f) The resistance to freezing and thawing and to scaling

caused by the use of deicing salts is increased at early ages, but
may be decreased at later ages.
(g) The resistance to sulfate attack is decreased.
(h) The expansion produced by alkali-aggregate reaction is

greater. This can easily be controlled by the use of low alkali
cement or pozzolans.
(i) Corrosion of metals may occur, especially in the use of

4 calcium chloride when steam curing is employed. The use of calcium
chloride in recommended amounts does not cause progressive corrosion
90
4
of conventional steel reinforcement in typical reinforced concrete
under normal conditions where the bars have sufficient concrete
cover. Stannous chloride when properly used acts as an accelerator
(and does not cause corrosion of the steel even when steam curing
is used.
(4) Calcium Chloride. Calcium chloride is available in two

forms. Regular flake calcium chloride, ASTM Standard D98 (type 1), contains
a minimum of 77 percent CaCl 2 . Concentrated flake, pellet, or granular
calcium chloride ASTM Standard D98 (type 2) contains a minimum of 94
percent of CaCl 2 . Calcium chloride can generally be used safely in amounts
up to 2 percent by weight of the cement (McCall and Claus, 1953). Larger
amounts may be detrimental and, except in rare instances, provide little
additional advantage. The benefits of the use of calcium chloride are
usually more pronouned when it is employed in concrete with a mixing and
curing temperature below 210 Celsius (70 Farenheit). At high mixing and
curing temperatures long-term strength, especially flexural strength, may
decrease, and shrinkage and cracking may increase.
Laboratory tests have indicated that most increases of compressive

strengths of concrete resulting from the use of 2 percent of calcium
A chloride by weight of cement are in the range of 2 760 to 6 890 kilopascals
(400 to 1 000 pounds per square inch) at 1 to 7 days for 210 Celsius
curing. At 4.4° Celsius (40 Farenheit) curing the increases in strengths
obtained at 1 and 7 days with calcium chloride are in the same range as
that for 210 Celsius curing. The increase in strength usually reaches its
maximum in 1 to 3 days and thereafter generally decreases. At 1 year, some
increase is still evident in concrete made with most cements. The specific
effect of the use of calcium chloride varies, however, for different cements
as is indicated by the range of strength increases cited above for the
early ages.
The relative increase in flexural strength of concrete resulting from

the use of I or 2 percent of calcium chloride is not as great as the
increase in compressive strength. Calcium chloride increases the flexural
strength at I and 3 days, but decreases the flexural strength at 28 days or
at later ages (McCall and Claus, 1953).
Flexural strengths of concretes containing 1 to 2 percent calcium

chloride are usually increased over the strengths of similar concrete
without the admixture by 40 to 90 percent at 1 day and by 5 to 35 percent
at 3 days, respectively, when moist cured at 210 Celsius. At 28 days,
decreases of up to 12 percent have been reported from laboratory tests of
moist-cured concrete.
* The use of 1 percent calcium chloride by weight of the cement is

sufficient in most cases to accelerate setting and increase strength
sufficiently for cold weather concreting, with the understanding that cold
weather protection is provided. The selection of the optimum amount
should be based on the type of cement, the temperature of the concrete, and
the ambient air temperature.
Calcium chloride may promote corrosion of the usual reinforcement in

concrete even though adequate concrete cover is provided for the steel.
91
However, it should not be used where stray electric currents are expected
and should not be used in prestressed concrete because of possible stress
corrosion of the prestressing steel (Arber and Vivian, 1961). Calcium
chloride in concrete may be expected to aggravate corrosion of embedded
galvanized metal and of galvanized forms that are left in place. Combina-
tions of metals, such as aluminum-alloy electrical conduit and steel
reinforcing, should not be used in concrete exposed to water.
Calcium chloride may be especially beneficial for concrete exposed to

low or freezing temperatures at early ages if used as recommended in the
ACI Standard ACI 604-56. Calcium chloride increases the rate of early heat
development and accelerates the set, but lowers the freezing point of the
water in concrete only to an insignificant extent.
(5) Air-Entraining Admixtures. Many materials, including natural

wood resins, fats, and oils, may be used in preparing air-entraining
admixtures. These materials are usually insoluble in water and generally
must be chemically processed before they can be used as admixtures. Since
not all such materials produce a desirable air-void system, air-entraining
admixtures should meet the requirements of the ASTM Standard C260.
Air-entrained concrete containing a large number of very small air

0e bubbles is several-fold more resistant to frost action than nonair-entrained
concrete made of the same materials. Air-entrained concrete should be a
dense, impermeable mixture that is well-placed, protected, finished, and
cured if maximum durability is to be obtained.
Air entrainment, while improving both workability and durability, may

reduce strength. Within the range of air content normally used, the
decrease in strength usually is about proportional to the amount of air
entrained. For most types of exposed concrete a slight reduction in
strength is far less significant than the improved resistance to frost
action. The reduction in strength will rarely exceed 15 percent in the
case of compressive strength and 10 percent in the case of flexural strength.
In some installations of precazt concrete units such as cribbing and

curbing, there is considerable exposure to freezing and thawing action.
The use of adequately prepared and controlled air-entrained concrete is the
best way to improve resistance to freezing and thawing.
0Q (6) Air-Detraining Admixtures. There have been cases where
aggregates have released gas into, or caused excessive air entrainment, in
plastic concrete which made it necessary to use an admixture able to
dissipate the excess air or other gas (MacNaughton and Herbich, 1954).
Also, it is sometimes desirable to remove part of the entrained air from a
concrete mixture. Compounds such as tributyl phosphate, diburyl phthalate,
water-insoluble alcohols, and water-insoluble esters of carbonic and boric
acids, as well as silicones, have been proposed for this purpose; however,
tributyl phosphate is the most widely used material.
(7) Admixture to Reduce Alkali Aggregate Expansion. Test data

indicate that small additions of certain chemical substances may be effec-
tive in decreasing expansion resulting from alkali-aggregate reaction
(McCoy and Caldwell, 1951). Outstanding reductions in expansion of labora-
92
tory mortar specimens have been reported for additions of 1 percent by
weight of the cement of lithium salts and for additions of about 2 to 7
percent of certain barium salts. Moderately reduced expansions were also
obtained with certain protein air-entraining admixtures and with some
water-reducing, set-retarding admixtures. It was found that some of these
substances were more effective in reducing expansion than others. The
results reported are limited and further work is needed. There is some
evidence that expansions due to alkali-aggregate reaction are slightly
lowered by air entrainment and the use of low alkali cement.
(8) Expansion Admixtures. Admixtures, which during the hydration
period of concrete or grout expand themselves or react with other con-
stituents of the grout to cause expansion, are used to minimize the effects
of dry shrinkage. They are used in both restrained and unrestrained
placement. The most common admixtures for this purpose is finely divided
iron and chemicals to promote oxidation of the iron. This use is generally
limited to relatively small projects. Expansive cements are most often
used on large projects.
(9) Shrinkage Preventing Admixtures. Three different shrinkage-
compensating cements are described in ASTM Standard C845 and are designated
as Type K, Type S, and Type M. The expansion of each of these cements when
mixed with sufficient water is due principally to the formation of ettrin-
gite. Most shrinkage-compensating cements consist of constituents of
conventional portland cement with added sources of aluminate and calcium
sulfate. The three types of expansive cements differ from each other in
the form of the aluminate compounds from which the expansive ettringite is
developed. The principal constituents of these cements are:
(a) Type K Portland cement, calcium sulfate, and Portland-like
cement containing anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate;
(b) Type M Portland cement, calcium sulfate, and calciumaluminate

cement; and
(c) Type S Portland cement high in tricalcium aluminate and
calcium sulfate.
An important requiremert is the selection of material proportions so
that the Ca, S3, and especially the A1 2 0 3 become available for ettringite
formation during the appropriate period after the mix water is added.
Determination of these proportions should be based on test results in
accordance with ASTM Standard C806.
(10) Bond Improvement Admixtures. Bonding admixtures are water
emulsions of several organic materials that are mixed with Portland cement
or mortar grout for application to an old concrete surface just prior to
placing topping or patching mortar or concrete, or are mixed with the
topping or patching material. Common bonding admixtures are made from
polymers that include polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, acrylics, and
butadiene-styrene copolyner. Bonding agents usually cause entrainment of
air and a sticky consistency in grout mixtures.
(11) Penetration and Plasticity Admixtures. Admixtures which

improve the ability of freshly mixed concrete and grout to penetrate into
voids and cracks also increase the plasticity of the mix. The degree of
93
1-,
6
plasticity of fresh concrete, the amount of surface area of the solids per
unit of water volume, will determine the bleeding characteristics and
workability of concrete and grout. A low ratio of surface area of solids
to volume of water results in a thin and watery paste; consequently, the
aggregate particles are only slightly separated and the mixture lacks
plasticity and tends to segregate. The ratio of surface area of solids to
volume of water may be increased by increasing the amount of cement or by
adding a suitable mineral admixture to the mix. Admixtures that are
relatively chemically inert, such as ground quartz or limestone, cemetitious
materials such as natural cements, hydraulic limes or slag cements, and
pozzolans are commonly used.
(12) Impermeability Admixtures. Concrete and grout are not
impermeable to the penetration of water; however, the terms "waterproofing"
or "damp proofing" have come to mean a reduction of rate of penetration of
water into dry concrete and grout. Admixtures comprised of fatty acids,
usually calcium or ammonium stearate or oleate, which also cause air
entrainment during mixing. Also used are mineral oils, asphalt emulsions,
and certain cut-back asphalts.
(13) Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures. In the manufacture of
certain concrete products containing steel, it might be desirable to
accelerate the rate of strength development by use of both a chemical
accelerator and heat. The latter is usually in the form of steam at
atmospheric pressure. When calcium chloride is used as the accelerator in
this type of curing, laboratory studies have found the rate of corrosion
of the steel to be accelerated. However, Arber and Vivian (1961) found
that certain compounds containing an oxidizable ion such as stannous
chloride, ferrous chloride, and sodium thiosulfate, act as accelerators as
does calcium chloride, but also appear to cause less corrosion than the
latter. Stannous chloride appeared to be the best of the products tried
and 2 percent of the salt by weight of cement was more effective than 1
percent, and as effective as greatpr amounts, both from the standpoint of
acceleration and resistance to c.. sion. For effective use, the salt
must be added to the concrete ii. he stannous form and a dense concrete
must be used.
(14) Color Admixtures. Pigments are often added to produce color
in the finished concrete. The requirements of suitable coloring admixtures
include:
-* (a) color fastness when exposed to sunlight;
(b) chemical stability in the presence of alkalinity produced

in the set cement;
(c) no adverse effect on setting time or strength develop-
ment of the concrete; and
(d) stability of color in autoclaved concrete products during
exposures to the conditions in the autoclave.
Pigments frequently used to color concrete are:
(a) Grays to black--black iron oxide, mineral black, carbon black,
94
6
(b) Blue--ultramarine blue, Phthalocyanine blue,
(c) Red--red iron oxide,

f2 (d) Brown--brown iron oxide, raw and burnt amber,
(e) Cream or buff--yellow iron oxide,
(f) Green--chromium oxide, phthelocyanine green, and
(g) White--titanium dioxide,
5. Preparation of Concrete Mixes.
There are standard methods for selecting proportions for concrete made
with aggregates of normal density and of workability suitable for usual
cast-in-place construction. The methods provide a first approximation of
proportions and are intended to be checked by trial batches in the labora-
tory or field and adjusted, as necessary, to produce the desired character-
istics of the concrete.
a. Selection of Mix Proportions. The procedure for selection of mix

proportions given in this section is applicable to normal weight concrete.
Estimating the required batch weights for the concrete involves a sequence
of logical, straightforward steps which, in effect, fit the characteristics
of the available materials into a mixture suitable for the work. Regard-
less of whether the concrete characteristics are prescribed by the speci-
fications or are left to the individual selecting the proportions, estima-
tion of a total batch weight per cubic unit of concrete can best be accom-
plished by referring to the table used in (7) below.
(1) Choice of Slump. If slump is not specified, a value appro-

priate for the work can be selected from Table 10. The slump ranges shown
apply when vibration is used to consolidate the concrete. Mixes of the
stiffest consistency that can be placed efficiently should be used.
Table 10. Recommendee slumps for various types

of construction.
Slm (mm
Types of construction Minimum
laximum
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 76 25

Plain footings, caissons, and substruc-
ture walls 76 25
Beams and reinforced walls 102 25
Building columns 102 25
Pavements and slabs 76 25
Mass concrete 51 25
iMay be increased 25 mm for methods of consolidation other than

vibration.
95
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(2) Choice of Maximum Size of Aggregate. Large maximum sizes of
well-graded aggregates have less voids than smaller sizes. Hence, concretes
with the larger sized aggregates require less mortar per unit volume of
concrete. Generally, the maximum size of aggregate should be the largest
-that is economically available and consistent with dimensions of the struc-
ture. In no event should the maximum size exceed one-fifth of the narrowest
dimension between sides of forms, one-third the depth of slabs, nor three-
fourths of the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars,
bundles of bars, or pretensioning strands.
(3) Estimation of Mixing Water and Air Content. The quantity of
water per unit volume of concrete required to produce a given slump depends
on the maximum size, particle shape, and grading of the aggregates, and on
the amount of entrained air. It is not greatly affected by the quantity of
cement. Table 11 provides estimates of required mixing water for concretes
made with various maximum sizes of aggregate, with and without air entrain-
ment. Depending on aggregate texture and shape, mixing water requirements
may be somewhat above or below the tabulated values, but they are suf-
ficientlv accurate for the first estimate. Such differences in water
demand are not necessarily reflected in strength.
Table 11 indicates the approximate amount of entrapped air to be
expected in nonair-entrained concrete in the right side of the table and
O shows the recommended average air content for air-entrained concrete in
the left side of the table. The use of normal amounts of air entrainment
in concrete with a specified strength near or about 34 megapascals (5 000
pounds per square inch) may not be possible due to the fact that each added
percent of air lowers the maximum strength obtainable with a given combina-
tion of materials (Tuthill, 1960).
l hen trial batches are used to establish strength relationships or
verify strength-producing capability of a mixture, the least favorable
combination of mixing water and air content should be used. This is, the
air content should be the maximum permitted or likely to occur, and the
concrete should be gaged to the highest permissible slump. This will
avoid developing an overoptimistic estimate of strength on the assumption
that average rather than extreme conditions will prevail in the field.
(4) Selection of Water-Cement Ratio. The required water-cement

ratio is determined not only by strength requirements but also by factors
such as durability and finishing properties. The average strength selected
must, of course, exceed the specified strength by a sufficient margin to
keep the number of low tests within specified limits (Table 12). For
severe conditions of exposure, the water-cement ratio should be kept low
even though strength requirements may be met with a higher value. Table
13 gives limiting values.
(5) Calculation of Cement Content. The amount of cement per unit
* volume of concrete is fixed by the determinations made above. The required
cement is equal to the estimated mixing water content divided by the
water-cement ratio. If, however, the specification includes a separate
minimum limit on cement in addition to requirements for strength and
durability, the mixture must be based on whichever criterion leads to the
larger amount of cement. The use of pozzolanic or chemical admixtures
• will affect properties of both the fresh and hardened concrete.
96
6
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Table 12. Relationships between water-cement ratio
1
and compressive strength of concrete.
Water-cement ratio, by weight
Compressive strength Nonair-entrained Air-entrained

at 28 days, psiO concrete concrete
6 000 0.41 --
5 000 0.48 0.40
4 000 0.57 0.48
3 000 0.68 0.59
2 000 0.82 0.74
1
American Concrete Institute (ACI), 1979.
2
Values are estimated average strengths for concrete containing not
more than the percentage of air shown in Table 11. For a constant
water-cement ratio, the strength of concrete is reduced as the air
content is increased. Strength is in accordance with Section 9(b) of
ASTM Standard C31.
Table 13. Maximum permissible water-cement ratios

for air-entrained concrete in severe exposures.'
Exposure
Continuously or
frequently wet and Exposed to
Type of structure exposed to freez- seawater or
ing and thawing sulfates 2
Thin sections (railings,

curbs, sills, ledges,
ornamental work) and
sections with less than
1 inch cover over steel 0.45 0.40
All other structures 0.50 0.45

1
ACI, 1979.
2
1f sulfate-resisting cement (type II or type V of ASTM Standard C150)
0 is used, permissible water-cement ratio may be increased by 0.05.
98
(6) Estimation of Coarse Aggregate Content. Varying the volume
of coarse aggregate used per unit volume of concrete changes the workability
of the mix. Given coarse and fine aggregates of available maximum size
rand gradation, respectively, the correct volume of coarse aggregate per
unit volume of concrete must be chosen to produce satisfactorily workable
concrete. The fine aggregate is characterized by its fineness modulus, a
measure of the part of the coarse and medium sand, described in ASTM
Standard C125. The fineness modulus increases with coarseness and is
usually restricted to values between 2.3 and 3.1. The weight and volume
characteristics of coarse aggregate are determined by tests on dry aggregate
placed in thin layers and compacted by rodding.
The volume of coarse aggregate, in cubic feet, on a dry-rodded basis,

for a cubic yard of concrete is equal to the value from Table 14 multiplied
by 27. This volume is converted to dry weight of coarse aggregate required
in a cubic yard of concrete by multiplying it by the dry-rodded weight per
cubic foot of the coarse aggregate.
(7) Estimation of Fine Aggregate Content. At the completion of

(6), all ingredients of the concrete have been estimated except the fine
aggregate. Its quantity is determined by difference. Either of two
procedures may be employed--i.e., the weight method or the absolute volume
method.
If the weight of the concrete per unit volume is assumed or can be

estimated from experience, the required weight of fine aggregate is simply
the difference between the weight of fresh concrete and the total weight of
the other ingredients. Often the unit weight of concrete is known with
reasonable accuracy from previous experience with the materials. In the
absence of such information, Table 15 can be used to make a first estimate.
Even if the estimate of concrete weight per cubic yard is rough, mixture
proportions will be sufficiently accurate to permit easy adjustment on the
basis of trial batches.
(8) Adjustments For Aggregate Moisture. The aggregate quantities

actually to be weighed out for the concrete must allow for moisture in the
aggregates. Generally, the aggregates will be moist and their dry weights
should be increased by the percentage of water they contain, both absorbed
and surface. The mixing water added to the batch must be reduced by an
amount equal to the free moisture contributed by the aggregate, i.e.,
total moisture minus absorption.
(9) Trial Batch Adjustments. The calculated mixture proportions

should be checked by means of trial batches prepared and tested in accor-
dance with ASTM Standard C192, "Making and Curing Concrete Compression and
Flexure Test Specimens in the Laboratory," or full-sized field batches.
Only sufficient water should be used to produce the required slump regard-
less of the amount assumed in selecting the trial proportions. The concrete
should be checked for unit weight and yield (ASTM Standard C138) and for air
content (ASTM Standard C138, C173, or C231). It should also be carefully
observed for proper workability, freedom from segregation, and finishing
* properties. Appropriate adjustments should be made in the proportions for
subsequent batches.
99
6
1
Table 14. Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate
2
per unit of volume of concrete.
P Maximum size
of aggregate Fineness modulus of sand
(in)
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
3/8 0.S0 0.48 0.46 0.44
1/2 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
3/4 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
1 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
1 1/2 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
2 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
3 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
6 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81
'As described in ASTM Standard C29.
2ACI, 1979.
Table 15. First estimate of weight

of fresh concrete.'
Maximum size Weight (1b/yd 3)2

of aggregate Nonair-entrained Air-entrained
(in) concrete concrete
3/8 3 840 3 690

1/2 3 890 3 760
3/4 3 960 3 840
1 4 010 3 900
1 1/2 4 070 3 960
2 4 120 4 000
3 4 160 4 040
6 4 230 4 120
-ACI, 1979.
2Values calculated for concrete of medium richness C550 lb of cement
per y 3)and medium slump with aggregate specific gravity of 2.7.
Water requirements based on values for 76- to 102-mm (3 to 4 inches)
slump in Tables 10 and 11.
I
b. Curing. Curing is essential in the production of quality concrete.

The potential strength and durability of concrete will be fully developed only
100
if it is properly cured for an adequate period of time before being placed in
service. Proper curing prevents loss of moisture for the time necessary to
obtain necessary hydration of the cement. Excess mixing water is allowed
to escape; however, the appearance of plastic shrinkage cracks in the
surface of the concrete about the time the concrete is ready for finishing
indicates that the paste is losing water too rapidly.
Concrete should be cured by keeping the concrete damp for not less than
7 days if made of normal Portland cement, and for not less than 3 days if
made of high (early)0 strength cement. For each decrease of 2.70 below 210
Celsius (5 below 70 Farenheit), in the average curing temperature, the
curing period shall be increased by 4 days for units made of normal Portland
cement and by 2 days for units made of high (early) strength cement or
until the concrete has attained its designed strength. Where units are
cured by high-pressure steam, steam vapor, or other approved processes used
to accelerate the hardening of the cement, the curing time may be reduced
provided the compressive strength of the concrete is equal to that obtained
by damp curing, equal to the 28-day strength. Concrete units shall not be
moved from the casting bed until the curing period is complete.
(1) Methods of Curing. There are two general methods of retaining

* the required water for hydration furnished by the mixing water in concrete.
(a) Moist Environment. A moist environment can be maintained

through water ponding, water sprays, steam, or saturated cover materials
such as burlap or cotton mats, carpets (some carpets may contain certain
dyes which inhibit the settling of concrete), earth, sand, sawdust or
straw, all of which must be maintained continuously wet.
(b) Sealing Materials. Curing can also be accomplished by

preventing the loss of mixing water by means of sealing materials or
curing compounds. Sealing is accomplished by the use of impervious sheets
of paper or plastics, or by the application of an impervious membrane-
forming curing compound applied to the freshly placed concrete. Compounds
consisting essentially of waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and solvents
of high volatility at atmospheric temperatures are used extensively for
curing concrete. The formulations must be such as to provide a moisture
seal shortly after being applied and must not be injurious to Portland
cement. Compounds should comply with the requirements of ASTM Standard
*0 C309.
Before applying curing compound, tops of joints that are to receive
sealant shall be tightly closed with temporary material to prevent entry of
the compound and to prevent moisture loss during the curing period. The
compound shall be applied on damp surfaces as soon as the moisture film has
disappeared. The curing compound shall be applied by power spraying equip-
ment using a spray nozzle equipped with a wind guard. The compound shall
be applied in a two-coat continuous operation at a coverage of not more
than 10 square meters per liter (400 square feet per gallon) for each coat.
When applied by hand sprayers, the second coat shall be in a direction
approximately at right angles to the direction of the first coat. The
* •compound shall form a uniform, continuous, adherent film that shall not
check, crack, or peel, and shall be free from pinholes or other imperfec-
tions. Surfaces subjected to rainfall within 3 hours after compound has
101
been applied, or surfaces damaged by subsequent construction operations
*within the curing period shall be immediately resprayed at the rate specified
above. Membrane curing compound shall not be used on surfaces that are to
receive any subsequent treatment that depends on adhesion or bonding to the
concrete. Membrane curing compound shall not be used on surfaces that are
maintained at curing temperatures with free steam. Where membrane-forming
curing compounds are permitted, permanently exposed surfaces shall be cured
by use of a nonpigmented membrane-forming curing compound containing a
fugitive dye. Where nonpigmented-type curing compounds are used, the
concrete surface shall be shaded from the direct rays of the sun for the
curing period. Surfaces coated with curing compound shall be kept free of
foot and vehicular traffic, and from other sources of abrasion and contamina-
tion during the curing period.
(2) Special Conditions. There are some conditions of curing
concrete for coastal structures that frequently occur and require special
consideration.
(a) Hot Weather Concreting. High temperatures impact on
concrete by more rapid hydration of cement, greater mixing water demand,
increased evaporation of mixing water, reduced strength, and a tendency to
crack either before or after hardening. Special precautions are necessary
such as cooling the aggregate, adding ice to the concrete mix, and covering
the curing concrete to keep it moist. Certain water-reducing retarders may
counteract the accelerating hardening of concrete at high temperatures and
reduce the need for additional mixing water. Curing concrete above 32.20
Celsius (900 Farenheit) is undesireable.
(b) Cold Weather Concreting. Fresh concrete should be

maintained at a minimum temperature of 10- Celsius (500 Farenheit) until
initial strength is attained. This requirement may require heating the
aggregate and mixing water, not adding admixtures until the mixing water
temperature is 32.2 Celsius or below, and protecting the concrete surface
from freezing temperatures until safe strength has developed in the concrete.
Most of the heat of hydration is developed in the first 3 days of hardening;
however, it may be necessary to provide housing or additional heat to
ensure adequate temperature and moisture for curing to obtain the strength
and durability intended of the concrete.
(c) Underwater Concrete Curing. No special precautions are

usually feasible for curing concrete placed under water except for tempera-
ture control. Concrete will cure best in a temperature range of 100 to
240 Celsius. Higher temperatures will accelerate curing while lower
temperatures will delay curing.
(3) Preferred Curing Method. Where physical conditions permit and

to obtain a high durable concrete the following curing methods in order of
performances are: (1) continuously drenched with water; (2) burlap, blankets
or carpets continuously wet; (3) membrane-forming curing compounds; (4)
sand or straw randomly dampened; and (5) air cured.
6. Techniques to Enhance Durability.
a. General. The designer and constructor-manufacturer share the re-

sponsibility to build concrete structures that remain essentially in their
102
6
original state despite attack of the environment. The ability of the
structure to withstand environmental attack is called durability.
Concrete is an extremely durable material and ranks high among all

known structural materials for its resistance to the attack of natural
environments. Freeze-thaw and saltwater immersion tests have demonstrated
the inherent resistance of concrete. It is generally accepted that properly
designed prestressed concrete piles are among the most durable piling for
marine structures, even in a tropical salt-spray environment.
Maintenance of durability is achieved only by proper design and con-

struction. The consequences of disintegration and corrosion are poten-
tially catastrophic. Corrosion and disintegration are not random or spot
occurrences. Rather, when disintegration and disruption do take place, it
is usually due to some fundamental error or neglect; the damage often
extends to the entire structure. Thus, except for some localized spot of
impact or accident, if disintegration is found, a thorough investigation
should be made of the entire structure.
b. Impacts on Durability.
* (1) Disruption. Durability is affected by disruption of concrete
structure, environmental attacks, and use of aggregates. Disruption may
take several forms:
(a) Disintegration of the concrete;
(b) chemical replacement in the concrete with a consequent

loss of strength;
(c) corrosion of reinforcing bars and ties or prestressing
tendons, causing loss of strength, fracture, or lower resistance to
fatigue;
(d) corrosion of the inserts, embedded fittings, and connec-
tions; and
(e) corrosion of anchorages.
In combination these forms may interact to intensify disruption. For

example, corrosion of reinforcing bars produces products that swell and
cause disintegration of the concrete cover.
(2) Environmental Attacks. Exposure to environmental elements may
result in attacks that could severely impair the serviceability of a
* concrete structure if it were not made sufficiently durable. Among the
more common environmental attacks are the following:
(a) Those causing or accelerating disintegration of or

change in the concrete:
0 (1) Reactive aggregates;
(2) unsound aggregates;
0103
_
high(3) cement containing high percentage of alkalis or
J- high C3A;
[ (4) freeze-thaw cycles;
(5) C02 in air or surrounding water;
(6) erosion and abrasion from cavitation, ice, surf,

moving sand; and
(7) acids, snliphates, nitrates, or organic substances

in mixing water or in surrounding water, as at discharge from
chemical plants or in sewage structures.
(b) Those causing or accelerating corrosion of steel:
(1) Salt or alkalis on aggregates;
(2) chlorides in admixtures or water used for mixing

and curing;
(3) chlorides in water surrounding concrete (salt-

water), salt spray, salt fog;
(4) oxygen;
(5) sulphides combined with moisture on stressed

tendons before encasement or protection;
(6) stray electric currents;
(7) alkalis in surrounding soils;
(8) high temperature;
(9) embedded metals other than steel, particularly

copper and aluminum;
(10) inadequate thickness of concrete cover, or

- permeability of cover;
(11) crack;,
(12) cement chemistry (e.g., too lo C3 A); and
(13) deicing salts, acids, or other aggressive chemicals.
c. Enhancement Techniques. Fortunately, the steps to be adopted to

overcome these many forms of attack are complementary to each other. Most
have been adopted as standard good practice.
(1) Agrcgates. Although aggregate is commonly considered to be

an inert filler in concrete, this is not always the case. Certain aggregates
can react with Portland cement, causing expansion and deterioration.
104
- -
Fortunately, care ill the selec ion ot aggireotc souirctes, :tId Ilse of low
alkali cement and pozzolans , whe re appropr i:t c , w i11 ini mIle tl!is problem
s i ni f i cant Iv.
Al 1 a reates should be soud, non-rect ixe 'I :IbrIs iou res ist jut
and free from salt or alkalis. Particullr cIre sh"1ld I e taken Ihen
working with 'a ecates fr0111 new sorIrces , espec i! I t 'lose %N'
ith Si 1 i ceolls
rocks and in desert areas. Sands from Jteposits sevcrall 1i les fromll the
shores of the Persian Gulf are heavilv contaminated ith salt from salt
fog; their use, unwashed, has led to serious corrosion illmild steel
reinforcing.
Aoroeates should meet the requirements of .\S1>1 Standaird C33 and, in

addition, should be judged for their durabilit' hw an erng ineer, based on
prier experience tith tie pa rticular aggregates involved Iad tests. Tests
aIre especially necessary when work ing with new aggregates. These tests,
listed in ASTM C33, include tests for soundness sodinM-su,lfite soundness
test), alkali-aggoregatc reactivity, cement-aggregate reactivity, and
freeze-thaw durabi lity. Washing aggregates with freshwater will remove
salt and dust from sa lildand aooregoates.
4 21 Reinforcing Steel Protection. The spalling of concrete in

bridge decks and marine structures, such as reinforced wharf decks, piles,
cr0ins, and concrete anchors, has been a serious problem for many years.
'File principal cause is corrosion of the reinforcing steel, which is largely
due to the use of deicing salts, exposure to seawater, or inadequately
embedded reinforcing steel (Fig. 16). The corrosion products produce an
expansive force which causes the concrete to spall out about the steel. A
minimum cover over the steel of 76 millimeters (3 inches) and use of a low-
permeability, air-entrained concrete will ensure good durability in the
great majority of cases, but more positive protection is needed for very
severe exposures.
N (a) Sufficient Cover. The concrete cover protects the steel

by creating a passive condition of high pl at the surface of the steel. Too
* thin a cover allows carbonation, usually around the surface of the coarse
aggregate particles. Carbonation lowers the pli. Oxygen is necessary to
* the corrosion mechanism; a thicker cover minimizes the movement of oxygen
* to tile steel surface. In seawater, chloride ion movement is also inhibited
"' by thicker covers. The cover should properly be related to the density and
cement content. The exact relationships have not been thoroughly established,
so arbitrary vaI les are usual1y used as guides or standards. Thicker
covers make it possible to achieve better compaction, fewer voids, and less
permeab i lity.
* (b) Reinforcing Steel Coating. Concrete may not provide

permanent protect ion of reinforcing bars under many conditions. Cracks in
tile concrete surfaicc contribut e to corrosion in providing access to moisture,
air and corit;ni mants. lvdrated Portland cement is subject to chemical
r'eaction with c;arhon dioxide of the atmosphere. Carhonation redtices tie
ilk;ilirnitv of concrete thus red, in.,, its effect iveness as a protecting
* medium. Concretes wi I I a Iso deteriorate f rom other c;irsles such ;Is freeze-
thaw cycles , suIt tc IttaIck, react i ve a.zgr'egates , or other c;nrses; it will
crack or w 'iken aind thiis become less able to protect embedded rei nforcillig.
105
_ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _I__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ steel i -ci fo~~.u n t. o
Sm 1 1 )f 1CTCt0 c0%( '
.."I'l~~~~os
i t ei - 1F lCil , c l o Ie uIt f~ ms ,I l((tI ; Al
C111,1'ent~
~ o--so el o-l~tdvlpoltieOhde
~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 te. 111O -ic
p(tlntife~cies
l .na7lm s os l c nl-t
CIr cc l ilv~lim~
me IIShCIIIS0 ,F- i 's*4
iI oi, ci. i l ool ,ltio1
e I nt c 1:]
tT-oI i v ilc onc
'Id h Con act o "d iss milaimvti Is . A c i-v sir
.10
a mill or coating facility usually by a fusion-banding process as a result
of an irreversible heat--catalyzed chemical reaction. The careful applica-
tion of a fusion-bonded or electrostatically applied epoxy coating has
produced virtually pinhole-free coating protection of the steel bars from
the moisture, chlorides and other contaminates that may be in or enter the
concrete.
Fusion-bonded epoxy coatings have had a short but successful history of

protecting reinforcing steel against corrosion in a highly alkaline and
chloride contaminated environment. The fusion-bonding epoxy coating if
formed by combining an epoxy resin with appropriate curing agent, pigments,
catalysts, flow control agents, etc. to achieve the desired application and
performance characteristics.
Fusion bonded means that the coating achieves adhesion as a result of

a heat-catalyzed chemical reaction. When a fusion-bonded coating is
exposed to heat, a chemical reaction occurs; and sufficient heat must be
supplied for a given amount of time to allow that chemical reaction to
reach completion. The reaction is irreversible. Unlike thermoplastic
coatings, if heated after the coating is cured, it will not soften. The
material is applied to rebars at a mill away from the job site and is
-. therefore not weather dependent as is coated under controlled conditions.
The coating system is composed of four parts: surface preparation,

material selection, application, and cure. Surface preparation requires
sandblasting to white metal since the surface must be completely clean and
possess an anchor pattern. It is desirable that both physical and Lhemical
adhesion be obtained. Materials selection can be made from those commer-
cially available that are selected in accordance with ASTM Standard D3415.
Application is accomplished by heating the rebar with a noncontaminating
heat source to approximately 232 Celsius (450 Farenheit) but as recom-
mended by the manufacturer. The resin application should be by electro-
static deposition to obtain an even coating of 0.13 to 0.26 millimeter (5
to 10 mils) thick. Heat is continued until the gel time has been satisfied.
The bars are then cooled, followed by an electrical holiday inspection.
Following this type of coating application rebars can be transported to job
site and bent to necessary configurations with reasonable ease.
(c) Prevention of Cracks. Cracks allow carbonation penetra-

tion and are also a route for oxygen to the surface of the steel. Cracks
may further play a part in electrolytic cell formation in the concrete.
(d) Elimination of Voids at Steel Surface. Studies, indicate

that steel corrosion is associated with a void at the steel surface. This
can be diminished by mix design and thorough consolidation. In posttension-
ing, grouting procedures should be adopted which will prevent or minimize
•these
* voids.
(e) Proper Grouting of Ducts in Posttensioned Concrete.
Proper grouting is essential for corrosion protection and prevention of
bursting during freezing.
* (3) Abrasion Resistance. The abrasioa resistance of concrete is

defined as the "ability of a surface to resist being worn away by rubbing
and friction." Research to develop meaningful laboratory tests on concrete
107
I
abrasion has been underway for more than a century. The problem is com-
plicated because there are several different types of abrasion, and no
single test method has been found which is adequate for all conditions.
-1M Abrasion can be classified into four types:
(a) Wear on concrete floors due to foot traffic and light
trucking, skidding, scraping, or sliding of objects on the surface
(attrition);
(b) wear on concrete road surfaces due to heavy trucks and
automobiles with studded tires or chains (attrition, scraping, and
percussion);
(c) erosion in hydraulic structures such as dams, spillways,
tunnels, bridge abutments, concrete breakwaters, and piling due to
the action of abrasive materials carried by flowing water (attrition
and scraping); and
(d) wear on concrete dams, spillways, tunnels, and other
water-carrying systems where high velocities and negative pressures
are present (generally known as cavitation erosion, which is
mainly the result of design and is not covered in this guide).
To properly evaluate abrasion resistance, the type of concrete being
tested must be considered. If it is of the same mix throughout, the
abrasion resistance can be expected to be a direct function of the concrete
strength. If, however, metallic or other hardeners have been applied, the
time required for the abrasion apparatus to penetrate the hard surface must
be determined to properly evaluate the test results.
(a) Factors Affecting Abrasion Resistance of Concrete. The
abrasion resistance of concrete is affected primarily by compressive
strength, aggregate properties, finishing methods, use of toppings, and
curing.
Tests and field experience have generally shown that compressive

strength is the most important single factor controlling the abrasion
resistance of concrete, with abrasion resistance increasing with increase
in compressive strength. Compressive strength and abrasion resistance vary
inversely with the ratio of voids (water plus air) to cement. For rich
mixes, limiting the maximum size of the aggregate will improve compressive
strengths and result in maximum abrasion resistance of concrete surfaces.
Proper finishing procedures and timing are essential if the quality of
concrete near the surface of a slab is to be as good as that for the
underlying section. Delaying the floating and troweling operations in-
creases resistance to abrasion. Another highly important ingredient in
wear-resistant, nondusting concrete surfaces is adequate curing (ACI 308-
71). One study showed that a surface cured for 7 days is nearly twice as
wear-resistant as one cured for only 3 days, and additional curing resulted
in further improvement.
(b) Recommendations for Obtaining Abrasion-Resistant Concrete

Surfaces. The following measures will result in abrasion-resistant concrete
surfaces.
108
U'
1 Compressive Strength and Aggregate Properties. For a
required concrete strength level, the strength selected should be appropriate
for both the service exposure and the life of the structure. In no case
should the compressive strength be less than 28 -gapascals (4 000 pounds
per square inch). Suitable strength levels may -e attained by:
(a) A low water-cement ratio,
(b) proper grading of fine and coarse aggregate (meeting ASTM

Standard C33), limiting the maximum size to nominal 25 millimeters
(1 inch);
(c) lowest consistency practicable for proper placing and

consolidation with maximum slump of 75 millimeters (3 inches), and
25 millimeters for toppings;
(d) minimum air content consistent with the exposure conditions.
For indoor floors not subjected to freezing and thawing, air contents
of 3 percent or less are preferable; in addition to a detrimental
effect on strength, high air contents can cause blistering,
particularly when using dry shakes; and
(e) when wear conditions are severe, a high strength (not less
than 34 megapascals (5 000 pounds per square inch)) topping layer,
called a two-course floor, limiting the maximum size of aggregate
to 12 millimeter (1/2 inch) in the topping.
2 Proper Finishing Procedures. Delay floating and

troweling until the concrete has lost its surface water sheen or all free
water on the surface has disappeared or been carefully removed. The delay
period is usually for 2 or more hours after placing the concrete (depending
on temperatures, mix proportions, and air content). Follow the recommenda-
tions of ACI Standards 302-69 and 304-73 with respect to finishing unformed
surfaces.
3 Vacuum Dewatering. Vacuum dewatering is a method of

removing excess water from concrete immediately after placement. The
process results in increased strength, hardness, and wear resistance of
concrete surfaces; it is primarily applicable to slab.
4 Special Dry Shakes and Toppings. Where severe wear is

anticipated, the use of special toppings or dry shakes (such as coats of
cement and hard fine aggregate, or of cement and iron aggregate) should be
considered and, if selected, the recommendations of ACI Committee 302 (1969),
"Recommended Practice for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction," should be
followed.
5 Proper Curing Procedures. Curing should start immedi-

ately after the concrete has been finished and be continued for at least 7
days with type I cement (5 days with type III). Curing with water by
spray, damp burlap, or cotton mats is preferred, provided the concrete is
kept continuously moist. Waterproof paper or plastic sheets are satisfactory,
provided the concrete is first sprayed with water and then immediatley
covered with the paper or plastic with the edges overlapped and sealed with
I o
109
waterproof tape. Curing compounds meeting ASTM Standard C309 seal the
moisture in the concrete and are economical and easy to apply; they may be
used where other methods are impracticable. The curing compound should be
( covered with scuff-proof paper if a floor area must be used before curing
is completed.
(4) Freezing and Thawing. Freezing and thawing damage is a serious

problem in northern climates, however, the mechanisms involved are now
fairly well understood. Exposing damp concrete to freezing and thawing
cycles is a severe test of the material, and poor concrete will certainly
fail. In pavements the damage is greatly accelerated by the use of deicing
salts, often resulting in severe scaling at the surface. Fortunately, air-
entrained concrete which is properly proportioned, manufactured, placed,
finished, and cured will almost always resist cyclic freezing for many
years. It should be recognized, however, that even good concrete may
suffer damage from cyclic freezing in unusual conditions, particularly
* concrete which is kept in a state of nearly complete saturation. Also, in
cases where the concrete is saturated on the back side and exposed to air
on the front side, it may exhibit extremely variable behavior, ranging from
complete freedom from damage to total failure.
There is general agreement that cement paste can be made completely

immune to damage from freezing temperatures by means of entrained air,
unless special exposure conditions result in filling of the air voids.
However, air entrainment alone does not preclude the possibility of damage
of concrete due to freezing. Freezing phenomena in aggregate particles
must also be taken into consideration (see test samples in Fig. 17).
(a) Freezing in Aggregate Particles. Most rocks have pore

sizes much larger than those in cement paste, and they expel water during
freezing. The size of the coarse aggregate has been shown to be an important
factor in its frost resistance. The critical size of rocks of good quality
range upwards from perhaps a quarter of an inch. However, some aggregates
(e.g., granite, basalt, diabase, quartzite, marble) have capacities for
freezable water so low that they do not produce stress when freezing
occurs, regardless of the particle size. The role of entrained air in
alleviating the effect of freezing in rock particles is minimal.
(b) Overall Effects in Concrete. Without entrained air, the

'4 paste matrix surrounding the aggregate particles may fail when it becomes
critically saturated and is frozen. However, if the matrix contains an
appropriate distribution of entrained air voids characterized by a spacing
factor less than about 200 micrometers (8 mils), freezing does not produce
destructive stress. If absorptive aggregates (such as structural light-
weight) are used and the concrete is in a continuously wet environment,
the concrete will probably fail when the coarse aggregate becomes satu-
rated. The pressure developed when the particles expel water during
freezing ruptures the particles and the matrix. If the particle is
near the concrete surface, a popout can result.
Whatever the absorption characteristics of a given aggregate, its rate

of absorption in concrete is limited by the rate at which water can pass
through its envelope of hardened cement paste. Because the coefficient of
permeability of hardened cement paste is lower as its cement content
110
4. . . .. L .. . . .- -
0,0
Figure 17. Test samples subjected to 150 cycles of

freezing and thawing.
. .,'-r,,4 ,. • .
•
increases and the longer it has wet-cured, the rate of absorption of any
kind of aiggregate can be lowered by reducing the water-cement ratio of the
paste and by requiring good curing.
(c) Recommendations for Durable Structures. Concrete which

will be exposed to a combination of moisture and cyclic freezing requires
the follow.ing:
(1) Design of the structure to minimize exposure to moisture;
* (2) low water-cement ratio;
(3) air entrainment;
(4) suitable materials;
(5) adequate Curing; and
(6) special attention to construction practices.

0
Requi remen t s tor tihe ka ter - cement rIat io and a iI. ent ra inment i re desc ri bed
in detail bel.ow
(d) W
Zater-Cement Ratio. Frost-resistant reglar " igt
concrete should have a water-cement ratio not to exceed the values given in
Table 13. Because the determination of the rate of absorption for light-
weight aggreoates is uncertain, it is illlpracticable to calculate the water-
cement ratio of concretes conta i n1i rig such aggregates. For these concretes
-a specified 2S-dav compressive strength of 27.0 megapascals (4 000 pounds
per square inch) is recommended. For severe exposures, some have found it
also desirable to specify a minimum cement content of 3.2S kilonewtons per
cubic meter (3641 pounds per cubic yard), and only that amount of water
necessary to achieve the desired consistency.
(e) Fntrained Air. Too little entrained air will not protect
. cement paste against cyclic freezing. Too much air will unduly pena li:e
the strength. About 7 percent of air in the mortar for severe exposure, and
about 3 percent for moderate exposure are reasonable. Frequent determina-
tions of the aiir content of the concrete should be made. For regulir
weight concrete, the following test methods may be used: volumetric
method l\ST'l Standard C173), p ressure method (.\STM Standard C231), or the
' unit wei ght test (ASTM Standard C138). An air meter- may be used to provide
,an approximate indication of air content. For lightweight concrete, the
volumetric method is recommended.
The air content and other characteristics of the air void system in
hardened concrete may be determined microscopically (ASTIM Standard C4;7).
ASTM Standard C672 is often used to assess the resistance of concrete to
deicer scaling.
d . Summary. Table 16 summar izcs various techniques and practices that

ma v be employed to obtain maximum durability.
7. Reinforcing-Prestressing Materials.
a. Steel Reinforcing. Steel reinforcing should conform to the

folloawing . STlM requirements:
(1) B~ar reinforcement, ASTM Standard A61S Grade 40 or 60;
(2) cold drawn wire, AS'IM Standard A82; and
(3) welded wire fabric, ASTM Standard AISS, when zinc coated
(galvanized), not less than 2.39 newtons per square meter (0.8
ounce per square foot) of Grade 5 "'Prime Western" conforming to
AS'I'l Sta ndard B0.
1. Steel, Prestressed. High tensile steel is almost the universal

material for producing prestress and sumplying the tensile force in pre-
stressed concrete. Such steel can take any of three forms: wires, strands,
or bars. The most widely used at present aire the strands, which re
grouped, in parallel, into cables. Strands are fabricated in the factory
by twisting wires together, thus decreasing the number of units to be
handled in the tensioning operations. Steel hars of high strength have
112
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113
also been developed and successfully applied to prestressed concrete,
resulting in considerable ,conomy at times.
The prestressing wires now in the market are mostly high tensile wires
obtained by cold-drawing high tensile steel bars through a series of dies.
The process of cold drawing tends to realine the crystals, and the strength
* of the wires is increased by each drawing so that, the smaller the diameter
* of the wires, the higher their ultimate unit strength. The ductility of
wires, however, is somewhat decreased as a result of cold drawing. It
must be recognized that the actual strength will vary with the composition
and manufacture of the wire as well as with its diameter.
The "as-drawn" wire, although possessing a high ultimate strength, has a

relatively low proportional limit, e.g., about 414 to 552 megapascals (60 000
g to 80 000 pounds per square inch), above which the stress-strain curve flat-
tens at an increasing rate. This is objectionable, since the deformation
characteristics are relatively uncertain and the amount of elongation during
*- prestress cannot be easily determined. Hence various methods commercially
known as the "stress-relieving" process have been used to increase the pro-
portional limit of the "as-drawn" wire. Two common stress-relieving methods
are as follows.
(1) Time-Stress Treatment. This treatment consists of stretching

the wire to a stress level higher than that to be used in the final applica-
tion. This increases the proportional limit to about 60 or 70 percent of
the ultimate strength while the ultimate strength itself remains about the
same. After this process of stretching, the wire will still have slight
creep at an eventual stress of 50 percent of the ultimate, but, when
stressed up to 70 percent, the creep will not be much more than 5 percent.
(2) Time-Temperature Treatment. This consists of heating the wire

to 3990 to 4270 Celsius (750 to 800 Farenheit) for a period of 30 to 40
seconds. The heating is accomplished by drawing the wire through a molten
lead bath, or through a hot-air tunnel such as a ceramic tube with heat
applied on the outside. This treatment will have an effect on the propor-
tional limit and ultimate strength of the wire similar to that of the
previous process. But this "time-temperature treated" wire has practically
no creep when subjected to 50 percent of the ultimate strength. At 60
A percent of the ultimate strength it shows slightly more creep than the
"stretched" wire, and at 70 percent and above the creep becomes excessive.
It is usually left to the engineer to specify the physical properties

and sometimes the chemical composition desired. The chemical composition
of prestressing wire may vary with the manufacturer. Some manufacturers may
use a certain amount of silicon in the steel, although this is not included
in the following sample analysis:
Carbon 0.60 to 0.85 percent

Manganese 0.70 to 1.00 percent
Phosphorus 9.050 percent maximum
Sulfur 0.053 percent maximum
I 114
In the United States, there are two kinds of high tensile wire strands
available--one for pretensioning and another for posttensioning. Pre-
tensioning strands are made of seven or more small uncoated wires as drawn.
The strands are then drawn through a lead bath for stress-relieving and
also to improve their bond characteristics. For posttensioning and unbonded
work, strands consisting of 7 to 61 galvanized wires are produced. These
strands are machine fabricated and stress-relieved to increase their
proportional limit and to minimize creep. When the strands are to be
bonded to the concrete, the wires should preferably be ungalvanized.
High strength bars up to 1 034 megapascals (150 000 pounds per square
inch) or more are made by cold-working special alloy steels. By alloying
high carbon steel with proper agents such as silicon and manganese, high
strength is obtained. Then the proportional limit is raised by cold
working. The chemical contents of these bars again may differ. A sample
composition of high strength steel bars is:
Carbon 0.6 percent

Silicon 2.0 to 2.5 percent
Manganese 0.7 to 1.0 percent
Phosphorus 0.2 percent
Sulfur 0.2 percent
To get a better bond between steel and concrete, various forms of

surface indentation afford direct mechanical keys with the surrounding
concrete. It is assumed that the corrugations now commercially used will
not alter the stress-strain properties of the wires, although some question
has been raised as to their fatigue strength in comparison with the straight
ones. Some pretensioning factories pass their wires through a small
machine, forming permanent waves which are believed to increase the bond
resistance of the wire.
The ultimate strength of steel wires, strands, or bars varies with

their manufacture, so that it is frequently necessary to obtain sample
tests for each lot of products. However, the general range of values is
listed in Table 17. While the ultimate strength of high strength steel can
be easily determined by testing, its elastic or proportional limit, or its
yield point, cannot be so simply ascertained. First, there is no yield
.'0 point for high strength steel as there is for ordinary low carbon steel.
Second, the gradual curving of the stress-strain curve makes it difficult
to fix a point for the proportional limit. Consequently, different methods
for defining the yield point of high tensile steel have been adopted.
Yield point and proportional limit must be obtained by testing the

0 particular steel. But as a rough approximation Table 18 gives the usual
values for high tensile steels expressed in terms of the respective ultimate
strength. Approximate average values for the secant modulus at the pro-
portional limit are shown in Table 19.
In order to avoid brittle failures in the prestressed concrete, a

certain amount of ductility in the steel is desirable. This is measured by
0 the amount of elongation in a certain gage length, generally a 254-milli-
meters (10-inch) gage in this country. The average ultimate elongation is
about 5 percent for wires and 5 percent for bars. For evident reasons, it
115
Table 17. Strength of steel wires.
Ultimate Strength,
Wires (MPa)
Wires of varying diameters and make 1 379 - 2 275

Strands of 7 uncoated small wires 1 586 - 1 862
Strands of 19 or more galvanized wires 1 379 - 1 517
Strands of 19 or more uncoated wires 1 517 - 1 655
Bars 965 - 1 172
Table 18. Approximate yield point and proportional limit.
fYield point
at 0.2-pct set
Proportional
limit
1 1
(f')
Wires as drawn 0.75 0.35

prestretched 0.85 0.55
time-temperature treated 0.87 0.70
galvanized 0.85 0.55
Strands, pretensioning as drawn 0.85 0.35
stress-relieved 0.90 0.75
Strands, posttensioning prestretched 0.85 0.55
Bars 0.90 0.60
iUltimate strength
Table 19. Secant modulus at proportional limit.
Secant modulus
(MPa)
Wires 186 159 - 206 843

Strands for pretensioring and
stress-relieved 186 159 - 199 948
Strands for posttensioning and
prestretched 165 474 - 179 264
Bars 172 369 - 193 053
* cannot be easily measured for strands; only the wires making up the strands
are measured for ductility.
(3) Steel, Creep Characteristics. One of the important character-

istics required of prestressing steel is minimum creep under maximum
stress. Creep in steel is the loss of its stress when it is prestressed
* and maintained at a constant strain for a period of time. It can also be
measured by the amount of lengthening when maintained under a constant
116
6
stress for a period of time. The two methods give about the same results
when the creep is not excessive, but the constant strain method is more
often employed as a basis for measurement, because of its similarity to the
actual conditions in prestressed concrete. Creep varies with steel of
different compositions and treatments; hence exact values can be determined
only by test for each individual case if previous data are not available.
Approximate creep characteristics, however, are known for most of the

prestressing steels now in the market. Speaking in general, the percentage
of creep increases with increasing stress, and when a steel is under low
stress, the creep is negligible. The following summarizes the creep
characteristics of different steels. Compared to stress-relieved wires,
the "as-drawn" wires have somewhat higher creep. Prestretched wires will
have about 2 to 3 percent creep when subject to 0.50 P (f' = ultimate
strength) but when stressed to 0.70 fl, the creep will Sstifl be no more
than 5 percent. Time-temperature treated wires have practically no creep
when subject to 0.50 f'. At 0.60 f' it has slightly more creep than
prestretched" wires, and at 0.70 to 0.80 f' the creep becomes excessive.
Galvanized wires have about the same creep characteristics as the time-
temperature treated wires, and should preferably not be subjected to any
stress above 0.60 f' without carefully considering the effect of creep.
5
*q For high tensile bars, some limited tests seemed to show that, for stress
up to about 0.55 f', creep is not more than 5 percent.
S
While creep in steel is a function of time, there is evidence to show

that under the ordinary working stress for high tensile steel, creep takes
place mostly during the first few days. Under constant strain, creep
ceases entirely after about 2 weeks. If the steel is stressed to a few
percent above its initial prestress and overstress is maintained for a few
minutes, the eventual creep can be greatly lessened; it practically stops
in about 3 days.
In order to prevent corrosion in unbonded prestressed concrete, wires

are sometimes galvanized. When galvanized, the tensile strength is slightly
reduced, but its other characteristics are similar to those of the time-
temperature treated wire. It has practically no creep when used within 55
percent of its ultimate strength, but its tendency to creep at stresses
above 55 percent cannot be well controlled.
c. Embedded Hardware. Embedments are common to all concrete construc-

tion. The materials are usually steel and generally consist of fabricated
structural steel materials such as plates, angles, bars and sleeves; rein-
forcing steel of varying grades and strengths; and prestressing tendons
such as wires, strands, and bars. Occasionally, other materials such as
stainless steel, copper pipe, bronze plates, and Teflon are employed.
* Structural connections usually require the greatest care during the con-
struction process.
For all embedments, care must be taken to ensure no disintegration of

the concrete. Metal hardware must be protected from corroding either by
sufficient concrete cover, alloying, or coatings. Common forms of coating
* are galvanizing or use of epoxy. All metal embedments should be protected
from chlorides or sulfides or possibly other negative ions occurring in a
117
humid atmosphere if such matcrials are subiect to any stress in the concrete.
Exposures in industrial atmosphere may lead to 82 S concentr -ions that can
cause brittle fracture in the hardware. Metallizing hardware with high
corrosion resistant material, by flame or arc application, is an optional
method of protecting metal hardware. These failures are generally classi-
fied as one form of hydrogen embrittlement which occurs when molecular
1: hydrogen ions are able to enter between the steel molecules. This condition
may also develop when dissimilar metals such as aluminum or zinc are used
in the vicinity of steel.
* 8. Joint Sealing
a. General. Nearly every concrete structure has joints (or cracks)

that must be sealed to ensure its integrity and servicability. It is a
common experience that satisfactory sealing is not always achieved. The
sealant used or its poor installation usually receive the blame, whereas
often there have been deficiencies in the location or the design of the
joint that would have made it impossible for any sealant to have done a
good job.
iTis section shows that, by combining the right sealant with the right
design for a particular application and then carefully installing
'n,:ie is every prospect of successfully sealing the joint and keeping
it .czlcd. this section is a guide to what can be done rather than a
recommended practice because in most instances there is more than one
choice available. Without specific knowledge of the structure, its design,
ze'Vice use, environment, and the amount to be spent, it is impossible to
prescribe a "best joint design" or a "best sealant." The information
.:ontained in this guide is, however, based on current practices and experi-
jlCc judged sound by many agencies and organizations. It should therefore
!c useful in making an enlightened choice of a suitable joint sealing
sytein and ensuring that it is then properly detailed, specified, installed,
nd maintained.
b. Ripid Joints and Joining Materials. Prefabricated concrete units

ruLire field joining to establish structural continuity of the structure.
,-,ut material proportions, as in conventional concrete practice, are in-
fluer.ced by structural design requirements. Additionally, the grout must
4 *)e :;0 designed as to flow freely into the joint space or voids without
!ppreciable segregation or water gain so that honeycombing is avoided and
:itimate bond between the concrete surfaces is assured. Slurries of
Portland cement and water, with or without sand, have long been used in
the construction industry as a grout for filling cracks, voids, and joints.
Later development of epoxy formulations, uniquely suited for use as an
adhesive with concrete, lead to their commonly accepted use as concrete
grouting and joining material in concrete construction.
(1) Cement Sand Grouts. Commonly employed grout material propor-

tions of cement to sand range from 1:1 to 1:2; although ratios as lean as
1:3 have been used. With a 1:3 proportion of cement to sand, the water to
cement ratio, by weight, for grout containing sand of average gradation
(fineness modulus of 2.75) may be approximately 1:0.9. With lower cement
to sand ratios, the w/c would also be lower, which increases the strength
118
I
of the grout. Compressive strength and placeability may limit the amount
of sand that can be used in a grout as it must be sufficiently fluid to
penetrate and fill all of the voids and joint space, yet be of a consistency
that the suspended sand and cement do not filter out. Pozzolan is used to
improve fluid properties of the mix, and to reduce segregation of solid
particles. Usually, the proportions of cement to pozzolan are 2:1, although
ratios as low as 1:1 and up to 9:1 have been used. For structural grout,
it is usually not desirable to exceed a cement to sand ratio of 1:2 by
weight, because higher ratios produce lower strengths and excessive segrega-
tion of sand in the grout mixture. The ratio of water to cement plus
pozzolan (w/c+p), by weight, should range from 1:0.45 to 0.50.
(2) Epoxy Grout. Epoxy compounds are generally formulated in two

or more parts. Almost without exception, epoxy systems must be formulated
to make them suitable for specific end uses. There are many reasons why
I epoxies make good adhesives: they may be in liquid form and contain no
volatile solvent, they adhere to most materials used in construction, no
by-products are generated during curing, curing shrinkage is low, long-
term dimensional stability is good, and they have high tensile and compres-
sive strengths. Appropriate formulations are resistant to the action of
weathering, moisture, acids, alkalis and many other environmental factors.
Epoxy resins find wide application as grouting materials. The filling

of cracks, either to seal them from the entrance of moisture or to restore
the integrity of a structural member is one of the more frequent applica-
tions. Cracks or joints 6 millimeters (0.25 inch) or less are most effec-
tively filled with a pourable epoxy compound, whereas an epoxy resin mortar
should be used for wider openings. Surfaces upon which epoxy compounds
are to be used must be given careful attention as the bonding capability of
a properly selected epoxy compound is primarily dependant on surface
preparation. All surfaces must be meticulously cleaned and dry and be at
proper surface temperature at the time of epoxy application. If impractic-
able or impossible to obtain a dry surface, an epoxy system formulated to
bond to damp surfaces must be used. For the best performance under each
condition of use, the properties of the epoxy resin system should be
tailored to meet the specific needs of each type of application. It is
*nlikely that a system containing only an epoxy resin and a pure hardening
agent will find wide use. It is for this reason that epoxy resin systems
sold commercially are generally the products of formulators who specialize
' iin modifying the system with flexibilizers, extenders, diluents and fillers
to meet specific end-use requirements and it is important to adhere to the
formulator's recommendation for use.
V. In mixing epoxy components accuracy is required and although a tolerance

of plus or minus 5 percent is acceptable a plus or minus 2 percent is
highly desirable. The mixing of epoxy mortar or grout requires that the
epoxy binder thoroughly wet each and every one of the aggregate particles.
Although it is difficult, hand mixing in small quantities using a trowel
can be accomplished. The prefered method of mixing is by mechanical
means. Epoxy concretes are mixed in a similar manner to epoxy mortars
except that, in stiff mixes, the large aggregate should be added to the
mixed binder first followed by the finer aggregate or sand to help prevent
the tendency of the mix to "ball." The finer aggregates should be added
slowly. Care should be taken to avoid segregation to obtain a uniform
119
I
epoxy concrete. Epoxy grouts or mortars usually consist of four to seven
parts of aggregate (by weight) to one part of binder.
- The ease and effectiveness of epoxy application is greatly influenced

by the temperature of surfaces on which the epoxy compound is applied.
Commonly available epoxy compounds in use today react most favorably when
temperatures are in the range of 16 to 380 Celsius (60 to 1000 Farenheit).
If temperatures below 16 Celsius but above S0 Celsius .xist, application
of epoxy compounds can be accomplished provided a compound is formulated
for use within this range and an increased hardening period is not objection-
able. At temperatures above 320 Celsius (90 Farenheit) difficulties may
be experienced in application owing to acceleration of the reaction and
hardening rates.
c. Flexible Joint Requirements.
u (1) Why Joints are Necessary. Concrete is normally subject to

changes in length, plane or volume caused by changes in its moisture
content or temperature, reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, or by the
imposition or maintenance of loads. The effect may be permanent contrac-
tions due to, for example, initial drying shrinkage, carbonation, and
irreversible creep. Other effects are cyclical and depend on service
conditions such as environmental differences in humidity and temperature or
the application of loads and may result in either expansions or contrac-
tions. In addition, abnormal volume changes, usually permanent expansions,
may occur in the concrete due to sulphate attack, reactions between alkali
(from the cement) and certain aggregates, and other causes.
The results of these changes are movements, both permanent and transient,
cf the extremities of concrete structural units. If, for any reason, con-
traction movements are excessively restrained, then cracking may occur
within the unit. The restraint of expansion movements may result in
distortion and cracking within the unit or crushing of its ends and the
transmission of unanticipated forces to abutting units. In most concrete
structures these effects are objectionable from a structural or an appearance
viewpoint. One means of minimizing these effects is to provide joints at
which movement can be accommodated without loss of integrity of the struc-
ture.
. There may be other reasons for providing joints in concrete structures.

In many buildings the concrete serves to support or frame curtain walls,
cladding, doors, windows, partitions, mechanical and other services. To
prevent development of distress in these it is often necessary for them to
move to a limited extent independently of overall expansions, contractions
and deflections occurring in the concrete. Joints may also be required to
facilitate construction without serving any structural purpose.
(2) Why Sealing is Needed. The inLroduction of joints creates
openings which must usually be sealed in order to prevent passage of gases,

liquids, or other unwanted substances into the openings or through them.
In buildings, it is important to prevent intrusion of wind and rain. In
tanks, most canals, pipes, and dams, joints must he sealed to prevent the
loss of contents. Moreover, in most structures exposed to the weather the
concrete itself must be protected against the possibility of damage from
120
O --
freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, leaching or erosion caused by any
concentrated or excessive influx of water at joints. Foreign solid matter,
including ice, must be prevented from collecting in open joints; otherwise
the joints cannot close freely later. Should this happen, high stresses
may be generated and damage to the concrete may occur.
In industrial floors the concrete at the edges of joints often needs

the protections of a filler or sealant (possibly between armored faces)
capable of preventing damage from impact of concentrated loads such as
steel-wheeled traffic. The specific function of sealants is to prevent
the instrusion of liquids (sometimes under pressure), solids or gases, and
to protect the concrete against damage. In certain applications secondary
functions are to improve thermal and acoustical insulation, damp down
vibrations, or prevent unwanted matter collecting in crevices. They must
often perform their prime function while subject to repeated contractions
*I and expansions as the joint opens and closes and while exposed to heat,
cold moisture, sunlight, and sometimes, aggresive chemicals.
In most concrete structures all concrete-to-concrete joints (contrac-

tion, expansion, and construction), and the periphery of openings left for
other purposes, require sealing. One exception is contraction joints (and
* cracks) that have very narrow openings, e.g., those in certain short plain
slab or reinforced pavement designs. Other exceptions are certain construc-
ticn joints, e.g., monolithic joints, not subject to fluid pressure or
joints, between precast units used either internally or externally with
intentional open draining joints.
d. Types of Joints and Their Function.
(1) Contraction (Control) Joints. These are purposely made

planes of weakness designed to regulate cracking that might otherwise occur
due to the unavoidable, often unpredictable, contraction of concrete
structural units. They are appropriate only where the net result of the
contraction and any subsequent expansion during service is such that the
units abutting are always shorter than at the time the concrete was placed.
They are frequently used to divide large, relatively thin structural
units, e.g., pavements, floors, canal linings, retaining and other walls
into smaller panels. Contraction joints in structures are often called
coatrol joints because they are intended to control crack location.
Contraction joints may form a complete break, dividing the original

concrete unit into two or more units. Where the joint is not wide, some
continuity may be maintained by aggregate interlock. Where greater con-
tinuity is required without restricting freedom to open and close, dowels
and in certain cases steps or keyways, may be used. Where restriction of
* the joint opening is required for structural stability, appropriate tie
bars or continuation of the reinforcing steel across the joint may be
provided. The necessary plare of weakness may be formed either by partly
or fully reducing the concrete cross section. This may be done by in-
stalling thin metallic, plastic or wooden strips when the concrete is
placed or by sawing the concrete soon after it has hardened.
(2) Expansion (Isolation) Joints. These are designed to prevent

the crushing and distortion (including displacement, buckling, and warping)
121
of the abutting concrete structural tnits that might otherwise occur due to
the transmission of compressive forces that may be developed by expansion,
rapplied loads, or differential movements arising from the configuration of
the structure or its settlement. They are frequently used to isolate walls
from floors or roofs; columns from floors or cladding; pavement slabs and
decks from bridge abutments or piers: and in other locations where restraint
or transmission of secondary forces is not desired. Many designers consider
it good practice to place such joints where walls change direction as in I.-,
T-, Y-, and U-shaped structures and where different cross sections develop.
Expansion joints in structures are often called isolation joints because
they are intended to isolate structural units that behave in different
ways.
Expansion joints are made when the concrete is placed, by providing a

space between abutting structural units for the full cross section. The
space is formed by the use of filler strips of the required thickness or by
leaving a gap when precast units are positioned. Provision for continuity
or for restricting undesired lateral displacement may be made by incorporat-
ing dowels, steps, or keyways.
* (3) Construction Joints. These are joints made at the surfaces

created bcfore and after interruptions in the placement of concrete or
through the positioning of precast units. Locations are usually predeter-
mined by agreement between the engineer and the contractor, so as to limit
the work that must be done at one time, with least impairment of the
finished structure though joint locations may also be necessitated by
unforeseen interruptions in concreting operations. Depending on the
structural design they may be required to function later as expansion or
contraction joints having the features already described, or they may be
required to be monolithic; i.e., the second placement must be soundly
bonded to the first so as to maintain complete structural integrity.
Construction joints may run horizontally or vertically depending on the
placing sequence prescribed by the design of the structure.
(4) Combined and Special Purpose Joints. Construction joints at

which the concrete in the second placement is intentionally separated from
tfiat in the preceding placement by a bond breaking membrane, but without
space to accommodate expansion of the abutting units, also function as
• ontaction joints. Similarly, constrution joints in which a filler is
placed, or a gap is otherwise formed by bulkheading or the positioning of
precast units, function as expansion joints. Conversely expansion joints
are often convenient for forming nonmonolithic construction joints.
Expansion joints automatically function as contraction joints, though the
converse is only true to an amount limited to the size of gap created by
• initial shrinkage.
Hinge joints are joints that permit hinge action (rotation) but at
which the separation of the abutting units is limited by tie bars or the
continuation of reinforcing steel across joints. This term has wide usage
in, but is not restricted to, pavements where longitudinal joints function
* in this manner to overcome warping effects while resisting deflections due
to wheel loads or settlement of the subgrade. In structures, hinge joints
are often referred to as articulated joints.
122
Sliding joints may be required where one unit of a structure must move
in a plane at right angles to the plane of another unit; e.g., in certain
py reservoirs where the walls are permitted to move independently of the floor
or roof slab. These joints are usually made with a bond-breaking material
such as a bituminous compound, paper or felt that also facilitates sliding.
(5) Cracks. Although joints are placed in concrete so that

cracks do not occur elsewhere, it is seemingly impossible to prevent
occasional cracks between joints for a variety of reasons. As far as the
problem of sealing is concerned, cracks may be regarded as contraction
joints of irregular line and form.
e. Joint Configurations. Two basic configurations of the schematic

joint details for various types of concrete structures occur from the
standpoint of the functioning of the sealant. These are known as butt
joints and lap joints.
In butt joints, the structural units being joined abut each other and
any movement is largely at right angles to the plane of the joint. In lap
joints, t.he units being joined override each other and any relative move-
!- 'ent is one of sliding. Butt joints, and these include most stepped
,olar; are by far the most common. Lap joints may occur in certain
Aiding joints, between precast units or panels in curtain walls, and at
the junctions of these and of cladding and glazing with their concrete or
other framing. The difference in the mode of the relative movement between
structural units at butt joints and lap joints, in part, controls the
functioning of the sealant. In many of the applications of concern pure
Itp joints do not occur, and the functioning of the lap joint is in practice
cu:rination of butt and lap joint action.
From the viewpoint of the sealant, two sealing systems should be

recognized. First, there are open surface joints, as in pavements and
htiildings in which the joint sealant is exposed to outside conditions on at
least one face. Secondly, there are joints such as in containers, dams,
an1 pipelines, in which the primary line of defense against the passage of
v.ater is a sealant such as a waterstop or gasket buried deeper in the
,,,nt. The functioning and type of sealant material that is suitable and
method of installation are affected by these considerations.
In conclusion, two terms should be mentioned that are in wide, though

:,iprecise use. Irrespective of their type or configuration, joints are
*,ftcn called "working joints" where significant movement occurs and "non-
working joints" where movement does not occur or is negligible.
f. Sealant Materials.
(I) Performance in Open Joints. For satisfactory performance a

sealant in open surface joints mnust:
* (a) Be an impermeable mat er i l
(b) deform to accommodate the movement and rate of movement

occurring at the joint;
0 123
L
0
(c). sufficiently recover its original properties and shape

after cyclical deformations;
(d) remain in contact with the joint faces; (this means

that for all sealants, except those preformed sealants that exert
a force against the joint face, the sealant must bond to the joint
face and not fail in adhesion nor peel at corners or other local
areas of stress concentration);
(e) not internally rupture (i.e., fail in cohesion);
(f) resist flow due to gravity (or fluid pressure) or

unacceptable softening at higher service temperatures;
* (g) not harden or become unacceptably brittle at lower

service temperatures; and
(h) not be adversely affected by aging, weathering or

other service factors for a reasonable service life under the
rani;e of temperatures and other environmental conditions that
"0 occur,
(2) Performance Buried In Joints. Sealants buried in joints, such

as waterstops and gaskets, generally require similar properties. The
method of installation may, however, require the sealant to be in a different
form and, because replacement is usually impossible, exceptional durability
is required. In addition, depending on the specific service conditions,
the sealant may be required to resist one or more of the following: intrusion
o' foreign material, wear, indentation, pickup, and attack by chemicals.
Further requirements may be that the sealant be a specific color, resists
change of color, or is nonstaining. Finally, it must not deteriorate when
stored for a reasonable time before use. It must be relatively easy to
handle and install, and be free of substances harmful to the user and
concrete or other material that may abut.
(3) Materials Available. No one material has the perfect proper-

AcS necessary to fully meet each and every one of the requirements for
each and every application. Therefore, it is a matter of selecting from
6t among a large range of materials a particular one that has more of the
right properties at the right price to do the job. Table 20 lists commonly
iUed joint sealant materials.
For many years oil-based mastics or bituminous compounds and metallic

materials were the only sealants available. In many applications these
traditional materials do not perform well and in recent years there has
been an active development of "elastomeric" sealants. The behavior of
these sealants is largely elastic rather than plastic, and the sealants are
flexible rather than rigid at normal service temperatures. Elastomeric
materials are available as field-molded and preformed sealants. Though
* initially more expensive, they may be cheaper in the long run because they
usually have a longer service life. Furthermore, these materials can seal
joints where considerable movements occur that could not possibly be
sealed by the traditional materials.
124
No . A: - I. 'u,6 " 1I0
ry~t M~trll5 In X O ITI (VIA04O

A,. kP D CU ,.'0. ~ Ca,0I St~N 4,*1SA
Con~oaato,F) *.411
l Ol0*l .. 4. 0104. O.A..o ' 1 l M 0000
IIx.~ 1...4 I 'A...Ai.'., 0 . ..... Ta U'. . .do 0
WI 1, P,,I ' 4 A,.' sI , :Tl 1L.M E4 m4lya

8- 1.,. F!,'',~VL '*4~ IV F It- -V b
DI~~~~8. . o Po.tI.'a'.
, . 4 I' to
NJ ) , 2J10 a __ __
o o~. . 1 H ip *
ID~~~S I' E l',.'
K.. i%. cop. 1. Nq 'a1-
I~~c L 0"001
0~M. .. : 0.. 140 b4.

1
,a .W 4s
0*4~~ .aa,
IT IVI. 11.
(4) Fie Id -. Lo0c,1
dK I >. fol 1lowing types of materials,
0he as
listed in Table 210, are Li nt used as field-molded sealants.
(a) ! lastics. ',isti s are composed of viscous liquid rendered

immobile by the adFtion u2 r,,- and fillers. They do not usually
harden, set, or cure after but instead form a skin on the
'ul-ication,
surface exposed to the atiaosphcrc. The vehicle in mastics may include

drying or nondrying oils ia luding oleoresinous compounds), polybutenes,
polyisobutylenes, low-mcltii.. poiit isphalts, or combinations of these
materials. With any of rht aI,wide \ariety of fillers is used, including
asbestos fiber, fihrois ,:!]. ircly divided calcareous or siliceous
materials. The fuact i01 ,\1
t n-n--compression range for these materials
is approximately )erc-nt
(b) Ti-ieioiV~ lot-Applied. These are materials which

if soften on heating- and har-d I coolin, usually without chemical change.
They ark generally I,iatk iicluide asphalts, rubber asphalts, pitches,
.t_
codl tars, and rubhby , are

i usable over an extension-compression
range of ±5 percent. 'Iti Jai is directly influenced by service tempera-
tares and aging ch:ii o,:t,_ c> f- specific materials. Though initially
cheaper than some cf ,-,heot;,er :,.,lunts, their effective life is, in
0 oract ice, shorter 'iv to !ose elasticity and plasticity with age,
ccept rather .'i . inn' materials, and extrude from joints
tha.t close tightly ,r ti<vt ilzve been overfilled. Overheating during the
melting process adier lx ffets the properties of those compounds con-
taining rubber. Those vith :n isphaltic base are softened by hydrocarbons,
such as oil, gasoline, or" iet fuel spillage. Tar-based materials are fuel
and oil resistant, and these are preferred for service stations, refueling
Ind vehicle parking areas, airfield aprons, and holding pads.
11so of this class of se;ilants is restricted to horizontal joints since

they would run on of ve.2rtica,.l j,,ints when installed hot or subsequently in
i,.-irm weather. .a'' K ,i
hIb \dely used in pavement joints, but they tend
to be superseded by -i lv ining thermosetting field-molded sealants
nr ompression seVls. !-X. :i'e also used in building roof decks and con-
j-) rla:,x its, told-Applied (solvent or emulsion type).

a,
us, ratcrials "ire either Ih the release of solvents or the breaking
.0 ,"1n:lsjon
on c,posure to fir. '[hey are sometimes heated to a temperature
c)edg C9I is
!eL I12 ) larenheit) to facilitate application but
usually handlai .t iimbient temperature. Release of solvent or water
,n cause shrinkig,: ii increased hardness with a resulting reduction in
thu joint movcment 'uiu
ile and in serviceability. Products in this
category include a-rvic, invl and modified butyl types which are available
• in a variety of colors. Their maximum extension-compression range is ±7
percent. Heat soft.!ni- ind c(ld hardening may, however, reduce this
F 'ire. These liinterils ai(, rfstricted in use to joints with small move-
,ereIts. Acrylics mtd ci n :ire ,sed in bnildings, mainly for calking and
-
glazing. Rubbcr ,sphaIts : e used in canal linings, tanks, and fillers for
cracks.
(d) lh, 'h, tt,I , bri crally (Luring Sealants. Sealants in

this lass are eithcer one 0" tO--cu(mponent systems which cure by chemical
126
reaction to a solid state from the liquid form in which they rii ,pl pied.
They include polysulfide, silicone, urethane, and epoxy-bated :ii:it.rials.
The properties that make them suitable as sealants for a wide range ofoft
are their resistance to weathering and ozone, flexibility and resilience ait
tboth high and low temperatures, and inertness to a wide range of chemicals,
including for some, solvents and fuels. In addition, the abrasion and
indentation resistance of urethane sealants is above average. Thermosetting,
chemically curing sealants have an expansion-compression range up to ± 25
percent, depending on the one used, at temperatures from -40 to +820
Celsius (-40 to +180 Farenheit). Silicone sealants remain flexible over
an even wider temperature range. They have a wide range of uses in buildings
and containers for both vertical and horizontal joints or in pavements.
Though initially more expensive thermosetting, chemically curing sealants
can stand greater movements than other field-molded sealants, and generally
have a much greater service life.
(e) Thermosetting Solvent Release Sealants. Another class of

thermosetting sealants is the sealant which cures by the release of solvent.
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene and certain butyl and neoprene materials are
included in this class and their performance characteristics generally
resemble those of thermoplastic solvent-release materials. They are,
however, less sensitive to variations in temperature once they have "setup"
'4 on exposure to the atmosphere. Their maximum extension-compression range
does not, however, exceed ±7 percent. They are mainly used as sealants for
calking and joints in buildings; both horizontal and vertical joints
have small movements. The cost is somewhat less than that of other elasto-
meric sealants and the service life is likely to be satisfactory, though
for some recent products this has not yet been established by experience.
(f) Rigid. Where special properties are required and movement

is negligible, certain rigid materials can be used as field-molded sealants
for joints and cracks. These include lead (cool or molten), sulfur, and
modified epoxy resins.
f. Preformed Sealants. Preformed sealants (listed in Table 21) may be

divided into two classes: rigid and flexible. Most rigid preformed sealants
are metallic, such as metal waterstops and flashings. Flexible sealants are
usually made from natural or synthetic rubbers, polyvinyl chloride (often
called PVC) and like materials, and are used for waterstops, gaskets, and
miscellaneous sealing purposes. Preformed equivalents of certain materials,
I e.g., rubber asphalts, usually categorized as field molded, are available as a
convenience to handling and installation.
Compression seals should be included with the flexible group of pre-
formed sealants. However, because their functional principle is different,
and because the compartmentalized neoprene type can be used in almost all
joint sealant applications as an alternative to field-molded sealants, it
is treated separately. Preformed tension-compression seals are also
discussed separately.
(1) Rigid Waterstops and Miscellaneous Seals. Rigid waterstops

are made of steel, copper and occasionally of lead. Steel waterstops are
* primarily used in dams and other heavy construction projects. Because
ordinary steel may require additional protection against corrosion in dam
127
Table 21. Preformed materials for waterstops, gass ets, and s.ealing purposes.
COMPOSITION AND TYPE PROPERTIES SIGNIFICANT AVAILABLE IN USES
TO APPLICATION
(1) ButI - Conventional High resistance to water, vapour Beads, Rods. tubes, flat Waterstops. Combined crack
Rubber Cured and weathering. Low permanent sheets, tapes and purpose inducer and seal. Pressure
set and modulus of elasticity form. made shapes sensitive ,lust and water seal-
ulations possible, giving high co- ing tapes for glazing and
hesion and recovery. Tough. curtain walls
Colour - Black, can be painted.
(2) Butyl - Raw, Polymer High resistance to water, vapour Beads, tapes, gaskets, Glazing seals. lap seams in
modified with resins and and weathering. Good adhesion to grommets. metal cladding Curtain wall
plasticisers metals, glass, plastics. Moldable panels
into place but resists displacement,
tough and cohesive. Colour
Black. can be painted.
(3) Neoprene - Conventional High resistance to oil. water, Beads, rods, tubes, flat- Waterstops. Glazing seals.
Rubber cured vapour and weathering. Low sheets, tapes, purpose-made Insulation and Isolation of
permanent set. Colour - shapes. Either solid or open service lines.
basically black but other surface or closed cell sponges. Tension Compression seals.
colours can be incorporated. Compressior, Seals, Gaskets
(41 PVC High water, vapour, but only Beads, rods, tubes, flat Waterstops. Gaskets, Com-
Polyvinvichlorice moderate chemical resistance. sheets, tapes gaskets, bined crack inducer and seal
Thermoplastic, Low permanent set and modulus of purpose-maoe shapes
Extrusions or Moldings elasticity formulations possible,
giving high cohesion and recovery.
Tough. Can be softened by heating
for splicing. Colour - Pigmented
black, brown, green, etc.
(5) Polyisobutylene High water, vapour resistance. Beads, tapes. grommets. Gaskets. Glazing Seals.
Non curing High flexibility at low temperature gaskets. Curtain wall panels,
Flows under pressure, surface Acoustical partitions
pressure sensitive, high adhesion,
Sometimes used with butyl com-
pounds to control degree of cure.
Colour - Black, grey, white
(6la SBE. Sty ens High wae. resistance, NBR has Beads, rods, ilatsheets Waterstops, Gaskets for pipe
Butadiene Rubber) high oil resistance. tapes, gaskets. grommets. Insulation and Isolation of
purpose-made shapes. Service Lines
(6)b NBR (Nitrile Either solid or cellular
Butadiene Rubber) sponges.
Polyisoprene - poly.
diene - Conventional
Rubber cure
(7) Polyurethane, Foam Low recovery at low temperature., Rods flat sheets (strips) Gaskets. Compression Seals
impregnated with poly- can be installed in damp joints, open cell sponges
butylene Colour - Black, grey
(8) Natural Rubber - cured High water resistance but deter- Purpose-made shapes. Waterstops, Gasket for pipes
(vulcanized) iorates when exposed to air and
sun. Low resistance to oils and
solvents. Now largely superseded
* by synthetic materials, Colour -
black
(9) Metals For waterstops Flat and preshaped strips, (ab) WaterqtopS
lal Copper (a) Ductile and Flexible, but work Lead also molten or yarn Ic) Protectinn for joint edges
hb)Steel (stanless) hardens under flexing and in fier
I10 Lead fracturess. (d) Panel dividers in floor
(d) Bronze (b) RigvJ must be V or U corr topp-Ins
gatef to accommodate anY
0movement and anchored.
(c) Deforms readily but inelastic
to deformation under movement
110) Rubber Asohalts Natural rfubhpr 8, Butyl I . or Beads, rods flatsherIts As alrernative 'o hot or cnid
Neoprene 3 digested in asphalt Istrps) apoled Riblei asohalts
High viscoslty, some elasirity (7, IIHK' r Gasket in, MIG lIK). Ga et tn
Moldable into place pipes
* 'ACI, 1979. Part 3.
128
0
construction stainless steels are used to overcome this. Ihy m-t 1c low
in carbon and stabilized with columbium or titanium to f cilitatc .wlId!n
and retain corrosion resistance after welding. Although annealiu i_
required for improved flexibility, the stiffness of steel waterstops may
still lead to cracking in the adjacent concrete.
Copper waterstops are used in dams and general construction. The), are
highly resistant to corrosion, but must be handled with care to avoid
damage. For this reason, and because of cost, flexible waterstops are
often used instead. Copper is also used for flashings.
Use of lead as waterstops, flashings, or protection in industrial

floor joints is now very limited. Bronze strips find wide application in
dividing, rather than sealing, terrazzo and other floor toppings into
smaller panels.
I (2) Flexible Waterstops. The types of materials suitable and in

use as flexible waterstops are shown in Table 21. Butyl, neoprene, and
natural rubbers have good extensibility and resistance to water or chemicals
and may be formulated to give good recovery and fatigue resistance. PVC
compounds are, however, probably now the most widely used. While it is
*I not quite as elastic as the rubbers, recovers more slowly from deformation,
and is susceptible to degradation by oils, grades with sufficient flexi-
bility (especially important at low temperatures) can be formulated. PVC
has the great advantage of being thermoplastic and hence it can easily be
spliced on the job or special configurations made for joint intersections.
Flexible waterstops are widely used as the primary sealing system in water-
containing projects such as dams, tanks, monolithic pipelines, floodwalls,
and swimming pools, to keep the water in, and in buildings below grade or
in earth-retaining walls to keep the water out.
(3) Gaskets and Miscellaneous Seals. Gaskets and tapes are

widely used sealants between glazed surfaces, around windows and other
openings in buildings, and at joints between metal or precast concrete
panels in curtain walls. Gaskets are also extensively used at joints
between precast pipes and where mechanical joints are needed in service
lines. The sealing action is obtained either because the sealant is com-
pressed between the joint faces (gaskets) or because the surface of the
sealant, as in the case of polyisobutylene, is pressure-sensitive and thus
* adheres.
(4) Compression Seals. These are preformed compartmentalized or

cellular elastomeric devices which, when in compression between the joint
faces, function as sealants.
* (a) Compartmentalized. Neoprene extruded to the required

configuration is currently used for most compression seals. TIhe neoprene.
formulation used must have special properties for this application. To
effectively seal, sufficient contact pressure must be maintained at the,
joint face. This requires that the seal be in some degree of compressicn
and, for this, good resistance to compression set (i.e., the maJterlh I HImtIS
• recover sufficiently when released) is required. In addition, the nop:II"
must be crystallization-resistant at low temperatures (the rstltiiit
stiffening may make the seal temporarily ineffective thonch v .suvdv, W, I
129
occur on warming). If during the manufacturing process the neoprene is not
fully cured, the interior webs may adhere during service (often perma-
nently) when the seal is compressed.
To facilitate installation of compression seals, liquid neoprene-based

lubricants are used. For machine installation, additives to make the
lubricant thixotropic have been found necessary. Special lubricant adhe-
sives, which both prime and bond, have been formulated for use where
improved seal to joint face contact is required.
Neoprene compression seals are effective joint sealants over a wide

range of temperatures in most applications. Seals may be used individually,
or as components for modular systems.
(b) Modular Systems. In modular systems designed to accommo-

date larger movements, standard compartmentalized compression seals or
rubber tubes are placed between vertical steel I-sections to form modules,
U each of which can accommodate about 38.1-millimeter (1.5 inch) movement.
The complete unit of modules in a series to take the total anticipated
movement is supplied prefabricated, ready for installation at the appro-
priate precompression to suit conditions. A certain amount of out-of-
plane movement arising from skew or other causes can be accommodated, and
field modifications to allow for unanticipated irreversible opening or
"* closing of the joint can be made by adding or removing seals and separation
plates, as required.
Individual seals must remain in at least 15 percent compression at the

widest opening. The allowable movement is approximately 40 percent of the
uncompressed seal width.
(5) Tension-Comnression Seals. One device of this type currently

in use consists of neoprene expansive elements combined with encased steel
bearing plates and anchorage angles to form a single unit that can be
extended or compressed without buckling. Such a unit can support traffic
or other loads on its upper surface. Individual units are available in
varying lengths up to 1.83 meter (6 feet) and may be butted side by side
along the length of the joint opening. The device is bolted directly to
the concrete surface at each side of the joint, and this mechanical anchor-
ing permits it to function in tension or compression in response to the
movement of the joint.
* To date. these devices have been used exclusively on bridge decks, and
special sections have been developed to fit curb contours. They may also
have application on dam faces or other locations where sealing against
considerable pressure and movement is required.
The long-term performance of tension-compression seals remains to he

* evaluated. Observations of performance indicate that careful1 installation
is important.
9. Repair of Concrete.
a. Eva luation of Dainage and Selection of Repair Mthod . F,1 , C-

* t ively eva luate the damage to a structure, it is necess:; rv t dit,-r~ 1
130
6 . . _. .____• . . ..
whbat Caused the dm i 11i the) rdi pht 1,v '1
I) i ;i~e vv hc t lie resii I t of
pool. ties i cln t ltI It v kWo rkrim-ish 1i 11112t11,1n i Cil I b I C Jxei Ion, cix I tit ioil (r
0 ro iln t'rom bvra \I u I i c alC t 1on
0 11 OaCh i 1111 , che1i ca1Ilt atJAck, ch1eC11i CaNIl_reCt i0on
inhberent inl thte Colic :'(t2 Me \ t arc.' CXPOSii r to
a ci c i l in it cirros io o (i
011i1)L'111e ttI'ilcti 1 , 0 1' 0 t 1ie(-1 1L 1 !t 11\ e\1,)o ' IIrI* t o( i1 I fltv oi'il)l ci\i rtu11111eilt.
UI-i Si. I>-,i 1. shou k:~r
1';ii0av ollc
M4 MIhA te FriC'li v en1I)Lt 'W coI c t it s es senlt iaIi t o es t :1) i sb the

OX Ct
ct Ot' t 1W :11 1a~It
dI (er': neI i th mac inzior i rt ol- the st rulcture i s
It sui t ;11 1c q! 1I i it 1\ oi11 fl i t o hu II d iScuiiiid I'C~I i r . Bh sed oil th Ii s
lil a ma t i oin lie t Yp( md1' tc11 x t enlt k)t' thec repia i r Irc Chio-senl. Thbis is the
lli(is t d ift'i iit <tt" cue
011 li~ 1sb'JL iIiy'u
re t hioiuiiie(,i kn)ow1 dm2 e Of thle sub Lct
anld :li'tliir x et hv Htcen i neer. I f tIc, dzimiioe is the resri I t ot,
mdcra Pe
ioUFC
1 i a ! . 0'it \: Is iii iii tcrio' coiiclret e inl the f irst p1 :ice, t hen
FLIACiCc'Wllt P '(1 aud piti l it v canICe t eSboail ensure I ast ini resil Its . Oil
t heCt li'IC 1l11 in cco' I1 1:11 i t y c onie re t c was" d est rovedi, t tie p) rob I em hiecoliv.es
r: o rc co!:Q lapx . n~t hit calSec,. cv' Supe r i oir cizii I v of' conc retecs req ii jred,
0 xi
cpas II reQ corid i t ioils<11mu t he ;I I t e red .
A0
* 131
L1
|,11
........
Figure 19. Concrete pile damaged by overloading (photo

courtesy of Los Angeles Harbor Department).
The repair of spalls from reinforcing bar corrosion requires a more

detai led study. Simply replacing the deteriorated concrete and restoring
1the orizinal cover over the steel will not solve the problem. Also, if the
structure is salt-contaminated, the electrolytic conditions will be changed
by the application of new concrete, and the consequences of these changed
conditions must be considered before any repairs are undertaken.
Basic requirements for achieving a durable repair are:
(1) The repair nateria l must be thoroughly bonded to the sound

concrete of the cavity;
!2) the shrinkage of the patch should he small enough not to

jeopardize this hood;
!3) the patch and its sIbstrNte shouIld he free of cracks;
I the response of the pitch arid the old concrete to changes inT
te,m,0perat ire , mnoisture, Ind Iloa1 shoIolld be simHilar enough to avoid
ross di fferences in nmoxemrent•
tCt e mitch shorld he lI

t eliorgr ila pe %r.Ihililv tIvt ii(oist ire
I ret t r ii'rat
iI thr(rloh it t , ,Kld cne retl 11miderne;th ; alnd
132
(6) the patch should be resistant to weathering and be durable
in the environment in which it is exposed.
b. Types of Repairs.
(1) Concrete Replacement. The concrete replacement method

consists of replacing defective concrete with machine-mixed concrete of
suitable proportions and consistency, so that it will become integral with
the base concrete. Concrete replacement is the desired method if there is
honeycomb in new construction or deterioration of old concrete which goes
entirely through the wall or beyond the reinforcement, or if the quantity
is large. For new work, the repairs should be made immediately after
stripping the forms (Tuthill, 1960). Considerable concrete removal is always
required for this type of repair. Excavation of affected areas should con-
tinue until there is no question that sound concrete has been reached. Addi-
tional chipping may be necessary to accommodate the repair method and shape
the cavity properly. Although opinions differ on the value of wetting the
cavity before placing plastic mortar, most authorities believe it is advisable
to keep the faces of the cavity wet for several hours before placing opera-
tions are begun. No standing water should be present, however, at the time of
placement. Concrete for the repair should generally be similar to the old
-i concrete in maximum size of aggregate and water-cement ratio.
(2) Dry Pack. The dry-pack method consists of ramming a very

stiff mix into place in thin layers. It is suitable for filling form tie-
rod holes and narrow slots, and for repairing any cavity which has a
relatively high ratio of depth to area. Practically no shrinkage will
occur with this mix, and it develops a strength equaling or exceeding that
of the parent concrete.
(3) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete. Preplaced aggregate concrete

may be used advantageously for certain types of repairs. It bonds well to
concrete and has low drying shrinkage. It is also well adapted to under-
water repairs.
(4) Shotcrete. Shotcrete or gunite has excellent bond with new or

old concrete and is frequently the most satisfactory and economical method
of making shallow repairs. It is particularly adapted to vertical or
overhead surfaces where it is capable of supporting itself (without a form)
without sagging or sloughing. Shotcrete repairs generally perform satis-
factorily where recommended procedures are followed.
(5) Repair of Scaled Areas and Spalls in Slabs. Scaling of

concrete pavement surfaces is not unusual where they are subject to deicing
* salts, particularly if the concrete is inadequately air-entrained. Such
areas may be satisfactorily repaired by a thin concrete overlay provided
the surface of the old concrete is sound, durable, and clean. A minimum
overlay thickness of about 38 millimeters is needed for good performance
The temperature of the underlying slab should be as close as possible to
that of the new concrete.
SDalls may occur adjacent to pavement joints or cracks. Spalls usually

art several inches in depth, and even deeper excavation may be required to
133
* remove all concrete which has undergone some degree of deterioration.
Numerous quick-setting patching materials, some of which are proprietary,
are available. Information on the field performance of these materials is
given in Federal Highway Administration (1975).
c. Bonding Agents. Bonding agents are used to establish unity between

fresh concrete or mortar and the parent concrete. An enriched sand-cement
mortar or neat cement paste has generally been used in the past. Epoxy
resin is now used frequently as a bonding agent, with the expectation of
durable results. This material develops a bond having greater tensile,
compressive, and shear strength than concrete. It is waterproof and
highly resistant to chemical and solvent action. It is possible to have
acceptable results when the concrete is brought to a feather edge; however,
better results are obtained if a 25-millimeter-minimum thickness is main-
tained.
Other types of bonding agents have recently become available. Certain

latexes, supplied as an emulsion or dispersion, improve the bond and have
good crack resistance. Polyvinyl acetates, stryrenebutadiene, and acrylic
are among those used. These materials, particularly the polyvinyl acetates,
must be properly compounded if the dried film is to be resistant to mois-
ture. They may be used either as a bonding layer or added to the concrete
or mortar mix.
d. Appearance. Unless proper attention is given to all the factors

influencing the appearance of concrete repairs, they are likely to be un-
sightly. In concrete where appearance is important, particular care
should be taken to ensure that the texture and color of the repair will
match the surrounding concrete. A proper blend of white cement with the
job cement is important to come close to matching the color of the original
concrete. A patch on a formed concrete surface should never be finished
with a steel trowel, since this produces a dark color which is impossible
to remove.
e. Curing. All patches (except where epoxy mortar or epoxy concrete

is used) must be properly cured t assure proper hydration of the cement
and durable concrete or mortar.
f. Treatment of Cracks. The decision of whether a crack should be

repaired to restore structural integrity or merely sealed is dependent on
the nature of the structure and the cause of the crack, and upon its
6 location and extent. If the stresses which caused the crack have been
relieved by its occurrence, the structural integritr can be restored with
some expectation of permanency. However, in the case of working cracks
(such as cracks caused by foundation movements, or cracks which open and
close from temperature changes), the only satisfactory solution is to seal
them with a flexible or extensible material.
Thorough cleaning of the crack is essential before any treatment takes

place. All loose concrete, oil-based joint sealant, and other foreign
material must be removed. The method of cleaning depends on the size of
the crack and the nature of the contaminants. It may include any combina-
tion of the following: compressed air, wire brushing, sandblasting,
routing, or the use of picks or similar tools.
134
I
Rest 'ationo St rIc tura inOt eg r ityv across a crack has beev n sIcc essfI I11ly
accompl i shed ,ising pressure and vacuum in.1ction of low-viscosity epoxies
a nd other monom, rs which pol-yme rize in Situ and rebond tihe parent concrete.
Sealing of cracks without rest)ration of structural integrity requires the
use of materials and techniques similar to those used in sealing joints.
iipoxy resin has become a common and satisfactory material for sealing
cracks. The U.S. Navy Civil Engineering Laboratory has developed the
following information on these resins. Epoxy, when mixed with a curing
agent, becomes epoxy resin, which is a thermosetting plastic that rapidly
develops adhesive strength. This synthetic organic compound is stable
chemically and physically; it is durable, crack-resistant, and undergoes
little reduction in volume (2 to 3 percent) as the result of curing.
Adhesives of this type become irreversibly set as the result of exothermic
chemical changes initiated by the chemical changes initiated by the chemical
curing agent. Epoxy resins can be formulated to have specific values of
mechanical and physical characteristics; this is accomplished by means of
'; rious hardeners, fillers, flexibilizers, and plasticizers.
Epoxy resin pressure-injected into the cracks of concrete can restore
the structure to its original strength. Cracks as narrow as 0.13 millimeter
(5 mils) and as wide as 6.35 millimeters (250 mils) can be repaired by
injecting epoxy resin. The type of resin needed depends on the width of
the crack, on whether the crack is working or stationary, and on the
particular method chosen for applying the resin.
Repair of a working crack requires a formulation that will set up

rather rapidly so that the bond is not broken before the resin has developed
sufficient strength. Narrow cracks require a low-viscosity system to
ensure complete penetration of the crack. However, a more viscous system
can he used with high-pressure injection methods. The following is a
recommended method for repairing cracked concrete by injecting epoxy resin:
(I) Clean tne crack with compressed air; remove any salt, oil,
or grease deposits from the adjacent concrete surface and, if
possible, from the crack itself;
(2) seal the exposed crack along its entire length; (the
sealant, which may be an epoxy resin, must be able to withstand
internal pressures of at least 862 kilopascals (125 pounds per
A ;quare i-ich ); if apnlied to either vertical or overhead cracks,
it shotuld be stiff enough so that it will not slough off or sag
btcore hardening; it should be able to bridge cracks as wide as
o.35 oillimetors" alternatively, a special thermoplastic sealant
p-cain be applied directly to the concrete surface and will
ant deface the concrete when removed later);
4 r3; if the se;alant is an epoxy resin, drill holes about 6.35

millimeters in diameter and about 25.4 millimeters deep along the
c:K, with spacing of the holes gencrally not less than the
tt, tho concrete member being repaired;
I4'i I t 1 kI nipples in the holes, secured in place

1t11eta
4 th a putt:, i ,noxy resin sealant, to serve as ports for
,.
135
I
0
(5) inject the epoxy resin adhesive under pressure through

the first nipple (lowest in the case of a vertical or diagonal
crack) until the level of adhesive reaches the next nipple
(see Fig. 20);
'V
Figure 20. Concrete structure showing nipples through

which epoxy resin is injected.
(6) using an inert gas, maintain a pressure of 620 kilopascals

(90 pounds per square inch) for about 1 minute to force the
adhesive into any interior microcracks adjoining the crack under
repair;
(7) release the pressure and then pump more adhesive through
the same nipple until the next nipple overflows, then disconnect
the hose and cap the nipple;
(8) follow the nrocedure until the entire crack is filled and
all nipples are capped; and
•I(9) cut off the protruding ends of the capped nipples flush
with the concrete surface, plugging the resultant exposed openings
with epoxy resin sealant.
g. Repair of Joints. Much experience of poor sealant performance and

resulting damage to a wide variety of structures exists. Concern with
such problems spurred the development and introduction in the last decade
of higher class sealants, both field-molded arid preformed. Failures have
continued to occur, however, often within days and weeks rather than
months or years, for five main reasons:
(I) ['he joint as designed was of an impossible width, shape

0 or potential movement to seal successfully, yet an attempt was
made to seal it;
136
(2) unanticipated service conditions have resulted in
greater joint movements than those allowed for when the joint
design and type of sealant were determined;
(3) the wrong type of sealant for the particular conditions

was selected, often on the false grounds of economy in first
cost;
(4) new sealants have sometimes been initially overpromoted

and used before their limitations were realized; and
(5) poor workmanship occurred when constructing the joint, in

preparing it to receive the sealant, or during sealant installa-
tion.
At joints minor touchup of small gaps and soft or hard spots in

field-molded sealants can usually be made with the same sealant. However,
where the failure is extensive it is usually necessary to remove the
sealant and replace it.
Where the sealant has generally failed but has not come out of the
sealing groove it can be removed by hand tools or, on larger projects such
as pavements,by routing or plowing with suitable tools. Where widening is
required to improve the shape factor, the sealant reservoir can be enlarged
by sawing.
After proper preparation to ensure clean joint faces and additional

measures designed to improve sealant performance such as the improvement of
shape factor, provision of backup material, and possible selection of a
better type of sealant, the joint may be resealed.
Minor edge spalls to concrete joint faces may be repaired with an epoxy
resin mortar, an essential operation if a compression seal is being used.
Otherwise most repairs to correct defects in the original construction of
the joint involve major, exacting, and often expensive work. The reason
for the failure must be identified and, depending on the cause, continuity
must be restored in the joint system either by the removal of whatever is
blocking the free working of the joint or by cutting out the whole joint
O and rebuilding it.
Where cracks have taken over from a nonworking or absent joint, these
can be routed out and sealed with a suitable field-molded sealant to
prevent damage to the structure. The selection of a suitable sealant and
installation method follow those for the equivalent joint. An additional
•problem
* occurs where water is flowing through the crack and the upstream
face cannot be reached for sealing. Before sealing can be successfully
undertaken, the waterflow must be stopped. If the source of water cannot
be cut off by dewatering, then (depending on the circumstances) one of the
many alternatives such as cutting back the crack deeper and plugging with
a quick-setting or dry-pack mortar, or cement, chemical or eloxy resin
•grouting
* may be tried. Successful execution of any of these operations
usually requires specialized knowledge, experience, and workmanship.
137
LO
Few exposed sealants have a life as long as that of the structure
whose joints they are intended to seal. Fortunately, buried sealants such
as waterstops and gaskets have a long life because they are not exposed to
weathering and other deteriorating influences.
Most field-molded sealants will, however, require renewal sooner or

later if an effective seal is to be maintained and deterioration of the
structure is to be avoided. The time at which this becomes necessary is
determined by service conditions, by the type of material used, and whether
any defects of the kind already enumerated were built in at the time of the
original sealing.
10. Delivery and Placement.
a. Batching.
(1) Objectives. During measurement operations aggregates should

be handled in a manner to maintain their desired grading, and all materials
should be weighted to the tolerances required for desired reproducibility
of the concrete mix selected. In addition to accurate weighing another
important objective of successful batching is the proper sequencing and
blending of the ingredients during charging of the mixers. The final
objective is to obtain uniformity and homogeneity in the concrete produced
as indicated by such physical properties as unit weight, slump, air content,
strength, and air-free mortar content in successive batches of the same mix
proportions.
(2) Tolerances. Most engineering organizations, both public and
private, issue specifications containing detailed requirements for manual,
semiautomatic, and automatic batching equipment for concrete.
(3) Plant Type. Factors affecting the choice of the proper

batching systems are (1) size of job, (2) required production rate, and (3)
required standards of batching performance. The productive capacity of a
plant is determined by a combination of such items as the materials handling
system, bin size, batcher size, and plant mixer size and number. The
available batching equipment falls into three general categories--manual,
semiautomatic, and automatic.
(a) Manual Batching. As the name implies, all operations of
weighing and batching of the concrete ingredients are done manually.
Manual plants are acceptable for small jobs having low batching rate
requirements, generally for jobs up to 3 800 cubic meters (5 000 cubic
yards) and rates up to 20 cubic meters per hour (25 cubic yards per hour).
As the job size increases, automation of batching operations is rapidly
justified. Attempts to increase the capacity of manual plants by rapid
batching invariably result in excessive weighing inaccuracies.
(b) Semiautomatic Batching. In this system aggregate bin
gates for charging batchers are opened by manually operated pushbuttons or
switches. Gates are closed automatically when the designated weight of
material has been delivered.
(c) Automatic Batching. Automatic batching of all materials

is electrically activated by a single starter switch. Interlocks interrupt
138
the batching cycle when the scale has not returned to ± 0.3 percent of zero
balance or when preset weighing tolerances are exceeded. An individual
automatic batching system provides separate scales and batchers for each
aggregate size and for each of the other materials batched. The weighing
cycle is started by a single starter switch, and individual batchers are
charged simultaneously.
b. Mixing.
(1) Total Mixing Water. Uniformity in the measurement of total

mixing water involves, in addition to the accurate weighing of added
water, control of such additional water sources as mixer wash water, ice,
and free moisture in aggregates. One specified tolerance (ASTM Standard
C94) for accuracy in measurement of total mixing water, from all sources,
uis ± 3 percent.
(2) Measurement of Admixtures. Use of admixtures in concrete,

particularly air-entraining agents, is a universally accepted practice.
Batching tolerance and charging-discharge interlocks should also be provided
for admixtures.
0• (3) Measurement of Materials for Small Jobs. Occasionally the

concrete volume on a job is so small, e.g., 76 cubic meters (100 cubic
yards) or less, that it is not practical to establish and maintain a batch
plant and mixer at the construction site. In this case it is preferable to
use ready-mixed concrete or centrally dry-batched materials with truck
r mixing at the job. If centrally dry-batched concrete is not available,
proper precautions should still be taken to properly measure and mix
concrete materials. Thorough mixing is essential for the production of
uniform concrete. Therefore, equipment and methods used should be capable
of effectively mixing concrete materials containing the largest specified
aggregate to produce uniform mixes of the lowest slump practical for the
work.
c. Transporting.
(1) General Considerations. Concrete can be transported by a

variety of methods and equipment, such as truck mixers, stationary truck
bodies with and without agitators, buckets hauled by truck or railroad
car, pipeline or hose, or conveyor belts. Each type of transportation has
specific advantages and disadvantages depending on the conditions of use,
mix ingredients, accessibility and location of placing site, required
capacity and time for delivery, and weather conditions.
* (2) Mixing and Transporting in Revolving-Drum Truck Bodies. Some

specifications limit the total drum revolutions that can be used for
charging, mixing, agitation, and discharge of concrete in revolving-drum
trucks (Fig. 21). Others place limits on the number of revolutions at
mixing speed only. A maximum elapsed time of 1.5 hours after the cement
has entered the drum until completion of discharge is also frequently
* specified. Also, provision is made for reduction of the maximum elapsed
time in warm weather (ASTM C94-69). Another specification method used is
to place no limits on revolutions or elapsed time as long as the specified
mixing water is not exceeded, no retempering water is added, the concrete
139
L
I.%
Fioure 21. Concrete delivered by revolving-drum truck

*(Photo courtesy of Los Angeles Harbor
[)epa rtncnt ).
hais proper. phas t c phys icalI properties , and the concrete i s of adequate
cmis I steflev an1d homooen i tx' foi- sat isfactory placement and consl)idat ion.
hi I 1t tr .:pproach
a i S faivored spec i f i calI ly w ith rega rd t o mia xi mum all ow-
.1)tIT1ct~
C rdischar-ge ,and i clarIN appl icable when cool concrete
-pr
e'~r~ti r-;Are uised or- when coolecr weather oreva i s . Final deterinat ion
it he1
1 %IC C xi n, is being accomplished sati sfactori lv should he based on
',t ItIlird mTiXer [in iform i t tests (ASTNI Staindard C.94-81).
i ~vo
c I i nv, 1)ri iin By this method, the inixeir serves as ain
.1I tLIt it., t r i Spoi rt at Ion uI it. [he d1ruIm i S rotaZte I't a chaI rg i ngV SI)CCd
140
during loading and reduced to agitating speed or stopped after loading is
complete. Elapsed time for discharge of the concrete can be the same as
for truck mixing.
(4) Final Objective. The method of transportation used should

efficiently deliver the concrete to the point of placement without signifi-
cantly altering its desired properties with regard to water-cement ratio,
slump, air content, and homogeneity. Each method of transportation has
advantages under particular conditions of use pertaining to such items as
mix materials and design, type and accessibility of placement, required
delivery capacity, location of batch plant, and others. These various
conditions should be carefully reviewed in selecting the type of transporta-
tion best suited for economically obtaining quality concrete in-place.
d. Placing Concrete. A basic requirement for placing equipment and

methods, as for all other handling equipment and methods, is that the
quality of the concrete, in terms of water-cement ratio, slump, air content,
and homogeneity, must be preserved. Selection of equipment should be based
on its capability for efficiently handling concrete of the most advantageous
proportions that can be readily consolidated in place with vibration.
-. Sufficient placing capacity, as well as mixing and transporting capacity,

should be provided so that the concrete can be kept plastic and free of
cold joints while it is being placed. It should be placed in horizontal
layers not exceeding 0.6 meter (2 feet) in depth, avoiding inclined layers
and cold joints. For monolithic construction each concrete layer should be
placed while the underlying layer is still responsive to vibration, and
layers should be sufficiently shallow to permit knitting the two together
by proper vibration. Concrete should be deposited at or near its final
position in the placement, eliminating the tendency to segregate when it
has to be flowed laterally into place. On sloping surfaces, concrete
should be placed at the lower part of the slope first, progressing upward,
and thereby increasing natural compaction of the concrete. High-velocity
discharge of concrete causing segregation of the concrete should be avoided.
The equipment and method used for placing concrete should avoid separa-
ting the coarse aggregate from the concrete. Clusters and pockets of
coarse aggregate should be scattered before placing concrete over them to
prevent rock pockets and honeycomb in the completed work.
Requests for increases in mixing water are frequently made on the job
when concrete of relatively stiff consistency will not flow down chutes,
drop out of buckets or hoppers, or discharge through gates or trunks. If
the concrete is readily workable and satisfactorily consolidated in place
with proper vibration, these requests for additional water are not valid.
* A limitation on the use of reasonable mix proportions and slump should not
be imposed because inadequate placing equipment is being used.
(1) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete. In this method of construction,

forms are first filled with clean, well-graded coarse aggregate, and then
structural quality grout is injected into the voids of the aggregate mass
* to produce concrete. It is especially adaptable to underwater construc-
tion, to concrete and masonry repairs, and in general to new structures,
where placement by conventional means is usually difficult or where concrete
141
of low volume change is required. As preplaced aggregate concrete construc-
tion is of a specialized nature it is advisable that the work be undertaken
by qualified personnel experienced in this method of construction. The
pphysical properties of preplaced aggregate concrete are similar to those of
conventional concrete; therefore, the same allowable working stresses used
for conventional concrete structural design may be used (U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, 1954).
(2) Tremie Concrete. Tremie placement is a method frequently used

to place concrete underwater. By the tremie method the concrete is deposited
under the surface of fresh concrete previously placed. Placement is usually
by gravity feed from above the water surface through a vertical pipe con-
nected to a funnel-shaped hopper at the top (Fig. 22). Tremie concrete
flows outward from the bottom of the pipe pushing the existing surface of
the concrete outward and upward. As long as flow is smooth so that the
iconcrete surface adjacent to the water is not physically agitated, high-
quality concrete will result. Placement can also be carried out through
other liquids lighter than concrete such as bentonite slurry to suit special
conditions. Tremie concrete is used primarily for cofferdam or caisson
seal, underwater structural sections such as bridge piers, drydock walls,
floors, etc., and as a seal for precast tunnel sections.
The concrete mix proportions for tremie placement differ from ordinary
structural mixes because of the need to have the mix flow into place
slowly by gravity without vibration or mechanical help. The mix should be
proportioned for a slump 15 to 23 centimeters (6 to 9 inches). It is
generally preferable to use a natural round gravel rather than crushed rock
because of flow requirements. The maximum size aggregate is usually 38.1
millimeters. However, a nominal size of 19.0 millimeters or 9.51 millimeters
(3/4 or 3/8 inch) can be used for complex sections and critical flow
conditions. The proportion of fine aggregate (sand) is usually in the
range of 40 to 50 percent of the total weight of aggregate. Water-reducing
retarding admixtures conforming to ASTM Standard C494 have been found to be
an aid in placement of the concrete, and the retarding effect slows the
rate of heat development and provides flatter slopes with less laitance
(Williams, 1959). Air-entraining admixtures and pozzolans are also benefi-
cial to flow characteristics. The concrete temperatures should be kept as
low as practical, usually below 21.10 Celsius to improve placement and
structural qualities. The recommended maximum water-cement ratio for
concrete deposited by tremie under water is 0.44 by weight.
The compressive strength of rich, high-slump tremie concrete mixes will

often be approximately 28 to 56 megapascals per square meter (4 000 to 8 000
pounds per square inch) at 28 days. Curing conditions are excellent and
* shrinkage is low. The surfaces that will be in contact with the concrete
should be free of mud, marine growth, sewage, and other matter. Bond to
clean surfaces of steel, rock, and timber is generally excellent. The heat
of hydration developed in rich mixes produces high early strength even when
°
water temperature is as low as 4.4° Celsius (40 Fahrenheit). When large
masses of tremie concrete are placed, volume change due to heat development
*0 may warrant special consideration. The use of suitable instrumentation may
be required to monitor the temperature rise in these structures.
142
0
Figure 22. Tremies in place before pouring.
0 (3) Pumping. Pumped concrete may be defined as concrete conveyed

by pressures through either rigid pipe or flexible hose and discharged
directly into the desired area (Fig. 23). Pumping may be used for most
concrete construction, but is especially useful where space or access of
construction equipment is limited. Most concrete transported to the
41 placement areas by pumping methods is pumped through a rigid pipe or a
combination of rigid pipe and heavy-duty flexible hose. Effective pumping
range will vary from 90 to 305 meters (300 to 1 000 feet) horizontally or
30 to 90 meters vertically.
143
t- - , . -. - , , - -c%
Figure 2. Pumped concrete applied with a pressure nozzle.
To establish the optimum slump for a pump mix and to maintain control
of that particular slump through the course of the job are both extremely
important factors. Experience indicates that slumps below 50 millimeters
(2 inches) are impractical for pumping, and slumps above 152 millimeters (6
inches) should be avoided. In mixtures with high slump, the aggregate will
separate from the mortar and paste and may cause blocking in the pump line.
Overly wet mixes also blee! and increase shrinkage. It is more important
to obtain a truly plastic mix through proper proportioning than to try to
overcome deficiencies by adding more mortar.
11. Invironmenta l Considerations.
The following environmental features are generally to be considered in

the uise of concrete in coastal structures. Portland cement concrete is a
dirable material and well suited to use in the coastal environment. When
properly designed, placed and cured, it will resist most coastal environ-
ments for many years.
a. Corros ive and Pol lutant Attacks on Exposed Surfaces. Concrete is

rarely attacked by solid, dry chemicals, In order to significantly attack
concrete, corrosive chemicals must be in solution form and above some
mirimum concentration. Chemical attack on concrete is generally tbe
144
result of exposure to sulfates or acids. Natural-occurring sulfates of
sodium, potassium, calcium, or magnesium, which are sometimes in soil or
dissolved in ground water adjacent to concrete structures, can attack
concrete.
There are two chemical reactions likely to be involved in sulfate
attack on concrete: (1) the combination of sulfate with free calcium
hydroxide liberated during the hydration of the cement to form calcium
sulfate (gypsum), and (2) the combination of gypsum and hydrated calcium
aluminate to form calcium sulfoaluminate.
The effects of some of the more common chemicals on the deterioration

of concrete are indicated in Table 22. Many pollutants contain the chemicals
indicated in the table.
U b. Sunlight Exposure Effects. Sunlight has virtually no effect on the

deterioration of concrete.
c. Water Penetration Effects. Pure water does not attack concrete,

but it can be the medium for dissolving most chemicals, which in solution
may cause concrete deterioration. Seawater has a high sulfate and chloride
*I content which may be only moderately aggressive to concrete; however, if
these chemicals can penetrate the concrete to the steel reinforcing then
rapid deterioration will occur.
d. Wave and Current Effects. Waves and currents have no direct

effect on concrete or are not the direct cause of its deterioration.
Concrete destruction only occurs when the structure is not adequately
designed. Wear to concrete structures does occur because of cavitation
occurring as a result of the collapse of bubbles of water vapor. Concrete
wear by abrasion may also occur as a result of solid particle (such as
sand) transported by waves and currents impinging on a concrete surface.
e. Effect of Severe Temperature and Ice. Resistance to severe tempera-

ture changes in concrete are more a function of proper mix design with good
aggregate and proper curing than any other factors. Generally, high
temperatures do not affect well-cured concrete. Building codes generally
require concrete to resist heat of 5380 Celsius (1 0000 Farenheit) for 5
minutes to more than 1 0380 Celsius (1 9000 Farenheit) for 3 hours, depending
on the thickness of concrete tested. Sustained high-ambient temperatures
(above 2000 celsius) will stop normal crystal growths in concrete and
normal strength gain with aging.
To provide a high degree of resistance to the disruptive action of

freezing and thawing and of deicing chemicals air-entraining admixtures are
used. Unless low temperatures are very extreme, properly designed concrete
will not deteriorate or spall in freezing conditions.
f. Marine Organisms. Marine organisms do not injure good concrete,

containing sound aggregate. For example, concrete which is composed of
siliceous aggregates is resistant to marine borer activity because the
material is extremely abrasive to the lime shells of boring organisms.
However, in tropical and semitropical water there have been instances of
borer damage in concretes where limestone or similar sand has been used.
145
,- Table 22. Effect of commonly used chemicals on concrete.
Rate of
attack at
ambient Inorganic Organic Alkaline Salt
temperature acids acids solutions solutions Miscellaneous
Rapid Hydrochloric Acetic Aluminum --

Hydrofluoric Formic chloride
Nitric
Sulfuric
Ammonium
nitrate
Ammonium Bromine (gas)
sulfate Sulfite liquor
Sodium
sulfate
Moderate Phosphoric Tannic Sodium Magnesium
hydroxide- sulfate
> 20 pct' Calcium
sulfate
O Sodium Ammonium Chlorine (gas)

hydroxide chloride Seawater
10 to 20 Magnesium Softwater
pct I chloride
Sodium
r Slow Carbonic hypochlorite Sodium
cyanide
Sodium Calcium Ammonia

hydroxide chloride (liquid)
Negligible Oxalic < 10 pct i Sodium
Tartaric chloride
Sodium Zinc nitrate
hypochlorite Sodium
Ammonium chromate
hydroxide
1
Avoid siliceous aggregates because they are attacked by strong solutions
of hydroxide.
The first record of marine animals entering concrete is found in Hill

and Kofoid (1927). This record indicated that Pholadidae were found
drilling into concrete jackets used to protect wood piles from attacks by
Limnoria and Teredo. Subsequent tests showed that the mortar jackets bore
no resemblance to even a poor grade of structural concrete and offered no
resistance to the boring mechanisms of Pholads.
While mollusks have been found in lightweight mortar pontoons, of

dubious quality, additional tests prove that Pholads could not enter any
material harder than their shells (about 2.5 on the diamond scale).
146
I
g. Periodic Wetting and Drying. Periodic wetting and drying may

cause the formation on the concrete surface of "D cracks" (the progressive
formation of fine cracks, often in random pattern). Such cracks may
, enlarge in time and if exposed to freezing and thawing can result in
concrete spalling.
h. Wind Erosion. Concrete resistance to wind is usually not a serious

problem in coastal structures. Where strong winds may pick up sand parti-
cles, causing some etching of concrete surfaces similar to surf zone
abrasion (usually near the ground line), it would take many years of
exposure to structural grade concrete for wind erosion to become a problem.
i. Effects of Burrowing Animals. Marine animals do not penetrate good

concrete as indicated in paragraph (f) above and the larger dryland animals
do not attack concrete. Concrete is one of the hardest materials in the
coastal environment and contains no food value for such animals.
j. Effects of Flora. There are no reported effects of flora growth on

concrete.
k. Fire. Concrete resistance to fire or extreme high temperatures is

stated in paragraph (e) above.
1. Abrasion. Abrasion is defined as the ability of a surface to be

*. worn away by rubbing and friction. Wind- or water-borne particles can
abrade or etch concrete surfaces. If windborne particles cause abrasion,
r: some dusting problem could develop; however, the slow rate of the abrasion
process in the coastal zone is usually unnoticeable. Wear on concrete
structures exposed to high velocities and negative pressures is generally
known as cavitation erosion. Precise limits for abrasion resistance of
concrete are not possible. It is necessary to rely on relative values
based on weight or volume loss, depth of wear, or visual inspection.
m. Seismic Effect. Severe seismic forces can cause failure of a

concrete structure directly or by altering the foundation on which the
*. structure rests such that subsequent settlement can result in structural
failure or deterioration. With proper design concrete can be made to
resist seismic effects.
n. Human Activity. Human activity has very little impact on concrete
structures except where visual impact may be noticeable by graffiti or
other defacing actions.
12. Use in Coastal Structures.

4 a. General. Concrete is easily adapted to coastal construction in
that local aggregates are normally available at or near the site with the
only import materials being cement and steel reinforcing. It can be cast
in most any shape or size to fit site requirements and the structures can
be built in sections either by casting separate members and assembling in
place to create a large structure or as mass concrete placed a section at
a time to produce a large continuous structure. This characteristic
allows the design engineer a wide selection of type, size and configuration
of structure design. The excellent physical and strength properties of
147
I
concrete as well as its stability and resistance to the environment make
it an ideal coastal zone construction material. However, concrete being a
relatively heavy material is limited in its use where its heavy weight may
be a deterrent.
- In addition to structures constructed totally of concrete, many concrete

structural elements are used in a variety of coastal projects, such as
armor units of various shapes and size, concrete caissons, solid and
perforated blocks, sheet and bearing piles, and beams and slabs. Floating
structures such as caissons, barges, and pontoons have been successfully
built and used. Concrete is also used unreinforced in mass structures.
Reinforced and prestressed units are usually precast structure elements.
b. Seawalls, Bulkheads, and Revetments. Seawalls, bulkheads and

revetments are distinguished by purpose. In general, seawalls are the most
massive of the three structures, because they resist the force of the
q waves. Bulkheads are next in size. Their function is to retain fill; they
are generally not exposed to severe wave action. Revetments are the
lightest, because they are designed to protect shorelines against erosion
by currents or light wave action.
(1) Seawalls. A curved-face seawall and a combination stepped and

qcurved-face
4 seawall are usually massive structures which are built to
resist high wave action and reduce scour. Figure 24 shows an example of
reinforced concrete curved surface seawall. The stepped seawall was
designed for stability against moderate waves.
(2) Bulkheads. Concrete bulkheads can take virtually any form or

configuration required for the intended use and location.
(3) Revetments. Structural types of revetments used for coastal

protection in exposed and sheltered areas are illustrated in Figures 25,
26, and 27. There are two types of revetments: the rigid, cast-in-place
concrete type (Fig. 25) and the flexible or articulated armor unit type
(Figs. 26 and 27). A rigid concrete revetment provides excellent bank
protection, but the site must be dewatered during construction to pour the
concrete. A flexible structure also provides excellent bank protection,
and can tolerate minor consolidation or settlement without structural
failure. The articulated block structure in Figure 27 allows for the
relief of hydrostatic uplift pressure generated by wave action.
4
Interlocking concrete blocks have been used extensively for shore pro-
tection in the Netherlands and England, and have become popular in the
United States. Typical blocks are generally square slabs with shiplap-type
interlocking joints (Fig. 27). The joint of the shiplap type provides a
mechanical interlock with adjacent blocks. Stability of an interlocking
concrete block depends largely on the type of mechanical interlock. Concrete
piles are sometimes used as cutoff walls for revetments and seawalls.
Concrete foundation piles are sometimes used to support seawalls and other
massive concrete structures, such as caisson breakwaters.
c. (;roins. Concrete groins are built of concrete sheet piles or king

piles and panels if they are impermeable. The piles are usually prestressed
units and tied together with a cast-in-place concrete cap. If greater pile
148
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San Francisco, California (1930)
'[',I
I I)77
149
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-do-
L7 -
cake Slbs - E .
e966) Pine Pont Cabide Mayln (bfr
cal led vav 4 TioI
G.WdEw1 3.6
Origic), beacl line
E0 13
150
41
~-W
41
Figure 26. Articulated armor unit revetment (photo

courtesy of Marine Modules Inc.).
flexibility is required, timber wales have been used. *Permeable-type

concrete groins have been builit in the past that permitted the passage of
sand through the structure hut are not used at present. In low wave climates
grout-filled bags are also used as an installation convenience; the bags,
usually plastic, deteriorate leaving the small concrete shapes as protection
of the groins.
d. Jetties and Breakwaters. In exposed locations, jetties and break-

waters are general ly some variation of a rubble-mound structure containing
concrete either as a b inding mnaterial1 to hold rock together or as separate
el ement s of breakwaters having a heavy weight as well as energy absorption
characteristics. Some types of jetties are illustrated in Figures 28 and
429. In less severe exposures, both cellular steel and concrete cai ssons
have been used. In low wave climates grout filled bags are used.
there rock armo r units in adequate quaintit ies or size are not econom-
cily availablie , conicret e armor units are used. Also, concrete sheet
pi les are sometimes used as core for jetties. Figure 30 illustrates the
4use of Quadr ipod a rmor units on the rubble-mound j etty at Santa Cruz:
CfOM A Figure 29 illustrates the use of the more recently developed
I I( armor unit where 374- and 38-ki aIonewton (42 and 43 ton dolosse were
4 151
Jupiter Island, Florida (1965)
Courtesy of Carthage Mills Inc.
Erosion Control Division
coDfcI +er Ren6re cocrt
loc
In.terloc inn cobrloblcck&'tm
A A
'.- .~4
-.
Figure 'S. Fabric tubes filled with concrete form a jetty

(photo courtesy of Fabriform).
used to rehabilitate the seaward end of the Humboldt Bay jetties against
* 12-meter (40 foot) breaking waves (Magoon and Shimizu, 1971).
(1) Concrete Caisson Breakwater. Breakwaters of this type are

built of reinforced concrete shells that are floated into position, settled
on a prepared foundation, filled with stone or sand for stability, and then
capped with concrete or stones. These structures may be constructed with
or without parapet walls for protection against wave overtopping. In
general, concrete caissons have a reinforced concrete bottom, although
open-bottom concrete caissons have been used. The open-bottom type is
closed with a temporary wooden bottom that is removed after the caisson is
placed on the foundation. The stone used to fill the compartments combines
with the foundation material to provide additional resistance against
horizontal movement.
Figure 31 illustrates a patented perforated type of caisson breakwater

(Jarlan, 1961). The installation at Baie Comeau, Quebec (Stevenston,
1963), utilized the caisson as a wharf on the harborside. The holes or
perforations on the seaward side reduce the undesirable conditions of a
smooth vertical face wall and are an illustration of complex structural
* shapes possible because of the way concrete is cast.
(2) Concrete Armor Units. Many different concrete shapes have

been developed as armor units for rubble structures. The major advantage
of concrete armor units is that they usually have a higher stability
coefficient value, thus permitting the use of steeper structure side
slopes or a lighter weight of armor unit. This property is especially
valuable when qua rry-stone of the required size is not available.
153
0A
#1A#
Humboldt Bay, Clitfornio (1971)
24040
d* 13.' ------ 20H
10-14 Toni Stone 4' Thick Bedding

Existing Structure Layer
after Magoon and Shimizu, 1971
S Figitre 29. Po los rubble-mound Jectty (II. S. Army, Corps of

Engineers, CERC, 1977).
154
Santo Cruz California (1963
CHANNEL SIDE SEAWARD SIDE
Concfe'e Cop
EL 600
1110 -Stone Ch OsSngle 5 Row
Es Ston~e
n ~~dC-
co,e r
6
B -Stone 5Co > 000*, ,n 4COC #
C-Stone 4000 # to 4" 50%> 500O#
~I I -c 0 tIII 1 1 di rt
T-111t1 c - I~
11 J Si () ' f
Ilce 1s (114, 19 7 7
55
Boie Comeau, Quebec, Canada (August 1962)
600"24$Au, relief role

-El 250 -dCroe csed stoe
El~~~~~9saetrE
21 25 31 1 2" Max sze E2
El
1 20
e .59p-qslope-
40' scoppe,--
H WLOST -gl /-
El 150 L Steel g 6 ar ,f4"*o rie Fresh "'ater,
7~~~~ 4"$i eifhlsI Pipe
wlI-02'0
Wove Charber QuaOvrry

-~ - un Fill1
L WLOST wte 6" to 12" Rbe
ECO0 3-0'. Holes, 'chamrfer ferider
-- ~all
arounrd - -
101 ' 7 -4" '4

'- -3"
4
* 4" Holes
- o0
79 -0-'0" 2i
El-300 ~~~ii 2 i
26 ! 9 33" - '"- - "
F iguire S1. Per f eri t ed ci i s son 1)rea kwa t er (U. S. Arimy, Co rps o f
Fn g i fl c rs , C1:RC ,I1T7'
156
The unit weight of concrete containing normal aggregates will range
from 22.0 to 24.3 kilonewtons per cubic meter (140 to 155 pounds per cubic
foot) but can be increased with the use of heavy aggregate to 28.3 (180
pounds per cubic foot) usually at some additional cost. The technique of
placement and the size of the armor unit will determine if reinforcing is
required in dolos or tribar units. Heavy units, exceeding about 178 kilo-
newtons (20 tons) will require reinforcing if placed from a landside unit.
Placing armor units from floating equipment where the wave action may cause
bumping of the units t.ay require reinforcing in armor units as light as 89
kilonewtons (10 tons).
Table 23 lists the concrete armor units in use today and shows
where and when the unit was developed. Table 24 lists projects using
tetrapods, tribars, quadripods, and dolosse in the United States. Com-
monly used types of units are illustrated in Figure 32.
U e. Other Structures. Concrete has been adopted to many kinds of

marine structures as monolithic or cast-in-place structures as well as
precast or prestressed units. Concrete is an optimum material for marine
structures as it combines durability, strength, and economy. The ability
to produce concrete in most any geometric form gives it a high adaptability
to most any location and condition oF use required.
(1) Navigation Structures. Prestressed concrete piles are used

for navigation light standards. Navigation aids located on breakwaters,
along the shoreline as lighthouses and radio signal towers are usually of
concrete construction. Also included as navigation structures are mooring
anchors for bouys of all kinds.
(2) Piers and Wharves. Concrete is the most used construction

material in building piers and wharves located either on the coastline or
in protected harbors. All the elements of pier construction such as
piles, dock units, pier girders, substructures, or bulkheads are built of
concrete or a combination of concrete and wood or steel. Even then concrete
may be used to protect the wood or steel from erosion, corrosion, dryrot,
or marine organisms attack. Figures 33 to 36 are examples of commercia:
concrete structures located on the coastline. Special piers have been
constructed for product loading lines, waste water disposal, and other
discharge lines. Figure 37 shows the piling and deck structure of a
recreation pier extending from shore to the open ocean. There are, of
course, innumerable concrete piers and wharves constructed in bays and
protected harbors along the world's shoreline.
The use of concrete in these structures is most feasible because

it is durabl , is readily available in most locations, can be pro-
duced in virtually any size or shape, and is economical. Recent
developments in precast and prestressed concrete units provide a mcan-s of
fast and simplified construction procedures with the final structuie being
both stable and durable.
Concrete piling is easily manufactured in most any length to :Ihoit -)o

meters (118 feet), although longer piles have been made and commonly in
round, square, octagonal or hollow core cross sections. Eithcr reinforc(,,
or prestressed concrete piles can be designed to support very hca'vy Ils.
157
0
Table 23. Typical concrete armor units in use today.
Name of Unit Development of Unit
I Country Year
Accropode France 1978

Antifer Netherlands 1978
Cube 1 ,2
Cube (modified)1 United States 1959
Dolos 1 South Africa 1963
Handbar Australia 1979
Hexapod I United States 1959
Quadripod1 United States 1959
2
Rectangular Blockl,
Stabit England 1961
Tetrahedron (perforated)1 ,3 United States 1959
Tetrapod France 1950
Tribarl United States 1958
'The units have been tested, some extensively, at the Waterways

Experiment Station (WES).
2
Cubes and rectangular blocks are known to have been used in
masonry-type breakwaters since early Roman times, and in rubble-
mound breakwaters during the last two centuries. The cube was
tested at WES as early as 1943.
3
Solid tetrahedrons are known to have been used in hydraulic works
for many years. This unit was tested at WES in 1959.
Table 24. Concrete armor projects in the United States.
Date Location Structure Armor Unit
1956 Crescent City, Calif. Breakwater 25-ton tetrapods

1957 Kahului, Hawaii Breakwater 33-ton tetrapods
1958 Nawiliwili, Hawaii Breakwater 18-ton tribars
1958 Rincon Island, Calif. Revetment 31-ton tetrapods
* 1963 Kahului, Hawaii Breakwater 19- to 50-ton tribars
1903 Santa Cruz, Calif. Breakwater 28-ton quadripods
1963 Ventura, Calif. Jetty 10.7-ton tribars
1971 Diablo Canyon, Calif. Breakwater 21.5- to 36.5-ton
tribars
1971 Humboldt Bay, Calif. Jetty 42- to 43-ton dolosse
* 19'3 Crescent City, Calif. Breakwater 40-ton dolosse
1980 Cleveland Harbor, Ohio Breakwater 2-ton dolosse
1982 Manasquan Inlet, N.J. Jetty 16-ton dolosse
158
Plan Bottom Plan Bottom
4QUADRIPOD TETRAPOD
Elevati ~n
Elevation
Plan Bottom Plan Bottom
F ~~DOLOS- -- RBR
L(DOLOSSE, plural) TIA
E levat ion
Elevation
Fiqu~rc S2. Concrete armor units (IU.S. Army, Corps of

lnginccrs. ('R.1977).
159
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i
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I,
C)
I -L.
A , - LC
-
160
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44 \~
~ t
~ ,t4rt~ ,
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4,1 ~N1 11
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Figure 37. Hlermosa Beach recreation pier.
These piles may vary in cross section from 0.15-meter (6 inch) diameter
round piles to 0.76-meter (30 inch) solid square or octagonal piles and
1.2 mete (4 foot) round hollow piles. Hollow piles usually have a 0.15- to
(.30 meter wall. The restrictions on concrete pile size are determined by
the equipment reqiliired to manufacture them, e.g. the pile
I bed, forms and,
if required, pre: tressing equipment as well as the pile handling equipment
such as cranes, barges and piledriver.
(3) Submerged Structures. Concrete is an ideal material for the

construction of submerged structures. It may be used for mono1 ithic
sufbmerged structures such as structural elements of bridges or precast-
prestressed for pipelines, intake and outfall structures, and bridge
piers. Other submerged structu res usual lV built of concrete inclUde tunnIe ls
for vehicular and railroad traffic and utilities.
(4) Floating Structures. Many concrete pontoons of various

shapes and si ze have been constructed as parts of pontoon bridges, quavs,
wh;,irves , and floating fz.cilitics for small boats and seap lanes. Floating
breAkwaitors of precast reinforced concrete pontoons have been i nstalled in
TenAkee Springs, Sitka, and Ketchikan, Alaska, and Blaine, Everett, and
Port Orchard, hashinIgton. Other structures such as skiffs, l aunches,
scows, barges, flo:ating drvdocks, and per'manent offshore structures have
been cons tincted of concrete. The c on struction of fixed breakwaters hy
tFlo)t in, precast un its into p1 :ice i s lot uncommon. Ca isson inlits ;are
roustructed on aI l;nd site, floated into position, sometimes thouis;nds of"
Iles from the r st ruction site, I hen sabimcrged on the ocean hottom aind
filled With sand or ,red e mat eri al. kost ally type of floating or sub-
mers iible stIruCt1:es , it OriC time oi another hls been bilt of, conlcrete.
164
-
0
(5) Access and Roadway Structures. Concrete is used for roadways,

bridges, structural anchors, and foundations as a part of coastal struc-
tures. Overpasses, footbridges, drainage facilities, and concrete pipe are
also ancilliary to many coastal structures.
(6) Ocean Outfall and Discharge Structures. Because of the

excellent durability of concrete in the coastal environment, many ocean
outfall and discharge structures in the coastal zone are made of concrete.
These structures accommodate rain and flood water runoff as well as indus-
trial and domestic wastes. Ancilliary facilities, such as settling ponds
and pumping plants required to make these systems work are also frequently
constructed of concrete.
165
S .
VI. OTHER TYPES OF CONCRETE AND GROUT
1. Bituminous Concrete.
Asphalt is a primary ingredient of all bituminous concretes. It is a

natural constituent of many petroleums in which it exists in solution. If
the solvent oils are removed by evaporation or distillation from crude
petroleum, an asphalt residue remains. Asphalt is a cement, readily
adhesive, highly waterproof, and durable. It is a plastic substance and
imparts controllable flexibility to mixtures of mineral aggregates with
which it is usually combined.
The three general catagories of bituminous concrete used in coastal
structures are: asphalt concrete, a mixture of asphalt cement and both fine
and coarse aggregate, placed and compacted to form a monolithic structure;
sand asphalt, essentially a type of asphalt concrete with coarse aggregate
omitted; and asphalt mastic, basically a sand asphalt having a sufficiently
fluid consistency during placement to allow it to flow into voids of a rock
structure such as a breakwater or jetty.
a. Types of Asphaltic Materials. The following terms relating to

asphalt are taken from "Asphalt in Hydraulics" (The Asphalt Institute, 1976):
"(1) Asphalt Cement. Asphalt that is refined to meet specifica-

tions for paving, industrial, or special purposes.
(2) Asphalt Concrete, Hydraulic Type. Similar to asphalt

concrete for roadway paving, except, to ensure an essentially void-
less mix after compaction, higher mineral filler and asphalt
contents are used.
(3) Asphalt Facing. An asphalt surface designed to resist

erosion, abrasion, water pressure, and in some instances, ice
pressure. A facing may, in addition, also act as an impermeable
layer to prevent leakage through the structure. It may also be
termed an asphalt lining or asphalt revetment (see below).
(4) Asphalt Grout. A mixture of asphalt, sand, and mineral

filler which, when heated and mixed, will flow into place without
mechanical manipulation. It is used to bind together a layer of
coarse stone of more or less uniform size. It may also be termed
asphalt mastic (see below).
4 (5) Asphalt Injection. A pressurized subsurface application

of asphaltic material. Usually, injections are made for the
purpose of filling subsurface cavities or crevices in the founda-
tion soil, or voids beneath an existing pavement layer, primarily
for controlling water seepage.
(6) Asphalt Lining. That part of a hydraulic structure that

functions as a durable, erosion-resistant surface. Usually, its
166
- ----
most important function is as a waterproof barrier holding water
or other liquid inside the structure.
(7) Asphalt Mastic. A mixture of mineral aggregate, mineral

filler and asphalt in such proportions that the mix can be applied
hot by pouring or by mechanical manipulation; it forms a voidless
mass without being compacted.
(8) Asphalt Mattress, Slab. Terms, according to size, denoting

prefabricated flexible units composed of an asphalt mastic mixture
reinforced with mesh, netting, lines, or cables as required.
(9) Asphalt Membrane. A relatively thin layer of asphalt formed

U by spraying a high-viscosity, high softening point asphalt cement in
two or more applications over the surface to be covered. It is
normally about 6 millimeters (1/4 inch) thick and is used for water-
proofing or sealing. It is buried to protect it from weathering and
physical damage.
1(10) Asphalt Mat. A felt or fabric sheet impregnated or

coated with asphalt to form a watertight lining or membrane usually
6 millimeters or less in thickness. It may be a sheet that is first
installed in place with the asphalt applied following installation,
or it may be a finished material that is watertight and ready for
installation.
(11) Asphalt Revetment. A protective asphalt facing on a

sloped surface, usually placed for the purpose of protecting an
embankment from erosion. Revetments may or may not extend all the
way to either the toe or crest of the sloped embankment. The term
subaqueous refers to that part of a revetment placed under the
surface of the water. Upper bank paving is that part placed above
the surface of the water.
(12) Impermeable Asphalt Mixes. Asphalt mixes having low

voids, (usually less than 4 percent) after installation, designed
* to prevent the passage of water.
(13) Porous Asphalt Mixes. Asphalt mixes that permit the free
flow of water through the mix. Porous asphalt mixes are divided
into two general classifications: permeable asphalt mixes and
open-graded asphalt mixes (see below).
6
(14) Permeable Asphalt Mixes. Asphalt mixes having medium
voids after installation, designed to permit the free passage of
water through the lining to and from the supporting layer or
embankment.
0 (15) Open-Graded Asphalt Mixes. Asphalt mixes having high

voids, designed to provide a free drainage layer underneath an
impermeable lining.
167
(16) Prefabricated Asphalt Panels. A layer of a very dense
mixture of asphalt and filler sandwiched between two layers of some
tough, asphalt-impregnated material and usually coated with water-
proofing asphalt."
b. Properties of Asphalt Materials. Asphalt has many properties that

make it particularly suitable for use in hydraulic and costal zone structures.
It is versatile in form and application. Asphalt can be used alone (as in
an asphalt membrane), or it can be mixed with other materials producing
mixes for a variety of purposes. It can be combined with graded aggregate
to form a voidless and impermeable mix. On the other hand, it can be
combined with an open-graded aggregate to form a porous mixture allowing
free passage of water.
MAsphalt is stable in the presence of nearly all chemically-laden sub-

stances. it is normally unaffected by the usual concentrations of acid,
salt, and other waste solutions. This important characteristic makes it
useful for waterproofing reservoirs. However, since asphalt is refined
from petroleum, other petroleum-based products (which are solvents of
asphalt) cannot be stored in asphalt-lined structures.
An important property of asphalt is its flexibility. This allows

asphalt structures to conform to slight irregularities in the subgrade, and
to adjust to small differential settlements that inevitably occur after the
completion of a structure.
The physical properties of asphalt mixes generally depend on stress

conditions and temperature. The ingredients that comprise asphalt mixes
have completely different characteristics. The mineral aggregate that
makes up the major part of the mix is mainly elastic. The asphalt part, on
the other hand, behaves as a viscous liquid at high temperature and under
impact load; consequently, asphalt mixtures have both plastic and elastic
properties.
For- many years asphalt cement has been graded on the basis of the pene-
tration test, an empirical measures of consistency. Recently, however, the
penetration grading of asphalt cements has been replaced by the more funda-
mental viscosity grading. Two systems of viscosity grading are currently
10 used. The AC system is based on the viscosity of the original asphalt
cement. The *R system, used mostly on the Pacific coast of the United
State-s, is based on the viscosity of the residue of the asphalt cement after
it has been subjected to hardening conditions approximating those occurring
in normal hot-mix plant operations.
• The relationships between the var] ijs grading systems are shown in
Figure 38.
c. Asphalt Mixes.
(I) ').1iecti,'es
C oMix
at \sphallt lesign. The design o" asphalit
* mixes, as with other oncinceriun materials designs, is larielv ;i matter of
seoect i n, and proportioning materials to obta in the desired properties in
the finished construction. The overall objective for the design of asphalt
mixes is to determine an economical blend and iradation of aggregates
168
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U .,-I co
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r- 4J -
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(ZTXSgSIOd) 01 x s-v 'gfl0IS9'dINzdIN 'DO09 AIISODSIA
169
6
"within the limits of the project specifications) and asphalt that yields a
mix having:
(a) Sufficient asphalt to ensure durability;
(b) sufficient mix stability to satisfy the demands of

designed use without distortion or displacement;
(c) sufficient voids in the total compacted mix to allow

for a slight amount of additional compaction under loading without
flushing, bleeding, and loss of stability, yet low enough to keep
out harmful air and moisture; and
(d) sufficient workability to permit efficient placement

of the mix without segregation.
* (2) Evaluation and Adjustment of Mix Designs. Often, in the

process of developing a specific mix design, it is necessary to make
several trial mixes to find one that meets the criteria of the design
method used. Each trial mix design, therefore, serves as a guide for
evaluating and adjusting the trials that follow. For preliminary or
exploratory mix designs it is advisable to start with an aggregate of a
* gradation that approaches the median of the specification limits. Initial
trial mixes for establishing the job-mix formula, however, must have an
aggregate gradation within the specification limits that the central mixing
plant is producing or is capable of producing.
Where the initial trial mixes fail to meet the design criteria it will
be necessary to modify or, in some cases, redesign the mix. Adjustments in
the grading of the original aggregate blend will be required to correct the
deficiency.
For many engineering materials, the strength of the material frequently

is thought of as denoting quality; however, this is not necessarily the
case for hot-mixed asphalt paving. Extremely high stability is often
obtained at the expense of lowered durability, and vice versa. Therefore,
in evaluating and adjusting mix designs always keep in mind that the
aggregate gradation and asphalt content in the final mix design must strike
a favorable balance between the stability and durability requirements for
the use intended. Moreover, the mix must be produced as a practical and
*Q economical construction operation.
G;rading curves are helpful in making necessary adjustments in mix

designs. For example, curves determined from the Fuller equation, a
version of the maximum density enuation using the power 0.5, represent
maximum density and minimum voids in 7ineral aggregate (VMA) conditions.
The Fuller equation is:
p l10ood/l ) .
where p is the total percentage passing given sieve, d the size of sieve
opening, and D the largest size (sieve opening) in gradation. Mixtures
* described !y such curves tend to he workable and readily compacted.
170
S
TOTAL PERCENT PASSING
01
*z CL'
* 0
n 4J
0U V
5z E
1713
However, their void contents may be too low. Usually, deviations 'rom,
these curves will result in lower densities and higher VMA. The extcnt (O
change in density and VMA depends on the amount of adjustment in fine oiv
, coarse aggregate. Figure 39 illustrates a series of Fuller maxiritm densl v
curves plotted on a conventional semilog grading chart.
Figure 40 illustrates maximum density curves determined from the maximum

density equation raised to the 0.45 power {p = 100(d/D) " 4} and plotted on
the Federal Highway Administration grading chart (based on a scale raisii?:
sieve openings to the 0.45 power), which many designers find convenient to
use for adjusting aggregate gradings. The curves on this chart, however,
need not be determined from the maximum density equation. They may be
obtained by drawing a straight line from the origin at the lower left ot the
chart to the desired nominal maximum particle size at the top. For proc,',sed
aggregate, the nominal maximum particle size is the largest sieve size
listed in the applicable specification upon which any material is permitted
to be retained. Gradings That closely approach this straight line usually
must be adjusted away from it within acceptable limits to increase the WtX1
values. This allows enough asphalt to be used to obtain maximum durability
without the mixture flushing.
FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION 0.45 POWER GRADATION CHART

SIEVE SIZES RAISED TO 045 POWER _ 00
9C_ -- 90Z
4; T I
--
- r4+ -r-
'-- , -- - -
. . . . S-I - - - -- . . ..
SIEVE SIZES
Figure 40. Maximum density curves on Federal 40ihwy
XA Administration 0.45 power gradation chart
(Federal Highway Administration, 1975).
172
The following is a general guide for ad usting the tria i ntx, . 4,
suggestions outlined may not necessarily apply in all cases.
(a) Voids Low, Stability Low. Voids may be increased in i

number of ways. As a general approach to obtaining higher voids in the
mineral aggregate (and therefore providing sufficient void space Ia: an
adequate amount of asphalt and air voids) the aggregate grading shotld be
adjusted by adding more coarse or more fine aggregate.
If the asphalt content is higher than normal and the excess is not
requilied to replace that absorbed by the aggregate, the asphalt coLntrt naiy
be lowered to increase the voids. It must be remembered, however, that
lowering the asphalt content increases the void content and reduces the
film thickness, which decreases the durability of the pavement. Too great
a reduction in film thickness also may lead to brittleness, accelerated
oxidation, and increased permeability. If the above adjustments do net
produce a stable mix, the aggregate may have to be changed. It usually is
possible to improve the stability and increase the aggregate void content
of the mix by increasing the amount of crushed materials. With some
aggregates, however, the freshly fractured faces are as smooth as the
waterworn faces and an appreciable increase in stability is not possibc.
'his is generally true of quartz or similar rock types.
'4
(b) Voids Low, Stability Satisfactory. Low void content may
rcsilt in instability or flushing after the mix has been exposed to design
loads tor a period of time because of reorientation of particles and addi-
tinrnil compaction. It also may result in insufficient void space for the
Amount of asphalt required for high durability, even though stability is
satinitarv. Degradation of the aggregate under the action of use may also
lead to instability and flushing if the void content of the mix is not suf-
ticient. For these reasons, mixes low in voids should be adjusted by one of
the methods given above, even though the stability appears satisfactory.
(c) Voids Satisfactory, Stability Low. Low stability ,'ahen

voids and aggregate grading are satisfactory may indicate some dcl iciu'icM
in the aggregate. Consideration should be given to improving the ,-alr.ji
As .li.,ussud above.
(d) Voids High, Stability Satisfactory. High voids jr, fre-

quently, although not always, associated with high permeability. lih
permeability by permitting circulation of air and water through the nsphalt
c( ent may lead to premature hardening of the asphalt. ven thongh Atahi li-
ties are satisfactory, adjustments should be made to reduce the voids. 'his
usually may be accomplished by increasing the mineral dust content ,r the
mix. I, some cases, however, it may be necessary to select or comi he
aggregates to more closely approximate the gradation of a maximum !(TI,;" t,
grading curve.
(e) Voids itgh, Stability Low. Two steps may he necu:,, y

when 1h vuds are high and the stability is low. First the voids .,k
aliuted by the methods discussed above. If this adjustment does ,.' i,,
improveetc t.'bility, the second step should be an improvement i grw:.ynlc
onlit i discussed above.
173
A
(3) Aggregate Gradations and Fractions. For the purpose of speci-
fications and test reporting it is almost universal practice to specify the
gradation of aggregates on the basis of the total aggregate gradation,
-i.e., total percent by weight passing the designated sieve sizes. The
individual fractions of the total aggregate gradation, however, are desig-
nated as follows:
(a) Coarse aggregate (retained No. 8 sieve);
(b) fine aggregate (passing No. 8 sieve); and
(c) mineral dust (passing No. 200 sieve).
It is also important to note that the aggregate gradations as well as the

individual fractions are specified independently of the total mix; i.e.,
L the total aggregate equals 100 percent.
Aggregate materials often are identified in broader terms as: rock,

sand, and filler. These terms usually are applied to the stockpiled
materials supplied to the job site. The following definitions appear to
have the greatest usage:
(a) Rock: material that is predominantly coarse aggregate

(retained No. 8);
(b) sand: material that is predominantly fine aggregate (passing

No. 8); and
(c) filler: material that is predominantly mineral dust (passing
No. 200).
d. Functions in Coastal Structures.
(1) General. Asphalt has many properties that make it particularly

suitable for use in hydraulic structures. It is versatile in form and
application. Asphalt can be used alone (as in an asphalt membrane), or it
can be mixed with other materials producing mixes for a variety of purposes.
It can be combined with graded aggregate to form a voidless and impermeable
mix, or it can be combined with an open-graded aggregate to form a porous
mixture allowing free passage of water.
There are many types of asphaltic materials used in hydraulic ;jpplica-

tions. Each type can be classified in one of the following distinct
categories:
* (a) Impermeable asphalt mixes,
(bl porous asphalt mixes,
(c) asphalt mastics,
* (d) asphalt cement, and
(e) prefabricated asphalt materials.
174
S. •
These materials can be used in various forms to waterproof, protect, or rein-
force a structure. Table 25 shows how each type of asphalt material may be
used to perform these various functions.
(2) Impermeable Asphalt Concrete Linings. Impermeable asphalt
mixes are similar to asphalt mixes for highway paving except that, since a
low void content mix is required to ensure impermeability, they usually
have higher mineral filler and asphalt-cement contents. Also a harder, or
more viscous, grade of asphalt cement normally is used. Mixes are prepa red
in an asphalt mixing plant and placed with conventional, or as shown in
Figure 41, special paving equipment. Compaction during paving is necessary
to produce the required impermeability.
Figure 41. Rolle" operated by a dragline compacts the asphalt

revetment, San Joaquin River, California (photo
courtesy of ACT).
Thc primary purpose of impermeable asphalt mixes is to waterproof

hydraul ic structures. Watertight lilings are used to impound water in
reservoirs, ponds, and lagoons; to waterproof dams, dikes, and embankments;
and to prevent seepage losses in canals and channels. They are most often
used as surface linings. since they are resistant to wave actiou and the
erosive effects of water currents.
Revetmuent s cons tructed Q ith impermeable asphalt mixes are used for hank
protection oil streams, rTesrvoirs, 1akes, aid shorelIi nes. Waterproofing
175
r
4 J4 0-
4-04JO 041
4-j44 0
0 caJO .000
Ui 09. 0)0.
(a 0 ,4
P4 0
414
00 :0
*0 4-3 3 C
o4 1 4 I.H
0
0
.. 00 0
-
4-1
) -4C
0 0 0 0
)
44l b r1400 0
'U W4 C: )
C) 00 9: .0014 00 0 ocn
-o-
0-H
cc 0-41- 44U: 4C 0 V ,-4 kC
44. a 800 '-4~ 0 4.4.04
11 9. 0o :3
41 4
a) &j6 4 - 4A
-4 V -4 1- r- C3)-
Xa- 0 x0 0 A- U
w. 0. C. 1 0)
C0 0l to m
0.4 04.-444
14 4C)- '.0 "c176C

properties are not necessarily required in these instances, but quality
asphalt concrete linings having low voids effectively resist the destructive
effects of wave and current action as well as their abrasive effects (Figs.
42 and 43). Impermeable asphalt mixes may be used for the entire lining of
the structure. They may alr constitute a part of a more complex lining.
They can, for example, be placed as the surface of a composite section made
up of different asphalt layers.
(3) Porous Hot-Mix Asphalt Linings. Porous asphalt mixes for

hydraulic structures are characterized by the absence or reduced amount of
fine aggregate or sand in the mix. As a consequence, the asphalt content
is also reduced. The mixes have interconnected pores that permit passage
of water. A harder, or more viscous, grade of asphalt cement is desirable
in these mixes to allow sufficient film thickness and to prevent drainage
from the aggregate. This choice of asphalt also provides additional cohesion
in the mix between the aggregate particles.
There are two types of porous asphalt linings: permeable and open-
graded. Permeable hot-mix asphalt linings serve as a cover over an earth
embankment to protect it from erosion by wave action or surface runoff.
Open-graded asphalt linings, with higher void content than the permeable
•. lining, serve as drainage layers under an impermeable lining while at the
same time contributing to the structural strength of the lining. In either
case, the purpose is to provide free drainage to prevent hydrostatic
pressures from building up in the embankment or within the lining itself.
Asphalt, as a surface lining, allows water to flow to and from the embankment
through the lining. As a drainage layer, asphalt collects the subsurface
kater, channel ing it co drains for removal.
(41) Asphalt Mastic Mixes. Asphalt mastic mixes for hydraulic

structures are essentially mixtures of mineral aggregate and filler where
the voids in the mineral matrix are overfilled with asphalt cement. The
result is an asphalt mix that can be applied by pouring or by hand-floating
into place. Asphalt mixes require little or no compaction after placing
hccause void spaces in the aggregate matrix are filled or slightly over-
Cilled with asphalt. Asnhalt mastics may be made from a variety of aggre-
gate materials ranging from well-graded coarse and fine aggregates and
mineral filler to essentially mineral filler alone with or without an
additive such as asbestos fibers. The mastic is voidless except for air
bubbles that may be trapped during the manufacture and placing.
\sphalt mastics can be used in several ways to waterproof, protect, or

reinforce a hydraulic structure. For waterproofing, asphalt mastics have
been used for cutoff walls for dams as well as for the central core of the
dam itself. They are also used as exposed watertight surface linings.
Asphalt mastic mixes are erosion-resistant; therefore, they can be

exposed to waves and abrasive water action. They are also used to form
protective covers on embankments or over the floor of channels or estuaries
that are subiect to erosion. Hot mastic mixes can be placed underwater
0 through tremies. chutes, or by simply dumping in masses. They are also
used for constructing flexible slabs or mattresses that are lifted into
place to form a protective blanket or cover,
177
20 -30cm (8 -12 in.) ASPHALT CONCRETE--,
IMEAN LOW WATER \,
Figure 42. Seawall slope -,evetment.
F igiure 4S. P c i ng mix by spreader box.
178
For reinforcing, asphalt mastics are used as grouts to fill and plug
the voids in stone structures such as jetties and revetments (Figs. 44 and
45). The binding action of the mastic tends to make one firm mass, yet
mastics are flexible enough to conform to some differential settlement in
the structure. Asphalt mastics are also used as joint fillers to bind stone
blocks together on coastal structures, particularly in European construc-
tion.
Ow
2.4 rm(8 ft)
ASPHALT CONCRETE CAP -' ASPHALT SEAL (GROUTING)

COURSE
SCOVER STONE
5.4 to 9.1 t (6 TO 10
M. L. W. /T*ONS' *
/CORE STONE
34 kg to1.8 t
'0 (75 LB. TO
0.9 m (3 ft) RIPRAP 7 to 91 kg (15 to 200 LB.)
*iFigure 44. Cross section, south jetty, Galveston, Texas.
(5) Surface Treatments.
(a) Purposes. A surface treatment may be applied to an

asphalt surface for a number of reasons. It may be designed to make the
surface more watertight, or to protect it from abrasion by waves, water
currents, or even by ice. A layer of mud deposited on an asphalt surface
or algae and other sediments, and allowed to dry, will shrink as they dry
-0 will set up suprisingly large tensile stresses at the surface resulting in
the surface curling or cracking. A surface treatment may also be used to
protect the surface from mud curl or the curling of drying algae along the
waterline, to give the surface a lighter color in order to reduce tempera-
ture extremes, or to reduce the rate of oxidation of the exposed asphalt
surface.
(b) Sprayed Asphalt Seals. Asphalt cement or emulsified

asphalt sprayed over the surface of an asphalt lining at the rate of 1
liter per square meter (0.25 gallon per square yard) will provide a film
coating as much as 1 millimeter (0.04 inch) thick. A continuous film
coating will fill and seal any exposed pores and increase the watertightness
of the asphalt lining. It will also tend to fill and seal small cracks in
the surface that may have been caused by improper rolling procedures in
compacting the lining. Tile surface should be clean, dry, and free from
179
K
II
A"- ; ~' 1 5-
is
-
4-,
A F / ~'
I',
A
-
-U-.
-c 4
~
If,
-
'
~I U-. -1
/
6 I
'4
1 /
6 I
'~' I
SA
if
-
leo
6
°
loose material Its temperature should preferable exceed 38 Celsius ( 1000
Fahrenheit). A sloped surface usual ly necessitates hand spraying. This
should be done in a back-and-forth sweeping motion to build up the film and
* to keep the asphalt from flowing down the slope.
(c) Asphalt Mastic Seals. In addition to nroviding a seal,

asphalt mastics applied to the surface of asphalt linings provide protection
* from mechanical abuse. Asphalt mastics, generally placed on an asphalt
lining with a screed, permit a heavier coating than sprayed applications,
and well-designed mixtures can ma'e the surface resistant to abrasion by
waves, or scouring by waterborne sands. Asnhalt mastic mixtures for this
purpose are essentially blends of mineral filler and asphalt cement.
(d) Prefabricated Asphalt Panels. The typical prefabricated

asphalt panel consists of a core of ductile, blown or oxidized aisphalt
(asphalt which has certain natural characteristics changed by blowing air
through it at elevated temperature) fortified with mineral fillers and
reinforcing fibers. The ingredients are blended and molded under heat and
pressure. The core is then sandwiched between protective sheets and a
protective coating of hot-applied asphalt cement. The protective sheets may
he an asphalt-impregnated felt, or plasticized or flexible glass fabrics
6 (Fig. 46).
Figure 4. lining ditch with prefabricated

asphalt panels,
Asphalt painels Ire usual ly about 13 millimeters (1/2 inch) thick, but
they are available as thin as 3 millimeters (1/8 inch) thick. They are
usually 1.0 to 1.' meters (3 or 4 feet) wide and 3 to 6 meters (10 to 20
feet) long for handling and placing.
* 181
The most extensive use of prefabricated asphalt panels has been in
lining and waterproofing all types of water storage reservoirs, including
domestic water reservoirs, sewage lagoons, industrial waste-treatment
reservoirs, evaporation ponds, and reflecting pools. They are also used
for lining canals and ditches, and for bank protection. Prefabricated
asphalt panels have been used underneath riprap or rock reveted embankments
to prevent leaching of sand and earth through the rock revetment usually
r. caused by action of waves and tides. The development of geotechnical
fabrics has largely replaced the use of asphalt panels in recent years.
Asphalt panels have the advantage of providing a relatively thin watertight
barrier that can be used as a surface lining. In addition, they do not
require heavy machinery to install. They are useful for relining reservoirs
where the concrete lining has cracked badly and where leaking has been
excessive. Prefabricated asphalt panel linings are also used as an element
of composite lining structures, most frequently serving as the watertight
surface of a built-up lining.
(6) Miscellaneous.
(a) Sand Asphalt. Sand asphalt is a mixture of sand, with or

without added mineral filler, and asphalt cement. Mineral filler added to
the mix permits a higher asphalt content and makes it possible to obtain a
denser, tougher, and more stable mix.
Sand asphalt has been used alone for linings, as base courses for other
linings, for revetments, and for groins, although not in the coastal zone.
rThe largest use of sand asphalt for hydraulics purposes in the United
States probably has been for bank paving along the Mississippi River by the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Netherlands has made extensive use of
sand asphalt in the construction of seawall revetments. Typically, the base
thicknesses range up to 0.20 meter (8 inches) and are usually capped with
a layer of asphalt concrete.
Local sand deposits generally can be used, as gradation is not par-

ticularly critical. The asphalt cement should be AC-20 (or equivalent AR-
or penetration grade) or a higher viscosity grade. A typical mix would have
an asphalt content of about 6 percent. If about 5 percent mineral filler is
added, the asphalt content would probably be around 8 percent. Sand asphalt
mixes for linings are not as watertight as specially designed hydraulic
asphalt concrete.
(b) Asphalt Prime Treatments. Priming the soil surface of a

hydraulic structure with asphalt is often done to seal it temporarily or to
reduce seepage until such time as waterborne sediments in the impounded
water settle and plug the soil pores. Asphalt primers have also been
applied to sloped embankments before placing a sprayed-asphalt membrane.
The purpose, in this case, is to anchor the membrane to the slope. Primes
hate also been used for much the same purpose as prime treatments of roadway
surfaces prior to paving operations, that is,to plug up voids and to provide
a more stable surface on which to place asphalt construction. Prime treat-
ments are neither watertight nor permanent. They are most applicable to
silty sand soils that are quite permeable.
182
(c) Asphalt Injection. Asphalt injection is the subsurface
application of asphalt pumped under pressure through pipes. The method is
used to reduce leakage of a hydraulic structure through underground crack ,
fissures, and cavities. Injection of asphalt into the subsurface has been
done to prevent leaching of soils through rock reveted embankments at
commercially developed sites to prevent surface subsidence behind the
embankment.
The hot, fluid asphalt is usually pumped through hPated perforated pipes
dropped into drilled holes at the leakage strata levels. Once in the
4leakage channel, the asphalt spreads out and hardens into a tight plug or
water stop. With sufficient pumping pressure, the asphalt will do this even
in fissures filled with water. These asphalt plugs can adapt to slight
movements in the formation and changes in water pressure.
(d) Asphalt >Iattresses. Asphalt mattresses are precast sections
or blankets of asphalt mastic reinforced with wire mesh and steel cables or
fiber netting and lines. Generally they vary in thickness from 25 to 50
millimeters (1 to 2 inches). Their length and width are limited only by the
size of the molding platform and the cababilities of the equipment used to
manipulate and place them.
The reinforced asphalt mattress was developed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers in 1932-34 for use on underwater revetments on the banks of the
lower Mississippi River. Continuous asphalt mattresses were cast on a
special barge pulled into the water. Mattresses have since been adapted for
use in European hydraulic structures and in Japan. Their principal function
is to protect the surface on which they rest from erosion or scour by waves
and currents. They are often used at the toe of a revetment or lining.
After a short period, the edge of the mattress settles into the scour zone,
thus stabilizing the erosive process. Asphalt mattresses are also used as
linings and as protective blankets for hydraulic structures.
2. Preplaced Aggregate Concrete.
Preplaced aggregate (PA) concrete derives its name from the uniaue
placement method by which it is made. Intrusion and grouted concretes are
other common names used for this type of concrete. In this method of
construction, forms are first filled with clean, well-graded coarse aggre-
gate. Structural quality grout is then injected into the voids of the
>0 aggregate mass to produce concrete.
This method of placing concrete is especially adaptable to uuderwater

construction, to concrete and masonry repairs, and, in general to new
structures, where placement by conventional means is unusually difficult or
where concrete of low volume change is required (U.S. Bureau of Reclamati~n,
* 1963). This method of placing concrete has been used in the construction of
bridge piers, atomic reactor shielding, plugs for outlet works in dams and
tunnels, in mine workings, and for embedment of penstocks and turbine scroll
cases, as well as a great variety of repair work. Recently this process has
been used for exposed aggregate and other architectural treatments. Inasmuch
as preplaced aggregate concrete construction is a relatively specialized
* type, it is essential that the work be undertaken by well-qualified personnel
experienced in this method of concrete construction.
183
Preplaced aggregate concrete differs from conventional concrete in that
it contains a higher percentage of coarse aggregate in the finished prod(uct.
Because of point-to-point contact of the coarse aggregate, as placed,
drying shrinkage is about one-half the magnitude of that which normally
occurs in conventirnal concrete {U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station (WES), ,j,, Shideler and Litvin, 19641.
The higher percentage of coarse aggregate in the concrete has an in-

fluence on the modulus of elasticity which is slightly higher than that of
conventional concrete. The other physical properties also appear to be more
affected by the properties of the coarse aggregate than occurs with conven-
tional concrete. In summary, the physical properties of preplaced aggregate
concrete are similar to those of conventional concrete except that overall
drying shrinkage of the former is considerably less. Accordingly, with a
properly proportioned and tested grout mix and with good construction
;I practices, allowable working stresses used for conventional concrete struc-
tural design may be used (U.S. Army Engineer, WES, 1954).
The economics of its use are a function of site conditions and job
requirements. Structural forms for the concrete are usually more expensive
than that required for conventionally placed concrete because greater care
re is needed to prevent grout leaks and placements usually require additional
lateral support. However, in underwater construction, higher placing rates
have been achieved by this method than by conventional placing methods.
a. Types of Grouts. Slurries of Portland cement and water, with or

without sand, have long been used in the construction industry for filling
of rock fissures. Unless sufficient pressure is applied to squeeze out
excess water, settlement of solids may result in incomplete filling of
voids. Clean sand-cement or soil-cement slurries may be used for low-
pressure backfill grouting of rubble or rockfill where strength is not an
important consideration.
As concrete technology has changed, basic grouts composed of Portland

cement, sand and water have been modified to more effectively produce
structural preplaced aggregate concrete. Such grouts may be modified
chemically by the inclusion of admixtures such as pozzolans, fluidifiers,
expansion agents, air-entraining agents, and coloring additives; or the
grout may be modified mechanically by use of specially designed high-speed
mixers.
b. Grout and Aggregate Materials.
(1) Cement. Grout can be made with any one of the types of cement
that complies with ASTM, Standard CISO, Corps of Engineers specification
* CRD-C 201, which would be suitable for use in conventional concrete and
produce the required conditions for preplaced aggregate concrete. The type
of cement should be selected in accordance with controlling factors, job
conditions, and service exposures which would influence the same selection
for conventional concrete.
(2) Coarse Aggregate. Coarse aggregate must be clean, free of

surf*ice dust and fines, sound, durable, and should conform to AST.M Standard
C33, Corps of Engineers specification CRD-C133, for aggregate acceptance,
184
6t
except as to grading. Importantly, the coarse aggregate should not be
susceptible to excessive breakage and attrition during handling and placinl
in the forms. The void content of the coarse aggregate after placement in
the form will customarily range between 38 to 48 percent. For economy, it
is desirable to keep the void content as low as possible to minimize the
required volume of the intruded grout. A low void content not only results
in a saving in cementing materials, but, concomitantly, less volume change.
The maximum size aggregate depends on availability, type of construction
involved, and usual limitations established for thickness of section and
spacing of reinforcement bars (King, 1959). The minimum recommended size is
dependent, essentially, on sand grading. Typical aggregate gradations are
shown in Table 26. When grout is prepared with sand graded for use in
conventional concrete, minimum coarse aggregate size should be 38 millimeters
(1.5 inches). When a mason or plaster sand grading is used, minimum coarse
aggregate size may be reduced to as low as 13 millimeters (0.5 inches). No
limit is placed on maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
Table 26. Typical aggregate gradations for preplaced aggregate

concrete prepared with fine sand grout containing
pozzolan and fluidifier
Typical fine aggregate grading

Cumulative percentage passing given sieve
No. 8 No. 16 No. 30 No. 50 No. 100 Pan FM
(2.36) (1.18 (600 (300 (150
mm) mm) pim) Jm) Jim)
100 97 67 31 10 0 1.95
100 98 72 34 11 0 1.85
100 96 56 36 20 0 1.92
Typical coarse aggregate grading
Cumulative percentage passing given sieve
4 1-3/4 1-1/2
6 in. in. 3 in. in. in. 7/8 in. 3/4 in. 5/8 in, in.
* (150 (114 (75 (45 (38.1 (22.4 (19.0 (16.0 (12.5
mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)
100 97 45 9 2 1
100 62 4 2 1
100 78 40 10 2 1
100
1 67 40 6 2 1
The coarse aggregate should be well graded up to and including the

largest size which can be placed economically in the forms without excessive
segregation. Gap grading, using a ratio of minimum nominal size coarse
aggregate to the maximum nominal size fine aggregate of 10:1 without inter-
mediate sizes, has been occasionally used to achieve exceptionally low void
185
S.
cements. However, this grading is uneconomical for most work. ,ar,
aggregates as large as the largest stones capah!e of being iar'i< b)
have been used with good results.
(3) Fine Aggregate. Either crushed or natural sand ii\,

However, well-rounded sand grains from a natural source are rr
because such sands require less water to achieve acceptable grlut ', iitv.
The sand should be hard, dense, durable, uncoated rock particles, :mid :
uniform, stable moisture content. It should conform to current .
Standard C33, except with respect to grading.
(4) Pozzolan. Pozzolan is used to reduce bleeding, to 0;,prove

fluid properLies of the mixture, and to reduce segregation of ,o!id prticic .
The pozzolan combines with lime liberated during hydration of th. elet 't
form strength producing compounds at later ages. The rate at :,,i~ h 1'-..Vn
contributes the heat of hydration is much slower than that of ,',"tin
cement. Both natural and manufactured pozzolans have been used, t ta"o
pozzolan most generally used and preferred is fly ash conforming ,o ASVM>!
Standard C618, Corps of Engineers Specification CRD C255. Some ;o:: ns
have caused excessi-e abrasion of pumping equipment and increased *,lto!
requirements, so preliminary tests should be made with the ,;elect j pcv-:o an.
0 (5) Grout Admixtures. A water-reducing, set-retarding :,cnt,

known as a grout fluidifier, is commonly incorporated in the g-ut; :ixtu,
to make it more fluid, to reduce the amount of water otherwise rc, lired m,'r
a given fluidity, to delay setting time for ease in handling with pumping
equipment and to promote better penetration of the voids in the -:aa'se
aggregate. This agent is customarily a preblended material obtain-d
commercially. It normally consists of a water-reducing agent, a u;t;<pendirg
agent, aluminum powder, and a chemical buffer to assure properly iiined
reaction of the aluminum powder with alkalies in the cement. Rencotion of
the aluminum powder with alkalies during hydration of the cement nonorate,
hydrogen gas which causes expansion of the grout while it is fluiJ and
provides small 'fir bubbles within the grout. Normal dosage of thu water-
reducing agent ±n commercially available grout fluidifiers range, 'rom 0.20
to 0.30 percen- by weight of cement plus pozzolan. Aluminum powt, "' is
normally employed in the range of 0.01 to 0.02 percent by weight o,'cement
plus pozzolan. The fluidifier should be so proportioned that most of tihe
expansion occurs within 3 hours after initial mixing. Preblended (,rout
flUidifiers should conform to Corps of Engineers Specification col
bld.
c. Grout Mix Proportioning. Grout material proportions, :i i:iconven-

tional concrete practice, are influenced by structural design reomi tements.
Additionally, the grout must be so designed as to flow freely thioagh the
voids of the preplaced aggregate without appreciable segregati on ur wa:ter
gain so that honeycombing is avoided and an intimate bond hetwc ci ,rout and
coarse aggregate particles is ensured. The importance of selecti ' maximum
sand size, compatible with void size as determined by coarse aggi-'ate
grading, is reflected in Table 26.
Cement-to-sand ratios employed are commonly in the range of 1:1 to 1:2;

although ratios as lean as 1:3 cement to sand have been used. (Io;;;r S i v
strength and pumpability requirements limit the aimount of sand c,:,haii,,
used in any grout (U.S. Army Engineer, WES, 1954). The grout mis be
186
6
sufficiently fluid so that it will penetrate and fill all the void:, in UL
t
aggregate mass, yet be of such consistency that the suspended sand "lid
cumenting materials do not settle out. For normal structural work, thic
ratio of cementitious materials (cement plus pozzolan) to sand sh, !id h!
approximately 1:1. Usually, the proportions of cement to pozzol.in :ir ):I,
although ratios as low as 1:1 and up to 9:1 have been used on various Jol .
Occasionally, the pozzolan may be omitted entirely. For a structival , ro,t
it is usually not desirable to exceed a cement to sand ratio of 1:2 by weight
because higher ratios produce lower strengths and excessive segregation oIf
sand in the grout mixture may occur. Mix proportions may be determined by
Corps of Engineers Specifications CRD C615.
d. Physical Properties. For structural preplaced aggregate concrete

where strength and other physical properties are a consideration, the grut
should be proportioned and test specimens, using the contemplated coarse
aggregate grading, should be made to determine the grout mix proportions
which will produce preplaced aggregate concrete of the required physical
properties. Such tests will also provide information as to the quantity of
materials needed for the work. Where necessary, the information on physical
properties of the structural preplaced aggregate concrete should include
" strength, resistance to freezing and thawing exposure, modulus of elasticity,
drying shrinkage, volume change, or other structural criteria. Physical
properties of preplaced aggregate concrete made with a grout containing
pozzolan and a fluidifier have been determined and compared with conventional
concrete in a number of laboratory tests. This data can be found in pub-
lished reports (U.S. Army Engineer, WES, 1954) (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
1949).
Compressive strength of concrete with a given maximum size aggregate,

grout fluidifier, and pozzolan is slightly lower at 28 days' age than that
of conventional concrete containing entrained air and an equal amount of
cementing materials. At 90 days' age and later, its strength is equivalent
to that of conventional air entrained concrete (U.S. Army Engineer, IES,
1954). Concrete containing aluminum powder or a grout fluidifier, and
pozzolan develops a higher bond strength with old concrete than does new,
conventional concrete. This may be explained because of the greater fluidity
of the grout as compared with mortar and the expansion of the grout which
develops a slight pressure during the formation of the hydrogen gas.
e. l1acement.
(1) Foundation Preparation. Foundation preparation is important in

* - underwater placement. For example, if extremely fine material is let on
the foundation or in heavy suspension just above the foundation, it will Bc
• displaced upward into the aggregate. The dispersed fine materi.al then o.its
the aggregate or settles and becomes concentrated in void spaces in the
aggregate, thus precluding proper intrusion and consolidation. 'lcrcforc,
all loose fine material must be removed insofar as possible befor-, plaut.nmv, t
of aggregate. Alternatively, if structural conditions permit, a aivor of
sand and gravel may be first deposited to serve as a filter bed ta oruvent
* contamination of preplaced coarse aggregate.
(2) Aggregate Placement. Coarse aggregate should be washed aid

screened immediately before placing in the furms so that it will Ie surt';,ce
* 187
moist at the time of grout injection. Dry aggregate will absorb water fr ,
the grout which thickens the grout within the aggregate mass and rnry resilt
in ungrouted or honeycombed areas. If more than one size of coarse aggregate
is used, the aggregate should be weighed, batched, and mixed in the prorfer
proportions, or discharged at proportional rates onto the wash screen. he
wash screen may be either a vibrating deck or revolving type. The latter
is effective as a blender, as well as a washer.
For structural concrete work, aggregate is commonly conveyed to the

forms in concrete buckets. A flexible rubber elephant trunk is often used
to limit the height of free fall, thus preventing segregation, and for
placing in constricted areas. The total fall distance and method of
handling should be such that segregation and aggregate breakage are reduccd
to a minimum. Permissible fall distance depends on aggregate size and
soundness. Where coarse aggregate is being placed through water in mass
concrete work, as in bridge piers, it may be discharged directly into the
forms from bottom dump barges or self-unloading ships. Coarse aggregate
has been placed successfully to depths of well over 30.5 meters (100 feet)
in water where the possibility of breakage is eliminated (Davis and
1laltenhoff, 1956). While some segregation may occur, segregation itself is
not usually objectionable since it tends to result only in a somewhat greater
void content and a non-uniform distribution of the void system throughout
the aggregate mass, the result being to increase, slightly, the grout require-
ments with an insignificant effect on the strength of the mass concrete.
However, an accumulation of smaller sizes might reduce the void size suffi-
ciently to preclude consolidation within the area by the grout.
(3) Grout Quality Control. The pumpability of grout is controlled

by the consistency test, using a standard flow cone in accordance with Corps
of Engineers CRD C611. To maintain uniformity, time of outflow should be
limited to between 18 and 22 seconds. However, grouts can be successfully
pumped having an outflow of up to 30 seconds, depending on void content of
the aggregate. Test cylinders should be maOe in accordance with Corps of
Engineers Specification CRD C84 and tested in accordance with appropriate
ASTM standards.
f. Curing. Curing should be in accordance with accepted conxcntional

concrete practice. As with any concrete, extended periods of wet curing
beyond the usual 7 days will be beneficial in improving the quality of the
.* concrete.
3. Portland Cement Grout.
a. Types and Characteristics. Portland cement grout has a variety of

uses in coastal structures and is similarly varied in its makeup. A simple
* combination of cement and water, in a flowable consistency, is sometimes
used to fill joints and voids in concrete, masonry, or rock. More often
other materials are added to improve various properties or reduce cost.
These include sand and clay, used as inert fillers, and colloidal clays such
as bentonite to stabilize fresh grout placed under water. Also included are
special purpose admixtures to increase strength, retard or accelerate set
* and strength gain, cause expansion of the grout, prevent shrinkage, or
improve bond, penetration, impermeability, plasticity, or resistance to
freeze-thaw damage or chemical attack. These are discussed more fully in
188
0
Section V, Portland Cement CQncrete, and in the previous discussion of

preplaced aggregate concrete. In some cases the desired properties can hc
satiz:actorily obtained by using one of the previously described special
types of Portland cement.
b. Mixes. Where grout can be pumped or poured into relatively open

joints or voids a mixture of one part cement to typically three or four
parts sand is common, with just enough water for satisfactory placement.
For very large voids, gravel may also be added. Where the material will be
pumped into the ground to raise a settled slab or behind a bulkheadl to plug
a hole or break, a mixture of clay or silt with about 10 percent cement c:an
sometimes be used. For filling or repairing narrow joints or cracks a neat
cement grout consisting of 1 part cement mixed with I to 10 parts water to
obtain proper consistency, may be appropriate. In some cases the use of an
admixture may be justified to enhance certain properties. In such a case
U care should be taken to ensure the suitability of the admixture for the
conditions and materials involved, and that dosage and mixing are correct.
Pertinent Corps of Engineers Specifications include CRD C615, CRD C619, CRD
C611, and CRD C612.
c. Placement Methods and Effects. Portland cement grout is usually

0 placed by one of the following methods:
(1) Dumping or pouring into large voids or onto flat or sloping
surfaces;
(2) free discharge from a hose or tremie trunk, above or under

water, into a form or into voids or cavities in rock, masonry, or
concrete;
H- (3) pressure discharge from a hose or pipe;
(a) into soil to correct settlement of a slab or light

foundation by displacement ur "mud jacking," or behind a
bulkhead for sealing or patching; or
(b) into cracks or joints in concrete, masonry, or

rock; and
'0 (4) hand placement by pouring or "dry packing."
Where grout is used to fill joints, cracks or cavities in structural

members it will be important to avoid or minimize shrinkage. This will
require the best practicable combination of compaction, low water-cement
ratio, and possibly the use of an expanding or plasticizing admixture in Ihe
* grout. If a significant surface area of freshly placed grout is exposed to
the air, especially when the grout has a high cement factor, the surface
will need to be kept continuously moist for several days if shrinkage crAcks
are to be avoided.
If the grout is injected into a confined space, such as immediately

• behind a bulkhead or into cracks or cavities, caution must he used to avoid
building up excessive pressure which could displace or rupture the conlining
structure. This can be avoided by carefully limiting the injection prcssulre,
189
or by grouting in properly sized increments or lifts and allowing atleqUatu
setting time between them. Tests for the setting time of grout are descrilted
in Corps of Engineers Specification CRD-C614.
d. Effects of the Environment. Portland cement grout will be 'ffecttJ

to varying degrees by the environmental conditions and forces acting on the
concrete, masonry or rock with which it is associated. Placed in thin
joints or cracks it will have some protection from wave action, abrasion,
periodic wetting and drying, and fire but may be vulnerable to water
penetration, freeze-thaw cycles, chemical attack and seismic forces. lherc
used for surface repair, topping or void filling it may be exposed to all
these. Most of these environmental forces will be adequately resisted by a
grout having an optimum combination of strength, impermeability, entrained
air content, and freedom from excessive shrinkage. Where a certain type of
exposure is likely to be severe, the added cost of a beneficial proprietary
admixture may be warranted.
e. Functions in Coastal Structures. The many uses of Portland cement
grout can be broadly classified as follows:
(1) In protective structures:
(a) filling voids in rock revetments; (this may be for

improved slope stability, erosion resistance against waves,
currents or floating debris, or rat-proofing);
(b) filling joints in precast block revetments; or
(c) sealing voids in stone breakwaters to improve wave

attenuation. (This should be undertq _n very judiciously,
lest it cause excessive pressure bu *ap in the breakwater
structure under heavy wave action, or trap and amplify
resonant wave energy within the protected water area).
(2) In functional structures:
(a) grouting cyclopean or preplaced aggregate concrete;
(b) setting steel piling or tieback anchors in rock; znJ
(c) filling voids in hollow masonry walls.

(3) In structural repairs:
(a) repairing spalled, broken or cracked concrete;
(b) plugging breaks or holes in steel or concrete bulk-

heads; and
(c) correcting foundation settlement.
4. Soil Cement.
a. Description of Soil Cement. Soil cement is a mixture of pulverized

so'l and measured amounts of Portland cement and water, compacted to a high
190
density. As the cement hydrates, the mixture becomes hard ,ind i!,-].
the stability of the soil.
The term "soil" includes native soils, gravels, sands, crusi.,c] it- jli;,
and miscellaneous materials such as cinders, slaig, cali-'hc, and chr.
b. Types of Soil Cement. There are three general types of _soil c nc;,it
mixtures depending on the quantity of cement and water added to tii-. soil.
(1) Compacted Soil Cement. This mixture contains suffiient cument

and moisture for maximum compaction. It will withstand laboratory freeze-
thaw tests (ASTM Standard D560, CRD C594) and wet-dry tests (ASTM Standard
D559, CRD C593) and will meet weight loss criteria.
(2) Cement-Modified Soil. This is an unhardened or semilhardened

mixture of soil and cement. When relatively small quantities of cement .nid
moisture are added to a soil, the chemical and physical properties of that
soil are changed. The soil's plasticity and volume change capacity are
reduced and its bearing value increased. In cement-modified soil, only
enough cement is used to change the physical properties of the soil to tie
desired degree--less cement than is required to produce a hard soil-cement.
The use of cement to produce a cement-modified soil can be applied to both
silt-clay and granular soils to increase the bearing values and reduce
plasticity of soil materials.
(3) Plastic Soil-Cement. This is a hardened mixture of soil and
cement that contains sufficient water, at the time of placing, to produce
consistency similar to that of plastering mortar. Plastic soil-c oment is
used to line or pave steep or irregular slopes for erosion control of banks
and ditches.
c. Mlixing Soil Cement. Since soil-cement obtains its stability
prim;rily by the hydration of cement and not by cohesion and internal
friction of the materials, practically all soil.
3 and soil combinations ca,
bc hardened with Portland cement. The general suitability of soils for
soil-cement can be judged, before they are tested, on the basis of their
gradation. On the basis of gradation, soils for soil-cement can h, di ided
into three broad groups.
(1) Sandy and Gravelly Soils. Sandy and gravelly soils WIth about
10 to 35 percent silt and clay have the most favorable characteristics ,n.i
generally require the least amount of cement for hardening if the.y cont:in
55 percent or more passing No. 4 sieve. These soils are readily oinlxcri Ze,
easily mixed, and can be built under a wide range of weather cond cions.
(2) Sandy Soils, Deficient in Fines. Soils such as some c)OaLh,

glacial, and windblown sands make good soil-cement, although the auiount
of cement needed for adequate hardening may be higher than the fir:st
group.
(3) Silty and Clayey Soils. These soils make satisfactoiv , iI-
cement, but those containing high clay contents are harder to pul( cci _c.
(;enerally, the more clayey the soil the higher the cement c0,ntent ',ftired
to harden it gradually.
191
I-O2 MOFFATT AND NICHOL INC LONG BEACH CR FEB 83 CERC-SR-i9 /
~~~~A-Ai -8i6
CUTONMTRAS O OSTLSRCUR6U
UNCLSSIFIED F/G 13/3 NI

1.
fll
I36
IlIII.. J. .[. Illll

4
INAICNAL U' EAL F 1 ND,4L -,
.- 0 • O
O • O
4
a N m . I - - m.
I i
4
Excessivly wet soil is difficult to mix and pulverize. lxfp'rienri 1,,-
shown that cement can be mixed with sandy soils when the moisture contcuj!
is as high as 2 percent above optimum. For clayev soils the mo>;ttlrc
-1 content should be below optimum for efficient mixing.
d. Curing. Compacted and finished soil-cement contain suffici, It

moisture for adequate cement hydration. A moisture-retaining co -,'r mu-t b-
placed over the soil-cement soon after completion to retain this moisture
and permit the cement to hydrate. Materials such as waterproof paper or
plastic sheets, wet straw or sand, wet burlap or cotton mats are ,ntirey
satisfactory.
e. Engineering Properties of Soil Cement. During construction the

soil-cement is compacted to a high density. As the cement t'ydrates, the
mixture hardens in this dense state to produce a structural slablike
material, and thus possesses engineering properties. The magnitude of
these properties depends primarily on the type of soil, age and curin
conditions.
Depending on soil type, 7-day compressive strength of saturated speci-

mens of the minimum cement content meeting soil-cement criteria is generally
4 higher than 2.1 megapascals (300 pounds per square inch). The 28-day
flexural strength is approximately 20 percent of the compressive strciigth,
and the modulus of elasticity about 6 900 megapascals (1 million pounds per
square inch). Soil cement tends to be brittle, cracking under impact and
temperature stresses.
f. Functions of Soil-Cement. Soil-cement is used primarily as a base

course for stabilizing and compacting soils for foundations, bank protection
and subbase construction. It has been used for earth dam cores, reservoir
linings, and slope protection.
5. Sulfur Cement Concrete and Grouts.
a. Introduction. The past 15 to 20 years have seen a rapid increase

in research and development work on sulfur, and two factors have been the
cause of this increase. In the early 1960's, large quantities of sulfur
were beginning to be recovered from sour natural gas and petroleum. Sultfla
producers realized the necessity of creating new end-use markets to absorb
this sulfur, and sponsored research to that purpose. As a result of this
research, sulfur was discovered, or in some cases rediscovered, to have A
number of interesting mechanical properties. Research workers iho Drigin.11ly
had envisioned sulfur as a substitute material now discovered that sulfur
had properties superior to some conventionally used materials and that it
could outperform such material both technologically and economiically. llcse
initial discoveries stimulated additional research in many aspects of
sulfur. Many interesting new uses for sulfur in construction have h(eel
discovered. Some of the more promising are:
(1) Sulfur asphalt paving materials,
(2) sulfur concretes,
(3) sulfur coatings,
192
1) impregnat ing materials with sulfur, and
(5) foamed sulfur.
lhe acceptance of sulfiu asphalt tcchnology by highway departments and

contractors has been due not only to the desire to replace asphalt by
readi ly avai lable sulfur, but also to the fact that the sulfur asphalt
materials have shown improved properties compared to asphalt, and to the
fact that sulfur asphalt permits the use of aggregates which would be
unsuitable for u-se with asphalt.
It has been known for many years that mixing molten sulfur with sand or
rtegregate produces a sulfur concrete with excellent strength. However, the
durabi lity simple sulfur concretes of this type has not been impressive,
Uparticularly under conditions of high humidity and wide temperature fluctua-
tion. Research has centered -i developing additives to sulfur to improve
the durability. Work carried out by the U.S. Bureau of Mines at Boulder
City, \evada, and by Sulfur Innovations, Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, has
resulted in sulfur concretes with greatly improved properties.
Porous materials can be impregnated with molten sulfur that, on solidify-

ing, imparts additional strength to the materials. Resistance to freeze-
thaw cycles and corrosion is also frequently improved by sulfur impregnation.
Recent research indicates that with suitable additives, sulfur could be
made into a rigid foam having excellent mechanical and insulating properties.
The properties of sulfur-based construction materials generally equal or
surpass those of conventional cementing materials.
b. Sulfur-Asphalt (SA) Materials. Basically, all the SA technologies

involve combining molten sulfur and hot asphalt to produce a sulfur-asphalt
binder, which is then mixed with mineral aggregate to give a SA hot-mix
paving material. The individual technologies differ in the method and
cquipment used to produce the SA binder.
ki) Mixes. Depending on the technology and type of aggregate

used, froii 1l/3 tol1/2 by Aeight of the asphalt can be replaced by sulfur.
Because sulfur is about twice as heavy as asphalt, sulfur-asphalt binders
ha',.o higher densities than normal asphalt. Because a certain volume of
binder is needed to obtain an acceptable void content of the compacted
p~avmi material, optimum stability of SA paving materials generally occurs
at :isomiehat higiher binder content (by weight) than when straight asphalt
is used. In practice, between 6.2 and 8.9 newtons (1.4 and 2 pounds) of
sulfur are needed to replace 4.4 newtons (I pound) of asphalt. Because
"'.\ pa ing
i materials arc three-component systems (sulfur-asphalt-aggregate)
thcv pe:rmit more flexibility of design than with regular two-component
,:r:phalt-,rgregate)paving materials.
r h_. hot asphalt and -sulfur are mixed, some of the sulfur, about 20
i~cr1ent wv iei'Tt of the asphalt, will dissolve in the asphalt. The
rCen ud t Of the sUifur formo. a dispersion of sulfur in asphalt. Both the
*-..,*,o) ,rid th_. di s tr-td -mUlt'tfr modify the properties of the asphalt.
l'a(,,,t" th. ,tissOlved s;ulfur reacts chemically with the asphalt to form
P,'1 , lti.C', i.Iiyh m:ak' the asphalt softer and more ductile. (At higher
* 193
6!
temperatures, above 160? Celsius, dehydrogenation occurs with the formation

of hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) and harder, more viscous asphalts. This type of
reaction is undesirable, and is one of the reasons why temperature control
is important in SA technology.)
The dispersed sulfur is present as droplets, most of which are below 5

micrometers in size. These 8olidify as the paving material cools below the
*melting point of sulfur (120 Celsius), and the resulting solid sulfur
phase imparts increased structural strength to the SA paving material.
(2) Properties. Listed below are some of the improved properties

of SA paving materials:
(a) The strength of SA, as measured by the Marshall method,

can be designed to be considerably higher than that of regular
asphalt;
(b) the increased strength obtainable with SA may permit

the use of lower quality aggregates or a reduction in paving
thickness;
*O (c) SA increases the high temperature stiffness of paving

materials, without a corresponding increase at low temperatures,
thus softer asphalts can be used to minimize winter cracking,
with less danger of deformation at summer temperatures;
(d) SA has a lower viscosity than regular asphalt and can

be mixed at lower temperatures, resulting in reduced energy
consumption at the hot-mix plant;
(e) SA improves resistance to water stripping (the breaking

of the bond between asphalt and aggregate by a layer of water
that forms on the surface of some types of aggregates), thus
aggregates which would otherwise be unsuitable can be used, and
the use of antistripping agents can be reduced or eliminated;
(f) resistance to gasoline, diesel fuel and other solvents
is improved; and
(g) stress fatigue characteristics are improved.
. Not only are many of the properties of SA superior to other concrete

binder mixes, but also some of these properties may be enhanced by combina-
L tions of SA with other materials. The combination of sulfur-asphalt and a
nonwoven fabric results in a high performance product that has high tensile
O strength, is capable of withstanding considerable deformation without break-
ing, and remains waterproof even when placed on sharp aggregate. The lower
viscosity of SA improves the impregnation of the fabric and the ductility of
SA improves the fabric's low temperature performance. On solidification,
the finely dispersed sulfur particles impart additional strength to the
impregnated fabric.
(3) Placement. 'he SA hot-mix is handled like regular asphalt hot-

mix paving material. Equipment and technology for transporting, placing, and
194
•--Now
compacting the SA material is identical to that used for regular asphjlt

hot-mix.
c. Sulfur Concrete. During the past 5 years, interest in stiltit uoi

crete (SC) has grown rapidly. Research and development on SC is cuirtt,,
being carried out by at least 50 companies and agencies, some of wht1 v
now actively marketing SC products and materials.
Sulfur concretes are basically simple materials, made by mixi-g 'nilt,,

plus certain additives with heated mineral aggregates. On cooling, 't
to give a high-strength material with superb corrosion resistance. larli
attempts to make and use SC date back more than 100 years. However, currviLt
SC technology is a product of the 1960's and 1970's following the discovcr
and development of suitable additives or "plasticizers" for the sulfur
which impart durability to SC. A considerable number of compounds have
been screened as additives. Currently, the most popular ones are dicyclo-
pentadiene (DCPD), dipentene (DP), certain proprietary polymeric unsaturated
hydrocarbons, and combinations of these materials. Much of the current
research work is concentrated on finding additives or combinations of
additives which will further improve the durability and performance of SC.
I
Sulfur concretes can be designed to have compressive and tensile
strengths twice or more those of comparable Portland cement concretes
(PCC), and full strength is reached in hours rather than weeks. Sulfur
concretes are extremely corrosion resistant to many industrial chemicals,
including most acids and salts. Sulfur concrete is highly resistant to
saltwater, and marine applications may be attractive.
(1) Additives. While satisfactory SC had been obtained by the

addition of 5 percent DCPD as a modifier to the sulfur, recent U.S. Bureau
of Mines work indicates that a superior product can be obtained by the use
of mixed modifiers. These consist of a mixture of DCPD fractions from DCPD
manufacture containing three, four, or more units of cyclopentadiene or
methylcyclopentadiene per molecule. Several companies market materials of
this type. The relative amounts of DCPD and oligomer used in the modifier
will vary to some extent with the type of aggregate, but a mixture of 65
percent DCPD and 35 percent oligomer is about optimum in most cases. Five
percent by weight of this mixed modifier is added with stirring to the
*I molten sulfur at 1300 Celsius, and allowed to react with it for several
hours. To ensure complete reaction of the sulfur with the modifier, the
U.S. Bureau of Mines allows the mixture to react for 24 hours, but there
are indications that this time can be shortened considerably.
The use of mixed modifier rather than straight DCPD results in improved
durability and corrosion resistance. It is also easier to prepare the
modified sulfur using the mixed modifier. The reaction of DCPD with sulfur
is exothermic, and care must be exercized when adding straight DCPD to
molten sulfur to prevent overheating. With mixed modifiers, the reaction
is easier to control.
(2) Aggregates. A metallurgist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines (W.C.

McBee, Boulder City Laboratory, personal communication, 1981) stressed that
each aggregate system must be analyzed and evaluated as to its suitability
for SC. Generally, limestone aggregates tend to give SC higher strength
* 195
and freeze-thw resistance, whereas quartz aggregates give higher corrosion
resistance. [he salts in chloride and sulfate-containing aggregates have
(no effect on bonding, but some aggregates ire unacceptable for SC because
they react chemically with the binder. Aggregates containing swelling
clays are also undesirable.
(3) Mix Proporticus. Design is normally for maximum compressive

strength, and based on the VMA (voids in mineral aggregate) procedure.
Optimum strength generally coincides with maximum workability and minimum
voids level. Coarse and fine aggregates blended to give about 25 percent
VIL- were foond to be optimal. in the finished SC, 4 to 5 percent voids
remained. These voids are not interconnected, and moisture vbsorption by
SC is very low, 0.05 percent or less, whereas PCC often absorbs 3 percent
I or more. This is an important factor in the resistance of SC to corrosion.
Aggregate grading according to ASTM specification is unsatisfactory for

SC. From 6 to 10 percent of fine (200 mesh) material should be included to
provide good workability. Vo prevent dusting, the fine material can be
mixed with the modified sulfur before it is added to the heated aggregate
in the mixer.
(4) Properties and Uses. The quick curing characteristics of SC

make the material attractive in many situations. Eighty percent or more of
final strength is reached within a few hours of pouring, compared to
several weeks for PCC. Moreover, SC will cure equally well under freezing
conditions, which are highly detrimental to PCC curing. SC can tolerate
chloride and sulphate-containing aggregates found in desert areas, because
the bonding properties of sulfur are not affected by salts. The good heat
insulation characteristics of sulfur and the elimination of water in the
manufacturing process are two additional advantages of SC in desert areas
(The Sulphur Institute, 1979).
(a) Fire Effects. The inherent flammability and low melting

point of sulfur impose some limitations of SC use. Flammability can be
controlled to some extent by the use of additives, and it is fortunate that
the DCPD types of additives used to improve the durability of SC also
impart a degree of fire resistance. Sulfur concretes are in any case
considerably less of a fire hazard than wood. Because of the low thermal
conductivity, heat penetration is slow, and SC can survive short exposures
to fire without serious damage. Sulfur concretes do not support combustion,
and flame spread is essentially zero.
(b) Structural Use Limitations. The low melting point of

sulfur limits the tusc of SC in applications where loss of structural
strength in event of a fife could be catastrophic. Thus, SC for load-
bearing structures wjill probably not he used in high-rise apartment
buildings. However, lie properties of SC appear to make it fully acceptable
for single-stoi, dwellings, us well as for utility buildings and a wide
range of prefabricated structures. These materials are well suited to
specific uses in the coastal zone environment, and when used in a restricted
manner nay ts-sist coastal ,nvironments for many years.
196
a. Corrosive and Pollutant Attacks on Exposed Surfaces.
(1) Bituminous Asphalt. Bituminous asphalt is stable in the

presence of nearly all chemically-laden substances: however, because asphalt
is refined from petroleum-based products, exposure to petroleum solvents
will cause deterioration and disintegration of asphalt. It is normally
unaffected by usual concentrations (less than 1 normal) of acids, salts and
other waste materials.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete. Preplaced aggregate concrete,

like Portland cemert concrete, is rarely attacked by solid, dry chemicals.
Corrosive chemicals must be in some minimum concentration and usually are
sulfates or acids. Also organic acids such as acetic, formic, and lactic
can be quite destructive to preplaced aggregate concrete.
(3) Portland Cement Grout. This grout is attacked by the same
chemicals as Portland cement concrete; however, if the grout is not of equal
density as concrete then the chemical attack may be more aggressive.
I
(4) Soil Cement. Soil cement in its normal use is not attacked by
most chemicals except for natural occurring sulfates such as sodium, potas-
sium, and calcium.
(5) Sulfur Cement and Grout. Sulfur cement and grout are not
generally affected by pollutants in the coastal or marine environment and
they can tolerate chloride and sulfate-containing aggregates. They are
highly resistant to the corrosive effects of saltwater (The Sulphur
Institute, 1979).
b. Sunlight Exposure Effects.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete weathers only at the

surface when exposed to sunlight and air. The weathering results in the
very slow evaporation of solvents near the exposed surface, but because of
the impermeability of asphalt the solvent loss is very slow.
6 (2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete. This concrete is not affected by

sunlight when properly protected from evaporation of mixing water during the
curing period.
(3) Portland Cement Grout. This grout is not affected by sunlight.
* (4) Soil Cement. Soil cement is not affected by sunlight.
(5) Sulfur Cement Concrete and Grout. Sulfur cement concrete and
grout does not appear to be affected by sunlight; however, being a relatively
recent material development, experience is limited.
* c. Water Penetration Effects.

(1) Bituminous Concrete. This concrete is highly resistant to
water penetration because of the impermeability of asphalt. Formulations
* 197
can be used in porous structures; however, the asphalt does not deteriorate
in the presence of water unless accompanied by petroleum solvents.
(2) treplaced Agregate Concrete. This concrete is not normally
penetrated by water, but seawater with a high sulfate and chloride content
may be moderately aggressive as on Portland cement concrete.
(3) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout will undergo the
same environmental effect as preplaced aggregate concrete.
14) Soil Cement. Soil cement will not be affected by water penetra-
tion.
grout will not be affected by water penetration.
d. have and Current Effects.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete is not affected by

normal waves and currents unless they have sufficient force to carry sus-
.4 pended matter to cause severe abrasion. The abraded asphalt particles are
a --
table compound and sufficiently diluted as to not cause any measurable
impact on the adjacent environment.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete. Preplaced aggregate concrete

exhibits no effects from waves and currents.
(3) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout also exhibits no

effects from waves and currents.
(4) Soil Cement. Soil cement should not be used in a wave and
current environment as it is brittle and subject to damage by wave impact.
grout exhibits no direct effect due to waves and currents. Wear by abrasion
and cavitation can result from severe wave action.
e. Effect of Severe Temperature and Ice.
4 (1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete may be either a hot-

mix or cold-mix design. When mixing temperature should be only sufficient
to ensure dry aggregate but in no case should it exceed 1630 Celsius (3250
Fahrenheit). Exposure to higher temperatures will cause solvents to dissi-
pate resulting in deterioration of the asphalt concrete. Ice does not
affect bituminous concrete; however, severe cold temperature will cause the
concrete to become brittle.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Cement. Preplaced aggregate cement is

genral ly not affected by severe temperatures. Air-entraining admixtures
will further improve resistance to freezing and thawing as in Portland
cement concrete.
Pirtlanid Cement Grout. Portland cement grout is aiso highly
resi stant to the effects of severe temperatures, Like preplaced aggregate
6 198
cement, it S >es
I ,-c ' r. turther enhanced with ddi t ion of ai' e nt 1%
1i1i-
in admixtures.
(4) Soil Cement. Soil cement is seldom exposed to severe tempera-
tures and ice as these conJ itions require an increase in cement content
resulting in a substaitial increase in cost and may eliminate the considera-
tion of soil cement as a cn>.-truction element in this environment. For
severe exp'osures it i 5 impoltant to note that an excess of cement is not
harmful but that a det'iciency of cement will result in inferior soil-cement
resulting in cracking and spalling.
i5' Sulfur Cement Concrete and Grout. Sulfur cement concrete and
grout because of the low melting temperature of sulfur (130 Celsius) will
deteriorate at elevatod temperatureS. Low temperatures have little effect
on this material.
.Mlrilne Organi sils.
(1) Bittuminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete is subject to

deterioration from crustaceons organisms as it is comparatively soft as a
coastal environment construction material. When used as a binder with other
materials such as large stone, this type of deterioration has little effect
on the structure.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete. Preplaced aggregate concrete is

not affected by marine organisms.
(5) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout is not affected

by marine organisms if properly mixed and placed.
(4) Soil Cement. Soil cement is not usually exposed to an environ-

merit containing marine organisms. When it is, many organisms will become
attached to the rough surface of an exposed soil cement surface and cause
spAlling. Boring animals can penetrate the surface but apparently do not
find it a desirable environmmt; therefore it is not a common condition.
t51 Sulfur Cement Concrete and Grout. Sulfur cement concrete and
grot has not shown any deterioration from marine organisms; however, due to
the limited experience with this material, long-range performance experience
is not available.
g. i riod ic Vet t inp and I)r ing.
(1 Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete surfaces may tend

to develop fine cracks or alligator patterns on exposed surfaces when
subjected to alternated wetting and drying. Such cracks seldom develop any
si nficant depth in asohlit concrete and are not serious in coastal struc-
tu res
(2) P~rcjaced Aggregate Concrete. Preplaced aggregate concrete is

stu)ject only to the same action as Portland cement concrete, i.e., the
:ormation on the surface of "T cracks" usually in random patterns. These
are norma~lv rest rit~ 2 o the sur face and do not contribute to serious
deteriorat ion.
199
4
4
(3) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout will react

similarly to preplaced concrete.
F, (4) Soil Cement. Soil cement may be exposed to alternate cycles of
wettino and drying; however, because of the nature of this material it tends
to harden until all the cement content is fully hydrated. Sufficient
experience is not available to predict the long-term effects; however,
because of the hardened condition improved resistance to wetting and drying
is a reasonable expectation.
grout is unaffected by periodic wetting and drying.
h. Wind Erosion. None of the five materials discussed in this section

are subject to change or deterioration by wind. Strong winds may pick up
sand particles that may cause some etching of their exposed surface over
extended periods of time.
i. Effects of Burrowing Animals.
(i) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete,being a petroleum-

base product, is an inhibitor to animals. It contains no food value and
therefore is unaffected by animals.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete and Portland Cement Grout.

Preplaced aggregate concrete and Portland cement grout (as in Portland
cement concrete) are very hard materials and not disturbed by burrowing
animals.
(3) Soil Cement. Soil cement used primarily to stabilize soil, is
not as hard a material as Portland cement concrete. It can be attacked by
burrowing animals but because of the shape and mass of these structural
elements (foundations), usually any damage is minor and insignificant.
grout is also hard and resistant to activities of burrowing animals. The
sulfur content is also a deterrent.
j. Effects of Flora. There are no reports of flora growth having any

effect on any of the five materials discussed in this section.
k. Fire.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete, because of its

petroleum-base content, is subject to serious damage by fire. However,
because the asphalt binder in this concrete contains very little solvent,
it does not normally sustain burning itself.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete and Portland Cement Grout.
Preplaced aggregate concrete and Portland cement grout are resistant to
fire and extreme high temperatures.
(3) Soil Cement. Soil cement is fire resistant.
200
S
(4) Sulfur Cement Concrete and Grout. The inherent flammability

and the low melting point of sulfur (130 ° Celsius) results in the loss of
structural strength, causing the immediate deterioration of a structure.
1. Abrasion.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete has a substantial

resistance to wearing away by rubbing and friction. Not being as hard a
material as Portland cement concrete or steel, it is not highly resistant
to severe impact by large particles; however, it has a high degree of
resistance to normal sand or wind abrasion. Precise limits for abrasion
resistance are not possible to determine and it is usually best to rely on
an analysis of specific environmental conditions to evaluate the physical
properties of the designed bituminous concrete to be used.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete and Portland Cement Grout. Pre-

placed aggregate concrete and Portland cement grout are subject to abrading
or etching by wind or waterborne particles; however, the slow rate of the
abrasion process in the coastal zone is usually unnoticeable. Abrasion of
structures above the water surface may result in some minor dusting problem.
(3) Soil Cement. Soil cement when used as an integral part of a

foundation, is not subject to abrasion. When used as a surface stabilizer
it will wear quite readily, if subjected to surface traffic, and result in
increased dusting.
grout have a relatively high resistance to abrasion. It is believed that
admixtures can enhance these properties. Because of the short field exper-
ience of this relatively new material, research and testing is still under-
way to develop admixtures that can improve abrasion resistance properties
of this material.
m. Seismic Effect.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete, not being a struc-

turally rigid material, does not resist seismic forces or movement of the
earth. Instead, its properties of plasticity and the ability of asphalt to
flex allow it to move with a seismic event and thus reduce the possible
damage to structures.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete and Portland Cement Grout. Pre-

placed aggregate concrete and Portland cement grout resistance to seismic
effects is primarily a design problem. Severe seismic forces can cause
0 structural failure by direct structural damage or by altering the foundation
condition, resulting in structure settlement and failure or deterioration.
(3) Soil Cement. Soil cement in its use in coastal structures is
usually unaffected structurally by seismic activity, but it may shift with
earth movement resulting from seismic-induced stress.
grout resistance to seismic effects is similar to that of Portland cement
S 201
II
concrete. Seismic forces can cause structure failure by producing excessive

stress in the material, resulting in structural deterioration.
n. Human Activity. Human activity has very little impact on structures

of these materials except where visual impact may be noticeable resulting
- from graffiti or other defacing action.
7. Uses In Coastal Structures.

a. General.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete is used to perform
three basic functions in coastal construction. It is used as a binder or
filler to stabilize quarrystone work or soils, as a sealant to prevent the
migration or flow of liquids, and, in its asphaltic cement form, as a
wearing surface that can be easily repaired or replaced as it is eroded.
Bituminous materials are also used in the preservative treatment of wood as
discussed in Section VIII, Wood.
(2) Preplaced Concrete. Preplaced concrete is usually used in

*large dimension mass concrete structures when aggregate larger than can be
conveniently handled by ordinary mixing methods is desired.
(3) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout is used generally
as a filler and binder for quarrystone work and as a stabilizer for soils.
(4) Soil Cement. Soil cement is used to strengthen foundation

soils and to resist erosion of selected layers of soil.
(5) Sulfur Cement and Grout. Sulfur cement and grout are resistant
to many environmental attacks in the coastal zone and may become economical
to use due to an increasing abundance. Because of limited general use and
history, sulfur cement and sulfur asphalt must be considered unproven
materials. However, the property of reaching full strength on cooling
could be especially useful in making repairs to structures and embankments
where the cost of delay is high. In busy cargo terminals, on heavily used
roads or in coastal structures subject to imminent assault by storms, quick
repairs to structures not immersed in water could be made. No practical
-* techniques for placing sulfur concrete under water have been developed to
date. (Fast cooling is the problem.)
b. Offshore Structures.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete is used for reinforce-
ment or grout to fill and plug the voids in stone or rubble-mound breakwaters.
The binding action of the mastic tends to produce a large firm mass while
being flexible enough to conform to some differential settlement of the
structure (Fig. 44.)
(2) Preplaced Concrete. An impermeable breakwater could be made
by placing uniformly graded stones in layers along the contours of a rubble-
mound breakwater. Each layer would be bound together with tremie-placed
Portland cement concrete grout. The resulting mass concrete structure
would be accomplished by the preplaced concrete method except that no forms
would be used.
6
I202
c. Shore-Connected Structures.
(1) Breakwaters, Jetties and Groins. Breakwaters, jetties and

goins could be made in the same manner as offshore structures using bitumi-
nous concrete or preplaced aggregate methods.
(2) Seawalls.
(a) Bituminous Concrete. In addition to the types of uses
described for offshore structures, bituminous concrete products and sealers
may be required to make impermeable membranes, where required.
(b) Preplaced Concrete. Preplaced concrete techniques can be

used for mass concrete seawalls. Forms for the vertical or specially
contoured faces would be required. Otherwise, the placement methods would
be as described for offshore structures except that a tremie may not be
necessary for layers placed above the waterline. For good void filling, a
vibrator would be used to ensure that the concrete grout flows into all the
voids and fills the form.
0 (c) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout would be

used to fill synthetic mesh bags and tubes used to form seawall units.
(3) Revetments.
(a) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete is used to bind

stone blankets together to form a stable mass or can be used by itself as
slope protection, as shown in Figure 43.
(b) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout may be used

to bind stones in a blanket together to form a stable but brittle mass. it
can also be pumped into weak soils to firm them for foun:iations or can be
used to fill voids in earth layers to obtain foundation continuity.
(c) Soil Cement. Soil cement techniques may be used where the
slope is composed of the right type of soil and the exposure is not subject
to severe wave action. It has the advantage of not requiring aggregate
materials to be hauled to the site.
r6
(4) Piers and Wharves.
(a) Bituminous Concrete. Bituminous concrete wearing surfaces
are sometimes used to provide an economical surface to be sacrificed to the
wear of ordinary use. Replacement or refurbishment is easily and cheaply
* done and the underlying structure remains undisturbed.
(b) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete. Preplaced aggregate con-

crete has been used along the perimeter of landfills to act as a combination
seawall, retaining wall, and wharf structure. Such structures are usually
topped with a large reinforced concrete wall that supports the fender system
0 and forms the "face of wharf."
* 203
0
VII. STRUCTURAL AND SHEET METALS
1. Types and Characteristics of Metals and Alloys.
a. Steel. Steel has been an important construction material for marine

service since the late 1800's. Steel obtained this dominance at the expense
of wood and iron because of greater strength and availability. Although
other materials may have advantages, such as corrosion resistance, steel is
relatively inexpensive, strong, and available in various shapes and sizes
for marine application. To ensure the quality of the material used in
construction, materials are purchased to specifications. ASTM standard
specifications define the requirements to be satisfied by the particular
material and indicate the procedure by which it may be determined that these
*requirements are met. ASTM Standard A6, "Standard Specification for General
Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet Piling, and Bars for
Structural Use," lists a number of specifications for materials that are
suitable for marine application. Other ASTM specifications cover pipe,
mechanical tubing, fittings, forgings, and other materials. ASTM specifica-
tions both from ASTM Standard A6 and other appropriate ASTM specifications
* for steel materials, suitable for marine application, are included in
Appendix A.
(1) Metallurgy.
(a) Carbon Steel. Metallurgists define carbon steel as an

alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content under 2 percent. Structural
steel specifications limit carbon to 0.35 percent or less for weldability
considerations. Manganese is added to improve strength and toughness, but
mostly to aid in the deoxidation of steel during refining and modify the
detrimental effects of sulfur. Sulfur causes steel to be "hot short," i.e.,
to be brittle at high temperatures, which can lead to cracking during hot
rolling and forging. Manganese combines with sulfur in the molten steel to
form insoluable manganese sulfide, some of which is removed as slag, and the
remainder as well distributed inclusions throughout the steel. The shape of
these sulfide inclusions can be controlled by special processing during the
steelmaking process. Phosphorous is also present as an impurity. Most steel
specifications require the phosphorous content to be less than 0.05 percent
because larger percentages of phosphorous cause a decrease of ductility and
toughness, rendering the steel to be "cold short." Silicon is often added
as a deoxidizing agent during the melting and refining of steel. Copper may
also be present up to 0.25 percent.
* (b) Carbon Steel Alloys. Depending on the alloy content,

carbon steel can be classified as low, medium, or high alloy. Carbon steel
contains only residual elements and elements, such as manganese and silicon,
added during the melting and refining stage to obtain a workable product.
Low alloy steel contains up to 1.5 percent of elements added to obtain
increased strength or heat treatment capability. Medium alloy steel contains
* 1.5 to 11 percent added alloy elements. Above 11 percent alloy element
content, the steel is classified as high alloy. The high alloy steels
include both the ferritic and austenitic stainless steels.
204
-
(2) Processing.
(a) Deoxidation and Classification. Steels are classified on

the basis of the amount of gases evolved during solidification. In the
manufacture of steel from pig iron, excess carbon is removed by the exposure
of the molten metal to oxygen or air until ti.. desired carbon content is
reached. Oxygen dissolves in the molten met;A and reacts with carbon to
form bubbles of carbon monoxide, which rise to the surface. Other sources
of oxygen include that contained in materials added to the slag or molten
metal and that present as a product of chemical reactions that occur during
the steelmaking process. Because carbon and oxygen may continue to react
during solidification, or the steel may have an unacceptably high oxygen
content, deoxidation in the ladle of the molten steel may be required. The
deoxidation practice, which may or may not be specified by the steel specifi-
cation, is often an important consideration in choosing a steel for a
particular application. Steels having decreasing degrees of gas evolution
or deoxidation are termed "rimmed," "capped," "semikilled," and "killed."
Figure 47 shows sketches of typical ingot cross sections corresponding to
these degrees of deoxidation.
............. ... . . ... ..... .......
2 4
I 2.:5 3,)
KILLED SEMIKILLED CAPPED RIMMED

0
Figure 47. Typical ingot structures
Rimmed steels do not receive any silicon or aluminum deoxidation before

* being poured into ingots. Carbon and oxygen dissolved in the molten steel
continue to combine forming small bubbles which effervesce during solidifica-
tion. Some effervescence is also due to the much lower solubility of
oxygen in solid steel compared to that in molten steel. Chemical composition
* 205
varies widely throughout rimmed steel ingots. The area near the surface is
much lower in carhon, sulfur and phosphorus than the remainder of the ingot.
This low carbon skin persists to the finished mill product which contributes
PT to the superior deep drawing properties of rimmed steel.
Capped steel is similar to rimmed steel except that the effervescence of

gas from the molten steel in the ingot mold is only allowed to occur for a
minute or so before a cast-iron cap is placed on the mold. Capped steel has
a thinner low carbon rim than rimmed steel but is of more uniform composi-
tion. Capped steel is used for plate, strip, pipe, trim plates, wire, and
bars.
Semikilled steel is produced by additions of silicon and other deoxida-

tion elements during the manufacture. These additions are carefully made in
order to balance evolution of gases with solidification shrinkage. Semi-
killed steel is used for structural shapes, plate, pipe, forging billet and
bars.
Killed steel is produced by the addition of excess deoxidizers over the

amount required to fully remove all oxygen from the ladle. As the molten
killed steel solidifies, a large shrinkage cavity forms, called the pipe, as
"q shown in Figure 47. It is necessary to cut off the top of killed steel
ingots at the bottom of the pipe to avoid producing a defect, known as a
seam, in the rolled product. Killed steel is more uniform in both composi-
tion and mechanical properties than semikilled steel. However, because of
the low yield of product per ingot, killed steel is more costly than semi-
killed steel.
The choice of deoxidizer used is often dictated by the specification

chosen by the user after considering the end use. If high temperature use
is contemplated (for instance for use in a steam boiler) silicon coarse-
grain killed steel will be specified because of its improved resistance to
deformation at high temperatures. When improved resistance to brittle
failure is desired, particularly for service at temperatures below 200
Celsius (68 Fahrenheit), a silicon-aluminum dioxidation practice will be
specified so as to produce a steel having a fine-grain structure. Vacuum
degassing is also used when premium quality is required.
(b) Heat Treatment. Mechanical properties of steel can be

-* altered by heat treatment. When steel is heated above a critical tempera-
ture (the specific temperature depends on the composition), transformation
of the microstructure into a single phase solid solution occurs. This solid
solution is called austenite. The temperature at which transformation takes
place is called the austenitizing temperature. Steel heated to the austen-
itizing temperature and allowed to cool in the furnace to a temperature low
* enough for the steel to be handled is said to be annealed. Annealing is
performed to reduce hardness, improve machinability, and facilitate cold
working.
Normalizing is the process of heating the steel above the austenitizing

temperature, allowing sufficient time for transformation to occur, and then
4 removing the steel from the furnace and cooling in air. Normalizing is
performed to refi .e grain size and homogenize microstructure, improve
machinability, and or provide the desired mechanical properties. Normalizing
206
,|
is usually performed on steels requiring additional heat treatment for
hardening, on hot formed pressure vessel heads, and when specified by the
applicable material specification.
Steels having sufficient carbon can be hardened by heating above the

austenitizing temperature, holding at this temperature long enough for
transformation to occur, removing the steel from the furnace, and immediately
quenching it in water or oil. The resulting surface hardness depends on the
carbon content, section size, and quenching medium. The depth of hardening
depends also on alloy content and grain size. After quenching, steels are
tempered by heating to a specified temperature (below the transformation
temperature) and holding them at this temperature for a specified time,
usually an hour per 2.54 centimeters of thickness. This process restores
ductility. The particular tempering temperature used depends on the alloy
content, mechanical strength requirements, and end use.
Low carbon steels are often stress relieved by heating between 5930
Celsius (1100 Fahrenheit) and the austenite transformation temperature to
remove resudial stresses resulting from prior forming or welding operations.
Stress relieving restores ductility and toughness. It may also improve
Sfatigue life. Welds areas are often postweld heat treated locally, i.e.,
stress relieved, using proprietary portable heating equipment.
(c) Alloy Additions. Alloying elements are added during the

steelmaking process to improve mechanical properties or to improve corrosion
resistance. Small additions, singly, of copper, nickel, chromium, silicon,
and phosphorus have been shown to be effective in improving the corrosion
resistance of steel. The greatest improvements in corrosion resistance are
obtained by the addition of specific combinations of these alloying elements,
such as specified by ASTM Standard A690 for H-piles and sheet piles intended
for service in the splash zone. Other steels suitable for marine applications
and having improved atmospheric corrosion resistance are ASTM Standards A242,
A441, and A588.
Additions of chromium and molybdenum improve the high temperature oxida-

tion resistance as well as improve the high temperature strength of steel.
High-pressure steam tubes and piping are often 1.25 percent chromium alloy
-* steel. Stainless steels meeting ASTM 400 series specifications include type
410, with 12 percent chromium, and type 430 with 18 percent chromium.
However, because of a tendency to pit, the 400 series stainless steels are
not recommended for marine service.
b. Aluminum.
(1) Alloy Strengthening. Aluminum, in high purity form, is soft

and ductile but does not possess enough strength for most commercial applica-
tions. The addition of alloying elements, either singly or in combination,
impart strength to the metal. Aluminum alloys can be classified into two
catagories: nonheat-treatable and heat-treatable. The nonheat-treatable
wrought alloys can be strengthened by cold working only and are usually
designated in the 1000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 series. The degree of cold
working is termed the aluminum strain hardening or temper, denoted by an "Il"
followed by a number.
* 207
Certain alloying elements, such as copper, magnesium, zinc, and silicon,
show increasing solid solubility in aluminum with increasing temperatures.
Many aluminum alloys containing these elements can be heat treated to enhance
the initial strength. These alloys are heat treated by first raising the
alloy to an elevated temperature below the melting point, called the solu-
tioning temperature, which puts the soluble element or elements into solid
solution. This is followed by quickly cooling the material, usually by
quenching in water, to retain the elements in solid solution at room tempera-
ture. At this stage the freshly quenched alloy structure is very workable.
By storing such material at below-freezing temperatures, this workable alloy
structure can be retained until the fabrication is ready to form the alloy
into the desired final shape. Such alloys after quenching are not stable at
room or elevated temperatures because precipitation of the constituents from
the supersaturated solution takes place. After a period of several days at
room temperature or hours at an elevated temperature, the alloy is consider-
ably stronger. This process is called age hardening or precipitation harden-
ing. The degree of hardening or temper produced by heat treatment is denoted
by a "T" followed by a number.
(2) Identification of Aluminum Alloys. Aluminum alloys are identi-

fied by specific numbers. Alloys belong to certain series depending on the
particular alloying elements. The 1000 series consists of the high purity
aluminums containing at least 99 percent aluminum. These alloys are char-
acterized by having high thermal and electrical conductivity, excellent
corrosion resistance, excellent workability, but low strength. These alloys
can only be hardened by cold working. Major impurities are iron and silicon.
Copper is the major alloying element of the 2000 series. These alloys
are solution heat treated to obtain optimum properties. Some alloys of this
series are aged at slightly elevated temperatures, a process called artifi-
cial aging, to obtain increased yield strength. The corrosion resistance of
the alloys in the 2000 series is less than most of the other aluminum alloys.
Sheet forms of these alloys are often clad with high purity alloy or a
magnesium-silicon alloy of the 6000 series which provides galvanic protection
to the core material and therefore increases resistance to corrosion.
Manganese is the principal alloying element of the 3000 series alloys.
Alloys of this group generally cannot be heat treated, but can be hardened
by cold working.
Silicon is the major alloying element of the 4000 series, which in

sufficient quantities, lowers the melting point without producing brittle-
ness. Aluminum-silicon alloys are used in welding and brazing wire where
the lower melting point is beneficial in joining other aluminum alloys.
Although most alloys of this group are nonheat-treatable, during welding of
heat-treatable alloys, some elements from the parent material may be picked
up by the weld metal providing joints that may be strengthened by heat
treatment.
The 5000 series of alloys contains magnesium. Although these alloys are
nonheat-treatable, the addition of magnesium produces alloys having moderate
to high strength, good welding characteristics, and good corrosion resistance
to marine atmospheres. These alloys are subject to stress corrosion cracking
if employed in the cold-worked condition in services where the temperature
exceeds about 650 Celsius (1500 Fahrenheit).
208
6i
The 6000 series of aluminum alloys contains both silicon and magnesium
in approximate equal proportions which combine during melting to form
magnesium silicide. Alloys of this series are heat-treatable, and possess
good formability and corrosion resistance with medium strength. One of the
most versatile heat-treatable alloys is the major alloy of this series,
6061.
Zinc is the major alloying element of the 7000 series, and when coupled
with a smaller percentage of magnesium results in heat-treatable alloys of
verl high strength. Small amounts of other elements such as chromium and
copper also may be added. Alloys in this series are used in air-frame
structures and for high-stressed parts. Among the high strength aluminum
alloys, 7075 can be heat treated to 565 megapascals (82 000 pounds per
square inch) tensile strength, and 496 megapascals (72 000 pounds per square
* inch) yield strength.
The complete designation of aluminum alloys includes the temper designa-

tion, separated from the alloy designation by a hyphen, as for example 7061-
T6. The bnsic temper designations are as follows:
F as fabricated - no special control is exercised over thermal con-

ditions or strain hardening.
0 annealed - heat treated to obtain lowest strength temper and improved

ductility.
H strain hardened (wrought products only).
W solution heat treated (applies only to alloys hardenable by thermal

heat treatment) - an unstable temper, describing the condition
between solution treatment before aging. Subfreezing is sometimes
used to preserve this temper against natural aging.
T thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than F, 0, or H.
Numbers following the basic temper designations further describe the

specific combination of operations affecting the temper and in turn the
mechanical properties. Specifications, such as those of the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), fully define the alloy composition,
mechanical properties and other requirements for applicable aluminum mate-
rials. Alloys 5083, 5086, 5052, and 6061 are the most popular aluminum
alloys for applications exposed to marine atmospheres. The 5000 series of
alloys are the most corrosion resistant, but the 1000, 3000, and 6000 alloys
have been used in marine atmospheres. These aluminums may be also employed
in the splash zone, but are not recommended for continuous immersion in
seawater.
c. Copper and Copper Alloys. Copper has several unique properties.

Properties such as high thermal and electrical conductivity, excellent corro-
* sion resistance in normal atmospheric conditions, good workability, and
availability at reasonable cost make copper a first choice for conductors in
electrical equipment. Copper can be alloyed to produce alloys having improved
strength, corrosion resistance, creep resistance, and machinability.
* 209
4
The U.S. copper industry through the Copper Development Association used
to designate alloys by a three-digit identification system. This recently
has been expanded to five digits, following a prefix letter C, and made part
of the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS) developed and
managed jointly by ASTM and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). In
the UNS system, numbers C10000 through C79999 denote wrought alloys. Cast
alloys are numbered from C80000 through C99990. Within these two catagories,
the alloy compositions are grouped into families of coppers and copper alloys
as presented in Table 27.
Copper like other metals that have a recrystallization temperature, or

softening temperature, above room temperature can be hardened by cold working.
If the cold-worked metal is exposed to temperatures above a certain critical
temperature determined by the amount of cold work received and the composition
of the metal or alloy, the microstructure changes from marked distortion to a
recrystallized structure. Yield strength, tensile strength, and hardness are
reduced to the same as the alloy had before cold working. The recrystalliza-
tion temperature or softening temperature of copper can be raised by adding
sufficient quantities of silver, phosphorous, cadmium, tin, arsenic, or
antimony. Such coppers are often alloyed to raise the softening temperature
to above that at which soldering is to be performed so that the benefits of
increased strength due to cold working can be retained in the final product.
Copper alloys that are precipitation hardenable contain beryllium,

chromium, zirconium, or nickel in combination with silicon or phosphorus.
Alpha aluminum bronze containing cobalt or nickel is also precipitation
hardenable. During hardening, these alloys are heated to an elevated
temperature, held a sufficient time for solid solutioning to occur, then
rapidly cooled to room temperature, followed by aging at an intermediate
temperature. Beryllium copper (C17200) in the solution annealed and aged
condition has a usual tensile strength of 1 210 megapascals (175 000 pounds
per square inch).
Copper and copper alloys have useful corrosion resistance for marine
application. Most corrosion resistant to seawater are aluminum brass,
classified as a miscellaneous copper-zinc alloy; inhibited admiralty, a tin
brass containing elements which inhibit the loss of zinc; and the copper-
nickel alloys. These alloys form films of corrosion products that provide
protection even in flowing seawater. The limiting velocity where these
4 films are lost depends on the alloy. Copper and copper alloys are attacked
by ammonium hydroxide due to the formation of a soluable component. Copper
alloys containing more than 15 percent zinc are susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking due to ammonium ion, and also dezincification, i.e., the
loss of zinc due to selective corrosion. Stress corrosion cracking occurs
at areas of high stress that can become more anodic than the surrounding
metal. Corrosion occurs at the interfaces of the metal crystals that are
perpendicular to the stress, weakening the bonding between crystals until
cracking occurs. Dezincification occurs in waters having a high oxygen and
carbon dioxide content.
bnd. Other Alloys. Nickel aluminum bronzes and-two phase aluminum

bronzes are transformation hardenable. These alloys are heat treated by
heating to an elevated temperature to form a single phase solid solution,
210
6
Table 27. Classification of Coppers and Copper Alloys
Copper No. Classification
C10000 through C15999 Coppers (Cua 99.3 pct)

C16000 through C19999 High copper alloys (96 pct < Cu < 99.3 pct)
C20000 through C29999 Copper-zinc-alloys (brasses)
C30000 through C39999 Copper-zinc-lead alloys

(leaded brasses)
C40000 through C49999 Copper-zinc-tin-alloys (tin brasses)
C50000 through C52999 Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronzes)

C53000 through C59999 Copper-tin-lead alloys
(leaded phosphor bronzes)
* C60000 through C64699 Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes)

C64700 through C66399 Copper-silicon alloys
(Silicon bronzes)
C66400 through C69999 Miscellaneous copper-zinc alloys
C70000 through C72999 Copper-nickel alloys

C73000 through C79999 Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel-silver)
C80000 through C81199 Coppers (Cu 99.3 pct), cast

C81200 through C82999 High copper alloys (96 pct < Cu < 99.3 pct), cast
C83000 through C83999 Copper-tin-zinc and copper-
tin-zinc-lead alloys (red brasses
and leaded red brasses), cast
C84000 through C84999 Semired brasses and leaded
semired brasses, cast
C85000 through C85999 Yellow brasses and leaded yellow
brasses, cast
C86000 through C86999 Manganese and leaded manganese
S0 bronze alloys, cast
C87000 through C87999 Copper-zinc-silicon alloys
(silicon bronzes and silicon
brasses), cast
C90000 through C91999 Copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes), cast

* C92000 through C94699 Copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded tin bronzes and
high-leaded tin bronzes), cast
C94700 through C94999 Copper-tin-nickel alloys (nickel-tin bronzes)
C95000 through C95999 Copper-aluminum-iron and copper-aluminum-
iron-nickel alloys (aluminum bronzes), cast
C96000 through C96999 Copper-nickel-iron alloys (copper-nickel), cast
* C97000 through C97999 Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel-silver), cast
C98000 through C98999 Copper-lead alloys (leaded copper), cast
C99000 through C99990 Special alloys, cast
* 211
" held a sufficient time for solutioning to occur, then cooled rapidly to
produce a metastable, ordered, close-packed-hexagonal beta phase structure,
p!m much like the transformation structure that is formed during the quenching
of high carbon steel from a temperature above the austenitizing temperature.
This structure is very hard but too brittle for most engineering purposes
and must be tempered by heating to an intermediate temperature, typically
S95 to 650 ° Celsius, and holding for a sufficient time to reprecipitate
fine acicular alpha phase particles in the tempered beta phase structure.
Tempering stabilizes the structure and restores ductility and toughness.
e. Galvranic Coupling. When two dissimilar metals are in electrical

contact with each other and immersed in an electrolyte, a potential is
established and electrical current may flow. This potential is related to
the relative tendency of each of the metals to go into solution. The more
* active metal acts as the anode and corrodes at a faster rate than it would
by itself. The more noble (stable) metal acts as the cathode and is pro-
tected. This phenomenon is known as galvanic corrosion. The two dissimilar
metals electrically connected are called a galvanic couple. Table 28 presents
a galvanic series for flowing seawater at ambient temperature for several
metals and alloys. This galvanic series is based on practical measurements
of corrosion potentials at equilibrium in seawater. Galvanic corrosion is
most likely to occur if the two metals are widely separated in the series.
The rate of corrosion is dependent on current density.
Table 28. Galvanic series in flowing seawater (2.4 to

4.0 m/s) at ambient temperature.
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminum .lloys
Calcium
Carbon steel
Cast iron
Austenitic nickel cast iron
Copper - nickel alloys
Ferritic and mortensitic stainless steel (passive)
*e Nickel copper alloys, 400, K-500
Austenitic stainless steels (Passive)
Alloy 20
Ni - Cr - Mo alloy C
Titanium
Graphite
* Platinum
If two dissimilar metals must be joined, several steps may be taken to
mIi- mize galvanic corrosion:
(1) Choose metals close together in the galvanic series to

reduce the potential;
(2) avoid unfavorable area effects by keeping the cathodic area

small in relation to the anode, thereby reducing current density;
* 212
(3) insulate the two metals from each other, making sure contact
is not restored in service by grounding or corrosion products bridging
the insulator;
(4) use coatings: the anodic material must be completely covered

to prevent rapid attack at holidays in the coating; sometimes it is
also beneficial to coat the cathodic material to reduce current
density; and
(5) place a more anodic third metal in contact with the other two
so that this third metal provides sacrificial protection.
2. Joining, Cutting and Repairing Metals.
a. Rivets and Bolts. Riveting, at one time, was the primary means of
joining metals together. Today the importance of riveting in construction
has lessened because of the developments of welding and high strength bolting.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code no longer lists riveting as an acceptable method for pressure
vessel fabrication, although repairs can be made to riveted vessels in
accordance with the code requirements that were used for the vessel con-
struction. Riveted joints have one important advantage over bolted joints.
Properly set, rivets do not loosen. In spite of its lack of favor in con-
struction, riveting is an important joining method in manufacturing.
Rivets are made from bar stock by hot or cold forming the head. Round
button heads are most common but flattened and countersunk types are also
produced. For structural steel fabrication, steel rivets should be specified
to ASTM Standard Standard A502, Steel Structural Rivets. This standard lists
three grades, all of which are intended to be hot driven. Grade I is a
carbon steel rivet for general purpose, usually used for joining steel
conforming to ASTM Standard A36. Grade 2 is a carbon-maganese steel rivet
used for joining high strength carbon and high strength low alloy structural
steels. Grade 3 is about the same strength as grade 2 rivet steel, but
because copper and chromium are required in the steel composition, grade 3
rivets have enhanced atmospheric corrosion resistance approximately four
times that of carbon steel without copper. Grade 3 rivets correspond to
steels conforming to ASTI Standard 588, High Strength Low-alloy Structural
Steel with 340 megapascals (50 000 pounds per square inch) Minimum Yield
Point to 10.2 centimeters (4 inches) Thick. Steel rivets are also listed in
ASTM Standard A31, Boiler Rivet Steel and Rivets, for repair of riveted
boilers and pressure vessels, and in ASTM A131, Structural Steel for Ships.
Rivets meeting the requirements of ASTM A31 or ASTM A131 are not suitable for
structural construction unless these rivets have also met requirements of
0 ASTM A502. One important difference in the requirements between these
standards is that ASTM AS02 requires hardness tests, whereas the other
standards specify tensile tests on the rivet steel.
Holes for rivets may be punched or drilled. If punched, it is recom-

mended that the holes also be reamed to remove distorted metal, particularly
• if the structure may be subjected to vibration. For steel construction, thc
holes are usually 1.6 millimeters (1/16 inch) in diameter larger than the
nominal diameter of the undriven rivet. Flame cutting of holes is not
recommended because of the microstructural changes that occur in steel.
213
Temporary bolts are often inserted in a few holes as an alinement aid and
to help draw the structural steel members together. Steel rivets are
usually driven hot by heating to 9820 Celsius (1 8000 Fahrenheit). During
driving a second head is formed and the rivet shank may be expanded to fill
the hole. As the rivet cools, it shrinks and squeezes the connected pieces
together. The magnitude of this clamping force depends on the driving and
finishing temperature of the riveting operation, the overall grip length,
and the driving pressure. Because these are variables that are difficult to
control, no credit may be claimed for clamping force in design calculations.
Riveting is used to advantage in joining aluminum structural alloys that

have been heat treated for greater strength. The high heat encountered in
welding reduces the strength of heat-treated aluminum. Less skill is re-
quired for riveting than for welding. The specification covering wire and
rod to be used in aluminum rivet manufacture is ASTM Standard B316-75,
Aluminum-alloy Rivet and Cold-Heating Wire and Rods. Of the listed alloys,
alloys 1100, 3003, 5005, 5052, 5056, and 6061 are most suitable for joining
aluminum alloys in coated structures. The 6061 alloy is the only alloy that
can be heat treated to obtain higher strength levels.
Bolts are made from bar stock. High strength steel bolts are made by
open-hearth, basic oxygen, or electric furnace process. They are fine-
grained and must meet ASTM Standard A588-75. The atmospheric corrosion
resistance of this steel is approximately two times that of carbon structural
steel with copper. High strength bolts are made using various types of
quenching and tempering processes and are used in structural connections
where high stress and corrosion resistance are required.
Bolts are used to advantage in structural installation where welding is

not practical and where working connections are necessary such as tongue and
groove pile connections, bulkhead wales, and tiebacks. It is common practice
to oversize bolt requirements in marine exposures as an allowance for exces-
sive metal loss from corrosion.
b. Welding. Welding processes most likely to be used during coastal

structure construction include gas welding, arc welding, and thermite welding.
Other processes, such as resistance welding, friction welding, and induction
welding, are used during fabrication of mechanical and electrical equipment.
Each welding process has areas of application where its use is the most
economical for the desired level of quality.
Gas welding is classified by the gases used; i.e., air-acetylene, oxy-

acetylene, oxy-stabilized methylacetylene-propadine, and oxy-hydrogen. The
oxyacetylene flame has the highest temperature, about 3 371 Celsius (6 1000
Fahrenheit), that can be obtained with commercially available gases. Because
the temperature produced by the oxyacetylene flame is far above the melting
point of most metals, rapid localized melting necessary for welding is
produced.
Oxyacetylene is suitable for welding carbon and alloy steel, cast iron,
copper, nickel, aluminum and zinc alloys. Lower melting temperature alloys,
such as aluminum, magnesium, zinc, lead and some precious metals, can he gais
welded using hydrogen, methane, or propane fuel gases. Gas welding is not
214
0
suitable for joining the refractioning metals such as columbium, tantalium,

molybdenum, and tungsten nor reactive metals- such as titanium or zirconium.
By varying the relative amounts of fuel gas to oxygen in the gases

flowing to the tip of the welding torch, the characteristics of the flame
can be altered. When fuel gas and oxygen are supplied in the stoichiometic
ratio for complete combustion, a neutral flame is produced. As more oxygen
is introduced, an oxidizing flame is produced. Slightly less oxygen than
that required for a neutral flame results in a reducing flame. Still less
oxygen results in a carburizing or carbon impregnating flame. In any flame,
the highest temperature is reached at the tip of the inner cone.
In oxyacetylene welding, an oxidizing flame is never used to weld steel

but is used sometimes to weld copper and copper base alloys. The copper
oxide slag that forms on top of the weld provides shielding from the weld
puddle. Temperatures exceeding 3150 Celsius (6000 Fahrenheit) can be
obtained in oxidizing oxyacetylene flames. The reducing flame is frequently
used for welding with low alloy steel rods. Flame temperature at the tip of
the inner cone is usually 2 9300 to 3 0400 Celsius (5 300 to 5 5000 Fahren-
heit). The carburizing flame has a tendency to soot the cold work but is
*Q useful where lower temperatures are required such as for silver brazing,
soldering, and in the melting of lead. For most oxyacetylene welding, a
neutral flame is used. When welding steel the outer envelope provides
protection to the molten weld puddle, and no flux is required.
Fluxes are required when oxyacetylene welding stainless steel, cast

iron, and most nonferrous metals. There is no universal flux suitable for
all metals. The function of the flux is to clean the metal surfaces to be
joined and to provide protection to the weld puddle by lowering the melting
point of the metal oxides or dissolving these oxides so they rise to the top
of the weld pool forming a protective slag covering. Fluxes are not required
for welding lead, zinc, and some precious metals.
c. Underwater Arc Welding. Although many experts consider underwater

welding suitable only for emergency ship repairs of a semipermanent nature,
satisfactory permanent welds can be accomplished using special techniques.
Sometimes underwater welding is the only practical method of making attach-
ments or repairs on such underwater structures as drilling platforms or
*0 bulkheads. Three different techniques have been used for performing welding
below the waterline. These are wet welding, dry welding, and welding using
either a caisson open to the surface attached to the area to be welded, or a
special habitat constructed around the area to be welded. Underwater wet arc
welding requires the use of divers in full deep-diving suits. The helmets
are fitted with supplementary hinged faceplates with appropriate welding
* glass. It is advisable for the diver's head to be insulated from the helmet
by wearing a cap, and by covering metal with insulating tape. Scuba diving
is suitable only at shallow depths because it is required that the diver be
in voice communication with topside assistant. Topside welding assistants
operate the power source at the command of the diver-welder. Electrodes for
underwater welding must be waterproofed using proprietary products or coatings
•of
* cellulose acetate. Some brands of electrodes are also satisfactory
without additional coatings. Because these coatings can be only considered
as providing temporary protection, divers should carry only a few electrodes
at a time. The Navy recommends 4.75-millimeter (3/16 inch) electrodes of
* 215
type E6013 for all positions except where the section size is too thin for
this size electrode. Other electrodes, such as waterproofed iron powder
electrodes, may he satisfactory. qualification testing should be performed.
Electrodes for underwater welding are designed for straight polarity, i.e.,
the electrode is negative. If reverse polarity is used underwater, the
electrode holder is consumed due to electrolitic action. It is important
that the electrode holder be insulated and be designed to permit easy
changing of electrodes by the diver.
Power sources for underwater arc welding should be capable of delivering

at least 300 amperes of rectified or direct current. Because welding is
usually done at considerable distances from the power source, the welding
cables should be at least size 2/0. To facilitate maneuverability, the last
3 meters (10 feet) of cable at the electrode holder is usually size 1/0. A
safety switch is installed in the circuit that is closed only while the
welder is actually welding. For good electrical continuity, the ground cable
must be securely attached to the work after first cleaning the contact area.
Provided the pieces to be welded fit together properly, 4.75-millimeter
fillet welds can develop 44 kilonewtons (10 000 pounds) tensile strength per
25.4 millimeters (1 inch). Using 4.75-millimeter electrodes and the drag
technique where the electrode is allowed to consume itself as it is pressed
against the work, 4.75-millimeter fillet welds are produced in a single
pass. Stringer bead technique should be used if additional weld reinforce-
ment is required. Because visibility is poor under water, multipass welds
are difficult to finish after the first bead is laid because the guiding
groove is filled. Fillet welds can be made in the horizontal, vertical, and
overhead positions.
Bubbles generated during welding interfere with visibility. Welders

minimize this problem by welding toward themselves when making horizontal
welds and from the top down when making vertical welds.
Underwater welds in mild steel plate develop 80 percent or more of the

tensile strength, but only 50 percent of the ductility of similar welds made
in air. This substantial decrease in ductility is explained by the hardening
resulting from the drastic quenching of the surrounding water. Because it is
not possible to preheat weld areas wet by water, to avoid cracking underwater
welding should not be attempted on base materials having carbon contents
ri above 0.25 percent or carbon equivalents (percent carbon plus 0.17 percent
manganese) above 0.40 percent. The area to be welded must be free from
marine growth, paint, mill scale, and rust to assure sound welds. Electric
shock is a hazard that must be taken into account by equipment and safety
procedures. Another hazard that could be overlooked is the possible explo-
sion resulting from the accummulation of hydrogen and oxygen gas in closed
or inadequately exposed compartments or spaces. Bubbles generated during
arc welding are about 70 percent hydrogen and are produced by electrolysis
of the water. Such accummulations of hydrogen can be ignited by spark or
flame.
Underwater work including welding has been accomplished dry in air using
a caisson open to the surface. Such a structure must be strongly constructed
to stand the pressure of the water, approximately 9.8 kilopascals per meter
of depth (62.4 pounds per square foot per foot of depth), depending on salt
content and temperature. A caisson has been used to repair a tear 13.7
216
meters (45 feet) below the surface, in the stainless steel liner of a water-
filled storage pool. Habitats have been used to make underwater modifica-
tions to a drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico. Habitats can be con-
structed to surround the areas to be welded and filled with air so that
preheating of the weld areas is possible. Welds produced under these
conditions will basically have the same strength and ductility as welds
produced under the same condition topside. Habitats used in welding are
usually open at the bottom. Because of buoyancy, the habitat must be
securely attached and weighted. A constant flow of air through the habitat
is necessary to remove the fumes produced by welding, but electrolysis and
hydrogen formation is avoided because water is kept away from the arc.
d. Underwater Cutting. Underwater cutting is used in salvage work and
wherever cutting below the waterline is required on steel structures such as
docks, piers, drilling platforms, and ships. The two most widely used
methods are flame cutting and oxygen arc cutting.
The technique used for underwater flame cutting is not too different
from flame cutting steel in air. In each method, a fuel gas in a torch is
mixed with oxygen and burned to produce a flame that preheats the steel, and
a cutting jet is provided to supply oxygen to cut the steel. The underwater
cutting torch, however, contains one important difference in construction.
The underwater torch supplies its own ambient gas atmosphere, an air bubble
around the flame, by means of compressed air that is ejected through a
special nozzle surrounding the tip. An adjustable shield on the top of the
torch is also usually supplied to help control the formation of the air
bubble and to allow the torch to be held at the optimum distance from the
work, even under conditions of poor visibility and constraint due to the
cumbersome diving suits that must be worn. Slots are cut in the shield to
allow gases to escape. The underwater torch is furnished with three hoses,
for compressed air, oxygen, and fuel gas.
Underwater flame cutting is most effective in severing a steelplate in

the thickness range of 12.7 to 152 millimeters (1/2 to 6 inches). Below 12.7
millimeters, the quenching effect of the water retards the cutting action
greatly.
It is important that the air hose never be used for oxygen. Compressed
air may contain some oil which can coat the hose causing an explosion when
oxygen is introduced. Fuel gases are usually hydrogen or natural gas
because these gases can be used at any depth without liquifying. Acetylene
is almost never used in underwater cutting because at pressures more than
207 kilopascals (30 pounds per square inch) acetylene becomes unstable and
may decompose violently even if no oxygen is present.
4A standard welding power source, capable of supplying 300 amperes of

direct current straight polarity, is satisfactory for oxygen arc cutting
under water. Electrode holders are fully insulated and of a special design
so that both oxygen and current can be supplied to the electrode. To reduce
resistance losses, cables should be size 2/0, except the last 3 meters (10
feet) at the torch which may be 1/0 for added flexibility. If the power
4 source i- more than 120 meters (400 feet) from the work, parallel cables of
1/0 or 2/0 are required. All underwater cable connections should be wrapped
with rubber tape. A safety switch must be provided so that the torch is
energized only while cutting.
217
Electrodes for underwater oxygen arc cutting are either tubular carbor-
undum or steel. Steel electrodes are available in 4.75- and 7.93-millimeter
(3/16 and 5/16 inch) diameters with a 1.6-millimeter-diameter (1/16 inch)
bore. These electrodes are provided with a waterproof coating, which serves
as an insulator during cutting.
Cutting underwater requires that positive pressure be maintained by the

electrode against the metal being cut; whereas, in air, the electrode is
dragged along the intended line of cut. Particular attention must be paid
to safety. The power sources must be grounded to the tender and ground
cables securely connected to the work. All parts of the power cables and
torches must be fully insulated and periodically inspected. An operating
disconnecting switch must be part of the cutting electrical circuit. To
prevent possible explosions, enclosed spaces must be vented so that gases
generated during cutting cannot accummulate.
a. Exposure to Air.
*I (1) General. In contrast to organic materials, sunlight exposure

does not cause deterioration of metals. Under some conditions, however,
sunlight can be a contributing factor in the stress corrosion cracking of
some stainless steels. Stress corrosion cracking occurs where high stress
accelerates corrosion along intercrystallinc boundaries, leading to weakening
of intercrystalline bonds and eventual cracking. Austenitic stainless
'steels, such as type 304, 316, 321, 347, and even 216, are susceptible to
stress corrosion cracking when exposed simultaneously to heat, stress,
chloride ion, and oxygen. Cold-worked materials are most susceptible;
however, even annealed austenitic stainless steel contains some residual
stresses from fabrication and can crack. Stress corrosion cracking is
believed to be time dependent, but the exact threshold conditions for this
phenomenon to occur have not been established. Process equipment constructed
of austenitic stainless steel and hydrotested with seawater but not properly
drained and flushed has been ruined by stress corrosion cracking where the
only heat applied was the heat of the sun.
(2) Effect of Severe Temperatures. At one time, harbor facilities

SO were located only in the torrid or temperate zones. Many ships were built of
riveted construction. Welded ships were constructed by fitting each plate
individually in turn. World War II created a demand for cargo ships that
only mass production techniques could meet. These techniques involved
constructing large hull sections offsite, then moving them into position for
welding together to complete the hull. Because alinement of the sections
* was not perfect, force was applied to obtain sufficient alinem2nt for welding.
Many of these ships broke in two in the North Atlantic. Investigations
revealed that brittle failure was the cause of these losses. Today, knowledge
of the relationship between notch toughness and brittle failure enables
marine structures to be designed to survive the most severe temperatures.
S Carbon and most alloy steels suffer a decrease in toughness as tempera-

tures are reduced. When slow rates of loading are applied these materials
exhibit increased tensile and yield strength with only a slight loss of
elongation and reduction of area at reduced temperatures. When the load is
* 218
rapidly applied, as in the Charpy impact test, the amount of energy absorbed
during fracture decreases gradually as testing is performed at progressively
lower temperatures until, at some temperature, the absorbed energy drops
dramatically. This temperature is known as the nil ductility transformation
'(NDT) temperature, the temperature at which the specimen exhibits little
ductility before fracture. The NDT temperature can be defined by Charpy V-
notch testing as (1) the temperature at which a certain absorbed energy is
attained, (2) the temperature at which 50 percent shear fracture is attained
on the broken specimen, or (3) the temperature at which a certain lateral
expansion is attained on the specimen opposite the notch. A common value
for minimum absorbed energy at the NDT temperature for ordinary constructional
steels is 20 newton meters (15 foot-pounds); however, acceptable impact
values are often stated in ASTM or other material specifications. Complete
procedures for conducting many mechanical tests on metals including impact
tests are given in ASTM A370. Figure 48 presents a representative plot of
absorbed energy versus temperature for Charpy V-notch tests on a typical
carbon steel.
-100
40-
IOO
E 4
z
50 wX
00
-40 -30 -20 -10 0
0
TEMPERATURE C
Figure 48. Plot of Charpy V-notch test

on a low carbon steel.
Values obtained from Charpy V-notch testing cannot be directly used in

engineering calculations for design. Notch toughness values become signifi-
cant only when correlated with a particular type of structure in a particular
service. These values are useful to compare different materials. The NDT
temperature determined by Charpy V-notch testing has correlated rather well
* with temperatures at which service failures have occurred for components of
the same steel.
Factors affecting the notch toughness of a metal are as follows:
(a) Chemical composition,
(b) gas content,
219
(c) microstructure (e.g., size, shape and orientation of grains,
and grain boundaries of a structurel,
(d) grain size,
(e) section size, (physical cross-section dimensionsl,
(f) hot and cold working temperature,
(g) method of fabrication, and
(h) specimen orientation in relation to working direction.
Figure 49 presents representative plots of Charpy V-notch absorbed

energy curves for several materials used in construction. Fully killed
carbon steel made using a fine grain melt practice in the normalized heat
treatment has the best notch toughness at lower temperatures of the carbon
steels. If sulfide shape control is used during processing, improved notch
toughness can be obtained in the transverse (across grain) and through (with
grain) section directions. Austenitic stainless steel, type 304, and 9-
percent nickel are candidate materials for handling liquefied gases. Notice
that gray cast iron exhibits little notch toughness at any temperature
shown.
(3) Wind Erosion. Wind erosion does not have a severe effect on
metals. Wind-driven sand, however, can destory paint and therefore increase
the formation of rusting on steel structures. Appearance is the property
most often affected.
b. Exposure to Flora. The major effect of flora on metals is a slight

increase in corrosion rate where the plants, by their root system, may
transport additional moisture to the metal surface. In some soils, aerobic
bacteria are present that oxidize sulfur which is either present in the soil
or is obtained from decaying organic matter. By oxidation of sulfur, a
strong solution of sulphuric acid is formed that reacts with any basic
material present. The presence of either anaerobic or aerobic bacteria can
cause soils to be corrosive to metals even though a usual mineral analysis of
the soil and water does not reveal that a corrosive condition exists.
c. Exposure to Burrowing Animals. Most metals have high hardness which

prevents burrowing animals from penetrating. Animals have damaged the
insulation covering of some buried electrical cables, which resulted in
failure of the cables.
d. Exposure to Freshwater.
(1) General. Exposed surfaces of metals are subject to some degree

of corrosion from water. The corrosiveness of water is basically dependent
on three factors; acidity, oxygen content, and electrical conductivity. Many
rivers are polluted by industrial wastes or runoff from mines causing the
water to become acid. Such water may be more corrosive to carbon steel than
seawater would be. Rainwater becomes slightly acid as it falls to earth due
to saturation with carbon dioxide. As the rain contacts the earth it becomes
altered by reaction with minerals and soil. Depending on the acidity and
220
30-
120-
120- KILLED FINE
GRAIN NORMALIZED
110 TYPE 304 SS
SEMIKILLED
1RIMMED
90
80
1 70-
I-
>. 60 Ni
09%
W 50 N
40.
3-'2ONi
30-
30- Ni-RESIST
/TYPE D-2
20-
10" GREY CAST IRON
0-
-400 -300 -200 -o00 +160 +200
TEST TEMPERATURE OF
Figure 49. Representative Charpy V-notch absorbed energy curves

for several materials. (Data compiled from
International Nickel Company, 1976, and American
Society for Metals, 1978).
mineral composition, stream water may be less corrosive to carbon steel than
rainwater.
(2) Water Penetration Effects. Metals are impervious to water

penetration.
(3) Freezing and Thawing. The volume expansion of ice in fine-

grained soils, such as very fine sand, silt, or clay, may produce lateral
thrusts to sheet-pile structures. Placement of free-draining coarse granular
soil above the frostline behind sheet-pile walls should eliminate the possi-
bility of lateral thrust from ice or frozen ground. Steel sheet piling can
221
yield laterally to relieve any thrust load due to ice. Plugged and broken
waterlines caused by ice are inconveniences that require cooperation between
design and construction personnel, and between operations and maintenance
personnel to eliminate this problem. Heat tracing and insulation are solu-
tions to this problem, but other methods may be more practical such as
pumping out fire hydrants, and closing doors to heated loading docks.
e. Exposure to Saltwater.
(1) Corrosion Effects - General. Corrosion rates of metals in

seawater are higher than in pure water because ions of halogen compounds,
such as sodium chloride, have the power to cause localized breakdown of oxide
films that are responsible for passivity and corrosion resistance. Halogen
ions can form soluble acidic corrosion products, such as ferric chloride,
which interfere with the restoration of passivity to steel leading to
localized corrosion in the form of pitting. Tests have shown that corrosion
rates for carbon steel in the atmosphere at the shoreline are 10 times the
rates shown by plates 460 meters (500 yards) from the shoreline.
It has been shown that the rate of corrosion of steel in seawater and in
freshwater is governed to a large extent by the oxygen content. Carbon
steel, in contact with freshwater saturated with oxygen at ambient tempera-
ture, usually exhibits a corrosion rate of 220 micrometers (9 mils) per year
general corrosion plus an additional 220 micrometers per year of pitting.
When freshwater is oxygen-free, the corrosion rate for carbon steel is
usually only 25 micrometers (1 mil) per year or less, provided no corrosive
pollutants are present.
(2) Variable Oxygen Content. The pattern of corrosion found on
steel pilings in the atmosphere, the splash zone, the tidal zone, submerged
in clean seawater, and in the mud zone varies considerably. A principal
variable related to position is the oxygen content. The high corrosion rate
in the splash zone is attributed to the constant wetting of the steel by
highly aerated seawater. In the tidal zone, differential aeration produces
a protective cell effect, resulting in a considerably lower corrosion rate.
At deeper positions, less oxygen is present and the corrosion rate for steel
drops to rates usually in the range of 76 to 152 micrometers (3 to 6 mils)
per year. Carbon steel in seawater that has been treated to remove dissolved
oxygen and marine bacteria exhibits an even lower corrosion rate under low
velocities.
Austenitic stainless steel and aluminum alloys exhibit satisfactory

corrosion resistance in the splash zone, because the high oxygen content
helps keep passivating films intact. Aluminum has better corrosion resis-
tance in the splash zone than at greater depths where less oxygen is present.
The high corrosion rates on carbon steel piling in the splash zone may also
be attributed to the severe electrochemical corrosion cells set up in the
pile. Piles made from high-copper-bearing, high-strength, low-alloy steel
conforming to ASTM Standard A690 have two to three times the resistance to
seawater corrosion in the splash zone of ordinary carbon steel, although
such steels exhibit no better corrosion resistance at greater depths.
(3) Effects of Polluted Seawater. Polluted waters often contain

hydrogen sulfide which causes severe effects in metals sensitive to the
222
effects of sulfides. Hardened steel, or welds not stress relieved in medium
carbon steel, may crack due to stress corrosion. Hydrogen sulfide presence
can lead to corrosion of the vapor side of copper alloy heat exchangers.
Small amounts of ammonia may also be present in polluted seawater, causing
aggressive attack and stress corrosion cracking of copper-zinc alloys. The
copper-nickel alloys are preferred when ammonia pollution is expected and
the 90-10 copper nickel alloy (UNS No. C70600) has demonstrated satisfactory
performance in many applications where sulfide pollution has been present.
f. Effects of Marine Organisms. Biofouling and biological fouling are

common terms that refer to the settlement and growth of living organisms on
materials exposed to the marine environment. Some metals, such as titanium
and the nickel-chromium-high molybdenum alloys, are completely corrosion
resistant under fouling. Copper base alloys exhibit varying degrees of
resistance to biofouling. Other materials such as aluminum, carbon steel,
and stainless steel both foul and suffer increased corrosion due to bio-
fouling. On structures such as wharves and breakwaters, biofouling may not
be of as much importance. However, biofouling causes increased wave action
loadings on such structures. Increased flow blockage and decreased heat
transfer efficiency are other problems encountered as result of marine
biofouling on metal structures in marine service.
Biofouling resistance is highest for copper and the 90-10 copper nickel
alloy. Brass and bronze have good resistance but 70-30 copper nickel alloy,
aluminum bronze, zinc (galvanizing), and Monel alloy 400 have only fair
biofouling resistance. The high resistance to biofouling of many of the
copper-base materials have been attributed by some researchers to the in-
hospitable nature of the green cupric hydroxychloride corrosion product that
forms on these materials. This film is itself loosely attached so that any
marine organisms that do attach to this film are soon removed. Monel,
carbon steel, aluminum, and stainless steel exhibit poor corrosion resistance
under biofouling. Carbon steel suffers general corrosion, whereas Monel,
aluminum, and stainless steel exhibit pitting and crevice corrosion.
Crevice corrosion is caused by differential oxygen cells produced when
oxygen is prevented from reaching the metal surface under barnacles.
Corrosion rates on carbon steel may be reduced a little when biofouling

is present due to reduced velocity of water at the metal surface; however,
rcorrosion rates remain relatively high. Biofouling will periodically slough
rA off when the corrosion product breaks off. The high general corrosion rate
of carbon steel in seawater is attributed to marine organisms known as
anaerobic bacteria. Principal groups are the sulphate-reducing and the
iron-consuming bacteria. The sulphate-reducing bacteria require oxygen,
which is derived from the reduction of compounds such as sulphates, sulphites,
thiosulphates, or organic substances rather than dissolved oxygen. These
bacteria liberate hydrogen sulphite which attacks iron severely, removing
hydrogen from the cathodic areas of the steel with the formation of iron
sulphide. The iron-consuming bacteria do not actually consume iron as food
but do require iron in solution for growth.
Biofouling has been controlled by using copper base alloys, antifouling

coatings, mechanical cleaning of the surface, or environmental controls.
Environmental control measures include increased flow velocity, elevated
223
a
temperature, and chlorination. When employing such control measures, the

corrosion performance of the base metals must be considered.
In addition to biofouling, there are several organisms (such as limnoria,

teredo, and termites) common in the marine environment that cause deteriora-
tion of structures through boring. Because metal structures are impenetrable
these organisms do not cause deterioration usually found on marine pilings
constructed of wood.
g. Wave and Current Effects. Fouling diminishes as water velocities in

contact with a structure reach the I- to 2-meter-per-minute (3 to 6 foot)
range. Pitting of the more noble materials slows down and may even cease.
As velocities continue to increase, stainless steel and nickel base materials
remain passive and inert but corrosion barriers are stripped away from carbon
steel and copper alloys. Although wave or current velocity are seldom too
high to allow the use of carbon steel, velocity is a factor to consider in
the design of equipment such as piping and pumps.
h. Abrasion. Abrasion to metal structures is caused by the movement of

the elements in the coastal zone and their ability to transport particles
with force against all structures. Significant particle transport is
caused by wind and water. Structures in windswept beaches and shores are
subject to severe abrasion from the wind-driven sand with substantial force
and can result in significant metal wear in the case of steel or other metal
structures. For steel pile structures, abrasion to piles at the mud line
increases the metal loss far in excess of loss from corrosion. For some
structures, usually on land or for structural elements located above the
waterline in the ocean, added abrasion resistance can be provided by addi-
tional protection in the form of concrete, wood, or hard-surfaced alloys
Most hard-surfaced metals require special heat treating and the addition of
small amounts of other elements such as manganese.
The latest improvement in steel piling was the development of mariner

steel for seawater exposure. Mariner steel was developed primarily to
improve the corrosion resistance of steel in seawater by alloying about 0.5
percent each of copper and nickel in addition to about 0.1 percent of phos-
phorous (AST?1 Standard Specification A 690-77). While mariner steel has a
somewhat improved strength, its hardness is little different than that of
*9 normal steel piling and abrasion resistance is also little different.
Although cathodically protected steel structures in seawater usually take on
a calcareous coating (chemicals deposited from the seawater) this coating is
too soft to offer any resistance to abrasion.
i. Seismic Effects. Metals are well suited for marine construction in

areas of seismic activity. They possess high tensile strength, good duc-
tility, and, when properly specified, good toughness. In addition, metals
can consistently meet specified minimum seismic requirements. Steel, the
most economical of the metals for construction of harbor facilities, is
available in several shapes. The inherent high-bending strength of steel If-
piles permits the development of required resistance to lateral forces, when
used in foundation designs where resistance to seismic forces is required.
The ability of metals to be loaded in shear, compression or tension within
calculated limits facilitates the design of earthquake-proof structures.
224
j. Fire. Metals in the shapes and sizes used in construction will not
burn in a fire; however, these do have reduced strength as temperatures
rise. Carbon steel is affected above 3400 Celsius (650 Fahrenheit). At
4800 Celsius (900 Fahrenheit), carbon steel has only about half the strength
that it does at room temperature. During a fire, structures of all steel
construction have collapsed. Structures are protected from fire loss by the
installation of sprinkler systems, which spray water on the building and
roof supports to keep them cool and by the covering of steel beams and
supports with concrete to provide insulation. Metals that have experienced
a fire should be tested for suitability before being reused because strength
and toughness may be reduced. Heat treatment may be required to restore
properties.
k. Human Activity. Accidents and theft are two elements of human

activity that the designer must consider. Piers and wharves are constructed
with fender systems to minimize damage from impact by ships. When accidents
do cause damage, metal structures may be repairable by welding.
Legs on drilling platforms are often sheathed with copper nickel alloys
in the splash zone areas to minimize corrosion. Attempts to use similar
methods in harbors have not been completely successful because the sheathings
have been stolen for their metal value as scrap.
4. Uses of Structural and Sheet Metal.
a. General.
(1) Steel. Various parts of coastal structures are made of steel.

Steel 1-piles or pipe piles are used to support foundations. Steel H-piles
are used in preference to steel pipe piles because they are more easily
driven in soils containing hard strata or obstructions such as boulders.
Steel H-piles are easily spliced by welding, allowing driving to deep rock
strata if necessary. Steel H-piles are also frequently used to support
fender systems immediately in front of the wharves. Steel bolts are used to
attach rubber bumpers to the fender system that prevents damage to the
structure by absorbing the ship impact loads. Cast-steel bollards and
mooring posts are used to take up ships' lines. Steel is an ideal material
for breasting and mooring dolphins because steel can be easily jointed, has
high tensile strength, good ductility, and good toughness. Structural steel
shapes are used for framing of structures. Even the fences around coastal
installations are most often chain-link steel fences.
Large quantities of steel are used in components that appear to be all

concrete. Concrete piles, beams, structure foundations, walls, roadways,
and pads all will contain steel reinforcing bar, wire or wire fabric.
Materials for concrete reinforcement are covered in Section V, Portland
Cement Concrete.
(2) Aluminum. Many alloys of aluminum possess high corrosion

resistance to marine atmospheres is well as good strength-to-weight ratios.
These properties make aluminum an economic choice for many applications in
co:sstal structures, particiiliriy where freedom from maintenanc( is desired.
225
In buildings, door and window frames are usually 6063 aluminum, roofing
and siding, alclad 3004 aluminum. Tread plate, such as used for decking and
PV catwalks, is 6061 aluminum heat treated to T4, T42, or T6 temper. Aluminum
alloys are also used for architectural trim, hardware, and gutters and
downspouts. Insulation is even faced with aluminum foil to reflect heat,
making the insulation more effective.
Electrical wire and bus bars are either copper or 1350 aluminum. Because
the conductivity of 1350 aluminum is approximately one half that of copper,
the cross section of the aluminum conductor must be approximately twice that
of the copper for equivalent current capacity. The specific gravity of
aluminum is so much less than that of copper that equivalent conductors of
1350 aluminum weigh only half those of copper, making the choice one of
economics. Lamp poles and standards are made from 6063 aluminum. Even the
lamp bases may be 3004 or 5050 aluminum.
Tanks and equipment for liquid natural gas facilities must be constructed
of materials having high notch toughness. Aluminum alloys 5083 and 5456 have
been specified for liquid natural gas storage tanks and vaporizers because
these alloys have good corrosion resistance to marine atmospheres and high
notch toughness. In accordance with ASTM A370, aluminum alloys do not
require Charpy impact testing because aluminum alloys do not become brittle
at cryogenic temperatures.
(3) Copper. Electrical conductors such as wire and bus bars are the
largest applications of copper. Copper is also used for pipe and sheathing.
Coppers are used in many hidden applications in supporting equipment at
Spowered coastal structures. Such uses
equipment, springs and include
contacts radiators in air conditioners
in communication and control and
systems,
and even tools of beryllium copper for use in areas where sparks must be
prevented to avoid fires and explosions. Copper alloys are used in equipment
such as heat exchangers, pumps, valves, and hardware for sluice gates and
traveling water screens.
(4) Nickel. Nickel base alloys have good corrosion resistance to

seawater and generally high resistance to cavitation damage. Most resistant
are nickel-chromium-molybdenum columbium alloy 625 (Inconel 625, produced by
1intin~ton Alloys, Huntington, West Virginia) and nickel-molybdenum-chromium
0 ;illoy C (Flastelloy c, produced by Stellite Division, Cabot Corporation, Kokomo,
Indiana). These two alloys are used for springs, cable connectors, bellows-
type expansion Joints, rupture disks, and pury seal rings in coastal facili-
ties.
Nickel-copper alloy 400 (Monel 400, produced by Huntington Alloys) is the

• lowest cost nickel base alloy for marine service. This alloy is used for
valve and pump trim, fasteners, heat exchangers, and piping.
(5) Titanium. The major uses of titanium in coastal structures are

steam condensers employing seawater cooling, ball valves, and desalination
equipment. Titanium will tolerate polluted seawater under conditions where
other materials fail. As a result, many coastal powerplants are installing
ste:am condensers using titanium tubes.
226
b. Sheet-Pile Structures.
(1) Design. Bulkheads in waterfront facilities are subjected to

lateral pressure resulting from earth movement and the unbalanced hydrostatic
and seepage forces acting on opposite sides of the wall. A higher water
"level may exist in the backfill behind the wall than in front of it as a
result of a receding tide, receding high water, or a heavy rainstorm. Other
lateral loads that may be encountered are ice thrust, wave forces, ship
impact, mooring pull, and earthquake forces. Because of its material
strength sheet pile is often used in marine construction for bulkheads. The
designer, after evaluating the lateral pressure and forces, must determine
the required depth of piling penetration, the maximum bending moments in the
piling, and the maximum bending stresses in the wall. An appropriate sheet-
pile section must be selected, taking into account yield strength and moment
of inertia of the selected section. Some typical steel sheet-pile profiles
are shown in Figure 50. A choice may be made between a cantilevered or
anchored wall.
Anchored sheet-pile walls can be designed for greater height than is

possible with the cantilever-type design with a similar sheet-pile section.
For heights to about 11 meters (35 feet) (depending on soil conditions),
sufficient support can be obtained from anchor tie rods near the top of the
*I wall and the lateral support of the embedded part of the wall. For greater
heights, higher yield strength steel or multiple tie rods at lower levels
are required. Anchorage systems in use include deadman anchors, H-pile
anchors, and sheet-pile anchors. Sketches of the systems are shown in
Figure 51. Regardless which anchorage system is used, the anchor must be
located outside the potential active fracture zone behind the sheet-pile
wail. Passive resistance of the anchor is not possible if the ground is
unstable.
K A complete sheet-pile wall system may consist of the wall, wale, tie
rods, and the anchor. The wale is a flexible member attached to the wall
which distributes the horizontal reactive force from the anchor tie rods to
the wall section. Locating the wale on the outside of the wall where the
piling will bear against the wale in compression is preferred for engineering
puLrposes. However, wales are sometimes bolted onto the inside face to
*provide a clear outside Face.
Wales are often constructed of steel structural channels conforming to

ASTM Standard A36 mounted with their webs back to back, and separated by
onough space to clear the end of tie rod between them. When the wales are
located on the inside face, each sheet-pile section is bolted to the wale.
Standard wale designs for wales located on both outside and inside faces are
;hown in Figure 52.
0 •Tie rods are usually round steel bars, comforming to ASTI Standard A36,
thlit have been upset and threaded at each end so as to maintain cross-
*Lcional area in the threaded part. Usually a turnbuckle is used between
* tto tie-rod sections to allow removal of slack. Sagging of the tie rods may
occur bcause of soil settlement around them which drags them downward,
ituin, increased tension in the rods. Two methods of avoiding this con-
'A ti'ni Ire: (1) use light vert;cal piles at 6- to 9-meter (20 to 30 foot)
tcr'il:, to support the rods, or (2) encasing the rods in large conduits.
227
I
* Figure 50. Typical steel sheet-pile profiles -
top view, straight; middle view, arch,

bottom view, angle.
228
IA
REIN FOR CED0
CONCRETE CAP
- (CONTINUOUS)
F L IIGFILL STEEL H4PILES
PILING 2 VARIA8LE)
LIESHEEL LINE
SHEET
TIE RODS a DEAD MAN TIE RODS 15 A-FRAME USING STEEL H-PILES
Figure 51. Typical-steel pile anchorage systems.
00OJ8LE
T
CHANNEL INSIDE WALL
DOUBLE CHANNEL OUTSIDE WALL
Iiguic .52. Standard wale designs.
229
Tie rods are subject to corrosion and must, therefore, be adequately coated
and wrapped.
(2) Construction. Steam hammers are commonly employed for pile

driving in the United States. During driving, the steam hammer, consisting
of a housing and the moving part called the ram rests on top of the pile. A
single acting steam hammer is a freely falling ram with steam pressure
acting on a piston to raise the ram prior to fall. In a double acting
hammer, steam is not only used to lift the ram but also to help drive the
ram downward. Double acting hammers are able to deliver blows faster than
single acting hammers of the same energy output because double acting
hammers use a shorter stroke and higher ram acceleration. Both drop hammers
and diesel hammers are also available. A drop hammer consists of a heavy
weig'-t or ram that is allowed to fall by gravity on top of the pile. Fall
height must be controlled to avoid damage to pile heads by excessive impact
u from rams moving with high velocity.
Excessive impact or improper cushioning during pile driving may result

in mashed pile heads. Vertical misalinement of the pile as a result of
obstructions encountered below the ground surface or of poor pile-driving
conditions may cause failure of pile interlocks. If excessive misalinement
occurs, sheet piles can become over stressed resulting in bulkhead failure.
The method used for the construction of steel breakwaters depends on the
soil conditions and the height of the waves. If the waves are below 10
feet, and the bottom is soft to a great depth, steel sheet pile topped with
concrete and supported with batter piles may be used.
Bulkheads for small-boat harbors have been constructed using sheet

piling of aluminum alloy 5052-H141. Coping was of 6063-T6, tie rods and
stiffener bar beams of 6061-T6. Deadman anchors were constructed of 5052-
H141 alloy. Aluminum sheet pile is available in 3.6-meter (12 foot) lengths
which limit application to shallow facilities.
c. Gabions. Gabions, compartmented rectangular containers made of

galvanized steel hexagonal wire mesh and filled with small stones, have been
used to reinforce the shoulder of seawalls constructed of rock. They have
also been used to construc, jetties as well as revetments and seawalls to
control shoreline erosion. Gabion mattresses can also be used as foundations
or filter layers under rubble-mound structures and caisson structures. For
seawater use, gabions of galvanized wire should be coated with plastic to
reduce corrosion. The Alaska District limits use of gabions in the wave
zone where ice occurs due to bursting of the gabions by the ice. Also, if
the gabions are not rigidly filled, the rockfilling can move and abrade the
wire.
230
VIII. WOOD
1. General.
Wood is widely used in the coastal zone because it is strong, resilient,

and easily installed with common tools and equipment. It is also a common
material available nearly everwhere at a reasonable cost. When properly
treated, it is very durable. Its ability to absorb energy (resiliency) is
a feature that makes it especially desirable for uses such as fender piles.
The main problem when using wood in the coastal zone is that it is an
organic material that is the natural food supply and habitat for fungi,
bacteria, insects and marine organisms. The first three occur on land and
are more active in the high moisture conditions at the coast. Wood treat-
ments to prevent attack by natural enemies are very effective in combating
damage from these sources.
2. Physical Properties of Wood.
a. Physical Structure of Wood. Wood is a cellular organic material

made up principally of cellulose, which comprises the structural units, and
lignin, which cements the structural units together. It also contains
certain extractives and ash-forming minerals. Wood cells are hollow and
vary from about 1 000 to 8 000 micrometers (40 to 330 mils) in length, and
from 10 to 80 micrometers (0.4 to 3.3 mils) in diameter. Most cells are
elongated and are oriented vertically in the growing tree, but some, called
rays, are oriented horizontally and extend from the bark toward the center,
or pith, of the tree.
(1) Hardwoods and Softwoods. Species of trees are divided into two
classes: hardwoods, which have broad leaves; and softwoods or conifers,
which have needlelike or scalelike leaves. Hardwoods shed their leaves at
the end of each growing season, but most softwoods are evergreens. The
terms "hardwood" and "softwood" are often misleading because they do not
directly indicate the hardness or softness of wood. In fact, there are
hardwoods which are softer than certain softwoods.
(2) Heartwood and Sapwood. Several distinct zones are distinguish-

able in the cross section of a log: the bark; a light-colored zone called
sapwood; an inner zone, generally of darker color, called heartwood; and,
at the center, the pith (Fig. 53). A tree increases in diameter by adding
new layers of cells from the pith outward. For a time, this new layer
contains living cells which produce sap and store food, but eventually, as
the tree increases in diameter, cells toward the center become inactive and
serve only as support for the tree. The inactive inner layer is the
heartwood; the outer layer containing living cells is the sapwood. There
is no consistent difference between the weight and strength properties of
heartwood and sapwood. Heartwood, however, is more resistant to decay
fungi than is sapwood, although there is a great range in the durability of
heartwood from various species.
(3) Annual Rings. In climates where temperature limits the

growinp season of a tree, each annual increment of growth usually is
231
00 PIT
BARKHER
SAPWO000
Li
Figure 53. Typical cross section of a log.
readily distinguishable. Such an increment is known as an annual growth

ring or annual ring, and consists of an earlywood and a latewood band.
(4) Earlywood (Springwood) and Latewood (Summerwood). In many

woods, large thin-walled cells are formed in the spring when growth is
greatest, whereas smaller, thicker walled cells are formed later in the
year. The areas of fast growth are called earlywood, and the areas of
slower growth, latewood. In annual rings, the inner, lighter colored area
is the earlywood, and the outer, darker layer is the latewood. Latewood
contains more solid wood substance than does earlywood and, therefore, is
denser and stronger. The proportion of width of latewood to width of
annual ring is sometimes used as one of the visual measures of the quality
and strength of wood.
(5) Grain and Texture. The terms "grain" and "texture" are used
in many ways to describe the characteristics of wood and, in fact, do not
have a definite meaning. Grain often refers to the width of the annual
rings, as in "close-grained" or "coarse-grained." Sometimes it indicates
whether the fibers are parallel to or at an angle with the sides of the
* pieces, as in "straight-grained" or "cross-grained." Texture usually
refers to the fineness of wood structure rather than to the annual rings.
When these terms are used in connection with wood, the meaning intended
should be defined.
b. Moisture Content of Wood. Wood may contain moisture as "free water"

in the cell cavities and as "absorbed water" in the capillaries of the cell
walls. When green wood begins to lose moisture in the ;easoning process, the
232
0
cell walls remain saturated until the free water has been evaporated. The
point at which evaporation of free water is complete and cell walls begin to
lose their moisture is called the fiber saturation point (fsp). This point
occurs between 25 and 30 percent moisture for most species.
Moisture in wood is expressed as a percentage of the ovendry weight and
is determined most accurately by weighing a representative sample, drying
it at slightly more than 100 Celsius (212 Fahrenheit), until no further
loss of weight takes place, reweighing, and then dividing the difference
between the original and final weights by the final (ovendry) weight.
Electric moisture meters offer a simpler though less exact method of
determining moisture content. With slight seasonal variations, wood in use
over a period of time attains an equilibrium moisture content (emc) corres-
ponding to the humidity and temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
'hen exposed to similar atmospheric conditions, different woods will have
the same moisture content regardless of their density.
loisture content has an important effect upon susceptibility to decay.
.Most decay fungi require a moisture content above fiber saturation point to
develop. In addition, a tavorable temperature, an adequate supply of air,
and a source of food are essential. Wood that is continuously water-soaked
(as when submerged) or contl l dry (with a moisture content of 20
untsIOU
percent or less) ,ill not deciy. Moisture content variations above the
* fiber saturation point have no effect upon the volume or strength of wood.
As wood dries below the fibeC Ituration point and begins to lose moisture
from the cell walls, shrinkage begins and strength increases.
c. lirectional Pro-perties. Wood is not isotropic because of the

orientation of it. cells and the manner in which it increases in diameter.
t has different mnechLunical propeities with respect to its three principal
It
atxes of sy:mnetry: lonhgitudinal (parallel to grain), radial (perpendicular to
grain), and tangential (perpendicular to grain) (see Fig. 54). Strength and
o1 astic properties corresponding to these three axes may be used in design.
i'he diffterence between properties in the radial and tangential directions is
seldom of practical importance in most structural designs; for structural
purposes it is sufficient to differentiate only between properties parallel
and perpendicular to the grain.
d. Specific Gravity. Solid wood substance is heavier than water, its
;pccific gravity being about 1.5 regardless of the species of wood. Despite
this fact, dry wood of most species floats in water because a part of its
volume is occupied by air-filled cell cavities. Variation among species in
the size of cells and in the thickness of cell walls affects the amount of
solid wood substance present and hence, the specific gravity. Thus,
specific eravity of wood is a measure of its solid wood substance and an
.ndex of its strength properties. Specific gravity values, however, may be
.om'what affected by gums, resins, and extractives which contribute little
to strength. The relationship of specific gravity to wood strength is
•recommended in the practice of assigning higher basic stress values to
Sobez designated a(s "dense."
,.. [ t ~i
oit :,1 I Stabilityv.
i ff (. t of TemperIture. Wood, like most other solids, expands

h1 .,nd
',InJ:
In -tracts
-nt on cooling. In most structural designs, the
233
!T
Figure 54. The principal axes of wood: L, longitu-

dinal; R, radial; T, tangential (American
Institute Timber Construction, 1974).
increase of wood in length due to a rise in temperature is negligible, and,

as a result, the secondary stresses due to temperature changes may, in most
cases, be neglected. This increase in length is important only in certain
structures that are subjected to considerable temperature changes, or in
members with very long spans.
The increase in length per unit of length for a rise in temperature of

I° is designated the coefficient of linear thermal expansion. It differs in
the three structural directions of wood. Radially and tangentially (perpen-
dicular to grain), the coefficient of linear thermal expansion varies
directly with the specific gravity of the species. It is in the range of 45
x 166 meters per meter per 0 Celsius (25 x 1 6 feet per foot per o
Fahrenheit) times specific gravity for a dense hardwood such as sugar
maple to 81 x lO6 meters per meter per 0 Celsius (45 x 166 feet per foot
per Fahrenheit) times specific gravity for softwoods such as Douglas
fir, Sitka spruce, redwood, and white fir. Radial or tangential dimensional
changes for common sizes of wood structural members are relatively small.
Longitudinally (parallel to grain), the coefficient is independent of
specific r:ivity and varies from 3.08 x 166 meters per meter per 0 Celsius
(1.7 x 10 feet per foot per 0 Fahrenheit) to 4.5 x 106 meters per meter
per (Celsius (2.5 x 10F feet per foot per 0 Fahrenheit) for different
species. This is from one-tenth to one-third of the values for other
common structural materials and glass. For this reason, consideration must
be given to the different thermal expansion coefficients of various materials
used in conjunction with wood. The average coefficient of linear thermal
expansion for plywood is 6.12 x I 6 meters per meter per 0 Cels_. (3.4 x
IA' feet per foot per 0 Fahrenheit). The coefficient of thermal expan:sion
for thickness is essentially the same as for solid lumber.
(2) Fffect of Moisture Content. Between zero moisture content and

the fiber saturation poit, wood shrinks as it loses moisture and swells as
234
6
it absorbs moisture. Above the fiber saturation point there is no dimen-

sional change with variation in moisture content. The amount of shrinkage
and swelling differs in the tangential, radial, and longitudinal dimensions
of the piece. Engineering design should consider shrinkage and swelling in
the detailing and use of lumber.
Shrinkage occurs when the moisture content is reduced to a value below

the fiber saturation point (for purposes of dimensional change, commonly
assumed to be 30 percent of the moisture content at the fiber saturation
point) and is proportional to the amount of moisture lost below this point.
Swelling occurs when the moisture content is increased until the fiber
saturation point is reached, then, the increase ceases. For each 1 percent
decrease in moisture content below the fiber saturation point, wood shrinks
about one-thirtieth of the total possible shrinkage, and, for each I percent
increase in moisture content, the piece swells about one-thirtieth of the
total possible swelling. The total swelling is equal numerically to the
5 total shrinkage. Shrinking and swelling are expressed as percentages based
on the green wood dimensions. Wood shrinks most in a direction tangent to
the annual growth rings, and somewhat less in the radial direction, or
across these rings. In general, shrinkage is greater in heavier pieces
than in lighter pieces of the same species, and greater in hardwoods than
in softwoods.
As a piece of green or wet wood dries, the outer parts are reduced to a
moisture content below the fiber saturation point much sooner than are the
inner parts. Thus the whole piece may show some shrinkage before the
average moisture content reaches the fiber saturation point. Neither the
initial nor the final moisture content (M1 or Mf) can be greater than 30
Percent when calculating shrinkage because that is the moisture content at
which, when drying, wood starts to shrink or at which, when absorbing
moisture, it reaches its maximum dimension. Values for longitudinal
shrinkage with a change in moisture content are ordinarily negligible. The
total longitudinal shrinkage of normal species from fiber saturation to
ovendry condition usually ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 percent of the green wood
dimension. Abnormal longitudinal shrinkage may occur in compression wood,
wood with steep slope of grain, and exceptionally lightweight wood of any
species.
The cross-laminated construction of plywood gives it relatively good

dimensional stability in its plane. The average coefficient of hydroscopic
expansion (or contraction) is about 0.000 2 meter per meter (0.000 2 foot
per foot) of length or width for each 10 percent change in relative humidity,
or 0.2 percent ovendry to complete saturation.
3. Mechanical Properties of Wood.
a. Wood as Structural Material.
Wood is not an isotropic material because strength properties differ

along its different axes. It is strongest when loaded in induce stress
parallel to grain, either in tension or compression. However, this conditioHl
is not always possible and loading perpendicular to grain may be accomplisheci
in a satisfactory manner.
235
The anisotropic nature of wood may be confusing to the designer during
his first experience with its use, but as he gets to know the material he
finds that engineering design with wood can be interesting as well as
productive in the way of lower construction costs. The discussion which
follows provides a brief description of the various mechanical properties of
structural wood as they affect engineering design.
(1) Tension Parallel to Grain. A force generating tension parallel

to grain, as shown in Figure 55, creates a tendency to elongate the wood
fibers and to cause them to slip by each other. Resistance to tension
applied strictly parallel to grain is the highest strength property of
wood. This resistance, however, is substantially reduced when the force is
applied at an angle to the grain or when the cross section of the piece is
reduced by knots or holes.
,,, - G RA IN - m
Figure 55. Tension parallel to grain.
(2) Tension Perpendicular to Grain. A force generating tension

perpendicular to grain tends to separate the wood fibers along the grain.
This is the direction in which wood has the least strength, and because it
is not good practice to apply loading to induce tension across grain,
design values ire not provided for this strength property, except for
special applications.
(3) Compr ,ssion Parallel to Grain. A force generating compression

parallel to gr..in, as shown in Figure 56, creates a tendency to compress the
wood fibers in the lengthwise position. As with tension, resistance to
compression parallel to grain is affected by the angle of load to grain and
* by the presence of knots or holes.
(4) Compression Perpendicular to Grain. A force applied perpen-

dicular to grain, such as the bearing under the ends of a beam as shown in
Figure 57, tends to compress the wood at its surface. While the wood becomes
more dense as it is compressed, this action causes slight displacement of
* the supported member. Thus, limits are placed on loading in bearing perpen-
dicular to grain.
(3) Shear Parallel to Grain. A force applied in the manner

illustrated in Figure 38 causes one section of the piece to shear or slide
along the other section in a dircction parallel to grain. In a loaded beam
* where the indced stress on the one side is compression and on the other
side is tension, as illustrated in Figure 58, shearing stress is created
236
•- G RA IN
Figure 56. Compression parallel to grain.
,*
• ~-GRAIN- -
Figure 57. Compression perpendicular to grain.
Figure 58. Shear parallel to grain.
parallel to grain. The largest shear stress parallel to grain usually

occurs along the neutral axis on the plane at which the induced stress
* changes from compression to tension and generally increases to the maximum
at the supports or end of the beam. Shakes, checks, and splits, which may
occur during the drying of lumber, have the effect of reducing the area in
the plane of shear resistance. Consequently, laboratory test values for
shear strength parallel to grain are substantially reduced for design
purposes in order to accommodate the probability of the occurrence of'
0 shakes, checks and splits after drying.
237
(6) Shear Perpendicular to Grain. Shear perpendicular to grain is
not a design factor in solid wood because effective control is applied
through limits on design stresses in shear parallel to grain and compression
or bearing perpendicular to grain.
(7) Fiber Stress in Bending. A force or set of forces applied

perpendicular to a beam, as shown in Figure 59, creates compression in the
fibers on the side to which the force is applied and it also creates tension
in the fibers on the opposite side. Thus, there is a tendency to compress
the fibers on the compression side and to elongate the fibers on the tension
side. As the stress is distributed from the extreme fibers or outside faces
toward the center or neutral axis of the piece it is reduced in intensity.
Thus, deviations in slope of grain and the presence of knots or holes in
these outside faces tend to reduce the resistance in the extreme fibers and
the bending strength of the beam.
I
COMPRESSION
-a- GRAIN -M
4TENSION
Figure 59. Fiber stress in bending.
(8) Proportional Limit, Static Bending. The proportional limit

occurs at the point where the induced strain or deformation ceases to be
proportional to the stress or applied load, as determined by the standard
test method. Stress at proportional limit is computed by the standard
method. All conventional methods of structural design for wood are within
the proportional or elastic limit.
(9) Modulus of Rupture, Static Bending. The modulus of rupture is

computed from the ultimate load or the point at which the piece breaks under
the standard bending test method. Loading by test beyond the proportional
*i limit shows an increasing rate of deformation, without a specific yield
point, until ultimate load is reached.
(10) Modulus of Elasticity, Static Bending. The modulus of elas-

ticity is a me lure of stiffness and is computed on the basis of the load
and deformation within the proportional limit.
I
b. Design Values For Structural Lumber.
(1) General. Design values are assigned to lumber in a scientific

manner to provide material of predictable strength properties to meet the
requirements of engineering design. Because of the varying nature of the
different species of trees, there is a wide range of stress values from
which the designer can make his selection. However, to avoid delay during
238
* construction, it is advisable to determine which species and grades are
available locally before design values are selected.
(2) Classification of Structural Lumber. Because the effects of

knots, slope of grain, checks, and shakes on the strength of lumber vary
with the loading to which the piece is subjected, structural lumber is often
* .classified according to its size and use. The three major classifications
are as follows:
(a) Dimension lumber--pieces of rectangular or square cross

section, 2 to 4 inches thick and 2 inches or more wide (nominal
L dimensions) graded primarily for strength in bending edgewise or
flatwise but also used where tensile or compressive strength is
important; dimension lumber may be further classified as joists
and planks, for material 5 inches or more in nominal width, and
as light framing or structural light framing for material 2 to
4 inches wide;
(b) beams and stringers--pieces of rectangular cross section,

5 to 8 inches (nominal dimensions) and larger, graded for strength
in bending when loaded on the narrow face; and
(c) posts and timbe-rs--pieces of square or nearly square cross

A section, at least 5 by 5 inches (nominal dimensions) and graded
primarily for use as posts or columns but adapted to
miscellaneous uses in which bending strength is not especially
important.
(3) Characteristics Affecting Strength. Aside from the natural

properties of the species, the major characteristics affecting the strength
of a piece of lumber are the sizes of knots or holes and their locations,
the sizes of checks or shakes and splits and their locations, the amount of
wane or absence of wood, slope of grain, degree of density or rings per
inch, and the condition of seasoning. All these characteristics are taken
into consideration in the stress grading of a piece of lumber. These
conditions are illustrated in Figure 60.
(4) ASTM Standards. There are two ASTM standards which serve as
principal references in the assignment of working stresses of lumber. One
standard is ASTM D2555, "Methods for Establishing Clear Wood Strength
Values," which sets forth procedures for establishing strength values for
clear wood of different species in the unseasoned condition and unadjusted
for end use. Such procedures may be applied to a single species or to a
group of species where growth and marketing conditions justify such grouping.
The other standard is ASTM D245, "Methods for Establishing Structural
Grades for Visually Graded Lumber," which sets forth reduction factors to be
applied to the clear wood values and provides procedures for determining
strength ratios, based on knots and other characteristics, which, when
applied to the adjusted clear wood values, results in working stresses for
the various commercial grades of any species. This standard also provides
adjustments for degree of density and for condition of seasoning.
(5) Lumber Grading Rules. Lumber grading rules are, in effect,

specifications of quality. In the rules the maximum knots, slope of grain
239
E I
4 iCHEVER
Wt '\1
IS THE LEAST
DIMENSION
SHAKES SPLITS_
E 1/4 W F
FE F
E- MEASURE BETWEEN LINES F- MEASURE LEAST DIMENSION

PARALLEL TO THE EDGES G- MEASURE ALONG CORNER OR
F- MEASURE LEAST DIMENSION MEASURE SIZE MOST NEARLY
REPRESENTING DIAMETER OF
BRANCH CAUSING THE KNOT
KNOTS
Figure 60. Defects affecting strength of lumber (American
Institute Timber Construction, 1974).
240
and other strength reducing characteristics are described in sufficient
detail that the procedures of AST4 D245 can be applied and working stresses
can be assigned to the specified quality. It is common practice to give
each grade a commercial designation such as No. 1 for best, No. 2 for next
best. This means that the purchaser orders the commercial grade which
qualifies for the values used in design.
(6) Machine Graded Lumber. While most structural lumber has

design values assigned on the basis of visual grading to meet a minimum
quality specification, there is a growing trend toward the nondestructive
testing of lumber by machine. In this method a piece of lumber is passed
flatwise through a series of loading rollers and the stiffness, or modulus
of elasticity, is automatically recorded. Through correlation with pre-
viously established test data, bending strength and other strength properties
are assigned to each piece tested. At present, machine grading is supple-
mented by visual grading particularly in the assignment of horizontal or
* longitudinal shear values.
(7) National Design Specification. The principal reference for

working stresses for commercial grades of structural lumber is the National
Design Specification for Wood Construction, available from the National
Forest Products Association, Washington, D.C. The design value information
in this specification is taken from the published rules written by the
American Lumber Standards Committee (ALSC) and other grading rules writing
agencies. When these values are used, each piece of lumber is required to
be identified by the grade mark of a lumber grading or inspection agency
recognized as being competent.
The National Design Specification provides for design of single member

uses of lumber and other structural timbers, and also for repetitive member
uses of lumber where load sharing is known to exist between repetitive
framing members which are spaced not more than 0.6 meter (24 inches), are
not less than 3 in number and are joined by floor, roof, or other load-
distributing elements adequate to support the design load. For repetitive
member uses, the design values in bending are higher than those for single
member uses, as provided in the National Design Specification.
4. Selection of Timber Piles.
a. Round Timber Piles. Recommendations for the use of timber piles in

foundations may be found in the American Wood Preservers Institute (1967).
The ASTM D25-73, Standard Specifications for Round Timber Piles, classifies
round timber piles according to the manner in which their load-carrying
capacity is developed. There are two classes:
(1) Friction Piles. Friction piles are used when pile capacity is
* determined by the friction developed in contact with the surrounding soil,
along with the compressive strength of the timber piles used. Table 29
from ASTM Standard D25-73, lists size requirements for friction piles.
(2) End-Bearing Piles. End-bearing piles are used when pile

capacity is determined primarily by the end-bearing capacity of the soil at
* the pile tip, along with the compressive strength of the timber piles used.
241
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u 0 r- tn0 n )4
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242
Table 30 from ASTM Standard D25-73 (75), lists size requirements for end
bearing piles.
Table 30. End-bearing piles - specified tip circumferences with

minimum butt circumferences (ASTM).
Specified minimum tip circumference (mm)
406 483 559 635 711 787 889 965

Length
(m) Minimum circumferences 0.9 meter from butt (mm)
6.1 559 610 686 762 838 914 1 016 1 092

9.1 597 673 749 826 902 978 1 080 1 156
12.2 660 737 813 889 965 1 041 1 143 1 219
15.2 724 800 876 953 1 029 1 105 1 206 1 283
18.3 787 864 940 1 016 1 092 1 168 1 270 1 346
21.3 851 927 1 003 1 080 1 156 1 232 1 334 1 410
24.4 914 991 1 067 1 143 1 219 1 295 1 397 1 473
27.4 980 1 057 1 133 1 209 1 285 1 361 1 463 1 537
30.5 1 041 1 118 1 194 1 270 1 346 1 422 1 524
33.5 1 107 1 184 1 260 1 336 1 412 1 549
36.6 1 168 1 245 1 321 1 397 1 473
b. Wood Sheet Pile. Wood sheet piles are sometimes used for groins,
bulkheads and subterranean cutoff walls in a saltwater environment. Wood
used as sheet piling is subject to environmental attack and therefore must
be treated with preservatives if it is to have a useful life more than a
few months. Wood sheet pile should be beveled at the bottom on one side
and one edge to facilitate driving and to cause each succeeding pile to
wedge firmly against the adjacent pile. Sheet pile should not be driven
more than a meter. If deeper penetration is needed, the area along the
line of piles should be excavated before driving so that the piles need be
driven only a meter to final tip elevation. There are two types of wood
sheet pile in general use. Members are sized according to the loads and
conditions to be resisted by the sheeting.
(I) Tongue and Groove. Tongue and groove sheeting consists of

planks milled so that on one edge there is a projecting tongue and on the
opposite edge a groove into which the tongue of the adjoining plank is
fitted when driven.
(2) Wakefield Sheet Piling. Wakefield sheet piling is made up of

three layers of planks spiked or bolted together to form a sheet pile, so that
the middle plank projects beyond the edges of the planks on each side, thus
forming a tongue on one edge and a groove on the other (See Fig. 61).
5. Characteristics of Common Construction Species.
Woods normally used in the coastal zone are the domestic softwoods
,enerally available in the United States: Douglas fir, southern pine,
243
BOLTS
WOOD PLANKS
Figure 61. Wakefield sheet piling.
spruce, hemlock, redwood, cedar, and a number of species of pine, including

lodgepole, ponderosa, and white. Hardwoods are less commonly used not
because of inferior quality but because of cost or availability. Hard-
woods, generally, are more difficult to treat with preservatives. However,
special situations may call for hardwoods. For instance, an imported
hardwood called greenhart is gaining some acceptance for use as fender
piles because it appears to be fairly resistant to marine borers in its
untreated state. Tables 31 and 32 list significant characteristics of
domestic softwoods and hardwoods, respectively.
6. Destructive Biota.
a. General.
Although there are many life forms that may eat, live in, or make use
of wood in a way that may be called destructive, many are so rare or do so
little damage during the useful life of wood structures that they can be
ignored relative to the use of wood in the coastal zone. Those that most
Table 31. Domestic softwoods.
General Douglas Southern

characteristics Fir Redwood Cedar Spruce Pine
Shrinkage in 10.9 11.5 11.2 10.4 12.4

volume from green
* to ovendry (pct)
Modulus of rupture 43.7 51.4 41.6 31.4 44.1

MPa (green) (green) (green) (green) (green)
Modulus of 7.798 7.591 5.199 5.971 7.860

* Elasticity (green) (green) (green) (green) (green)
GPa
244
Table 32. Domestic and imported hardwoods.
Domestic
General Characteristics Oak Maple Ash Birch
Shrinkage in 12.7 12.0 11.7 15.0

volume from green to to to
to ovendry 17.7 14.5 16.8
(pct)
Modulus of rupture 49.5 40.1 41.4 59.2

MPa to 73.8 to 62.5 to 68.9 (green)
(green) (green) (green)
54.2 105.2 108.0 133.8

to 77.3 (dry) (dry) (dry)
(dry)
Modulus of 6.047 6.502 7.102 10.27

elasticity to 11.63 to 10.16 to 10.20 to 10.64
GPa (green) (green) (green) (green)
9.108 12.14 9.618 16.52

to 14.36 to 12.95 to 12.26 (dry)
(dry) (dry) (dry)
Imported
General Characteristics Greenhart
Shrinkage in 3
volume from green
to ovendry
(pct)
Modulus of rupture 123.4

MPa (green)
206.8
Modulus of (dry)
20.00
elasticity (green)
GPa
245
seriously affect the useful life of wood are the shipworms (teredos) of the
family Teredinidae and small (2 millimeters) crustaceans of the genus
Limnoria. These marine biota are generally more active in clean water with
high dissolved oxygen. On land, the most destructive insects are termites.
Also on land 7.ut more in air, and very destructive in the presence of
moisture or intermittent wetting are the fungi and bacteria. Preservative
treatment can reduce the destructive effects of the various biota and
extend the useful life of wood but cannot completely prevent the attacks.
Cracks or holes in the wood or leaching of the preservatives will eventually
:il ccess for some marine borer or nest of termites.
a,
h. leredinidae. hese are marine bivalve mollusks that have evolved

into, ., Ion, wormlike shape with its "shell" parts having become a set of
ri.:Iders it ,ne end that the teredo uses to bore holes in wood. An adult
,-.!1 -o t , 100 millimeters long and 5 to 10 millimeters in diameter (Fig.
, . the individual enters the wood as a larva by making a small hole
that is never enlarged at the surface. As it grows, the teredo bores a
!arg.r hole into the wood at the rate of 20 to 300 millimeters per month to
Jccommodate its whole body and apparently to feed itself (Fig. 63). An
inFc'etation of' teredos can destroy an untreated pile at the mud line in 5
to o months (Kofoid and Miller, 1927). Species found in abundance in U.S.
• waters are 7 rc+; fczonsis and Ter'edo navalis. Teredos are sensitive to
coal tar creosote treatment.
C. timnoria. These are small marine crustaceans about 2 millimeters

long and less than 1 millimeter wide (Fig. 64) that either enter the wood
in the adult stage or are hatched and remain in the same piece of wood.
They use the wood as habitat and apparently as food supply because they
continue to bore holes after they are securely entrenched in the wood (Ray,
1959). They bore at the rate of about 0.5 millimeter per day (Kofoid and
Nliller, 1927). At this rate, a heavy infestation of limnoria could eat
through a 30-centimeter untreated pile in about a year. One species,
.- noY,". t~~~n, ,'*,oatz, is present off most of the U.S. coastline (see Fig.
o7). A subspecies, T:nuati mer;~ie, is found all along the Atlantic
sejboard and in the Pacific Ocean from the southern end of the South Island
of New Zealand to several hundred miles north of Vancouver, Canada. Limnmoia
t':e:,?tata is particularly troublesome because it apparently is not repelled
by coal tar creosote preservative (American Society for Testing Materials,
1957). Where .':-rtu i. s present the dual treatment, described in
* naragraph 6, Preservative Treatment of Wood, is required. Figure 66 shows
the damac that can occur from l imnoria attack.
J. Termites. The principal termite species attacking wooden structures

in the United Sta tes is a subterranean type named Fctieu~iternces k ..'ro;ei.s.
The typical life cycle of this species starts with winged reproductive
• adults that fly from the nest for the purpose of establishing new colonies.
hhen a pair" finds a suitable environment they' start a colony. In 5 or 0
yeajrs, a colony" iay contain several thousand individuals (Palermo, 1951).
m:t es are ;nt i he insect about 5 niii meters long that spend their
inside a n ea rt t net or gnawing tube. through availaM e wood except
the winge, adu Its. Termite damage is not evident to casual observation
," e the olter Iycr of woo"d is left ttenched for their ov'-n protection.
,, ":ual ,cvi cn~e ot their presence are the' p, iLc, of fec; l pellets tbal
246
Figure 62. Teredo or shipworm
(Ray, 1959).
i gUrC 6S. Typic~al work of the teredo (Ray, 1959).
247
Iq
-q igure 64. Live limnoria in their burrows (Ray, 1959).
TO ALASKA
TO GRtEENLAND
U. S.A.
A
S
.4z
.A.
V I
TO PNMAEXICOAAPFFFR
PLTCUA, T .
Fiue65 iti$ino iio i nNrhAe ia (SN,15 )
(248
;W6
4w.
24
6
are pushed out of the way through small ventholes about 1 millimeter in
diameter in the wood. A structure attacked by termites will eventually
fail unless the infestation is discovered early and the termites destroyed.
Termite control can be accomplished in several ways. Separation of

structural wood from the ground and removal of all cellulose material from
the ground in the vicinity of the structure are accomplished in the design
and construction phases. Dry ground, good ventilation, and exposure to
sunlight also discourage termites from nesting. If contact with the ground
cannot be avoided as in the case of power poles, pressure treatment with
preservatives will discourage termites. Poison can be injected into the
wood and nesting areas where termites are established.
e. Fungi. The decay fungi, which are of primary concern, consist of

microscopi,: threadlike strands known as hyphae; these aggregate into a mass
called mycelium. The mycelium under suitable conditions form fan sheets,
especially when developing in a very moist locality. These may give rise
to the fruiting body of the fungus which, in the case of the decay fungi,
is relatively flat. These fruiting bodies bear enormous numbers of micro-
scopic spores which are similar in function to the seeds of higher order
plants. The spores are readily distributed by water or air currents, or by
Iq men and animals. Spores germinate and penetrate wood by means of hyphae.
The fungus may also be spread from decayed material to sound material by
the hyphae.
In the United States there are many species of fungi that cause wood
decay. Two important species are the building poria, Poria incrassata, and
lthe tear fungus, Merulius Zachrymans. The tear fungus is more common in
northern United States and Canada; the poria fungus prevails in the south
and west (Thomas, 1951). Timber destroying fungi require both moisture and
oxygen at a temperature of about 20 to 36 Celsius (680 to 970 Fahrenheit)
for optimum growth. Therefore, wood that is kept very dry will not decay
nor will wood that is submerged where the oxygen is excluded. Because wood
must be kept moist, the term "dry rot" is a misnomer for the crumbly brown
rot that results from the action of fungi. Figure 67 shows specimens of
wharf timbers heavily damaged by fungi.
Control of fungi in wood structures can be accomplished by proper

design and by chemical treatment. Design criteria should anticipate meteor-
*Q ogical conditions such as fog, rain, or dew which may deposit moisture on
wood surfaces. Wood structures should be designed to provide for drainage
of wood surfaces and eliminate joints and pockets where moisture can collect.
Where exposure to moisture is severe and cannot be eliminated by design,
pressure treatment with a wood preservative is required. Coal tar creosote,
copper napthenate, pentachlorophenol and salt preservatives such as chromated
* zinc chloride are used separately or in combination for fungi control.
7. Preservative Treatment of Wood.
a. General. To extend the life of wood for both economical and practical
use in the coastal zone, it must be protected from its natural enemies--
• fungi, bacteria, insects, and marine organisms. Effective preservative
treatments have been found to discourage the natural enemies and extend the
useful life of wood to about four to five times that of untreated wood.
250
AI
NAM.
25
Untreated wood can be used effectively for temporary structures and facili-
ties.
*" b. Pressure Processes. The most effective method of treating wood with
preservatives is by means of pressure. There are a number of pressure
processes that employ the same general principle but differ in the details
of application. Treatment includes loading the timber on tramcars, which
are run into a large steel cylinder, bolting the cylinder door, and pressure
applying the preservative until the required absorption has been obtained.
Two principal types of pressure treatment, the full-cell and empty-cell,
are in common use (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1952).
(1) Full-Cell Processes. In pressure treatments with the so-called

"ful-cell" or Bethell process, a preliminary vacuum is first applied to
remove as much air as practicable from the wood cells. The preservative is
then admitted into the treating cylinder without admitting air. After the
cylinder is filled with preservative, pressure is applied until the required
absorption is obtained. A final vacuum is commonly applied immediately
after the cylinder has been emptied of preservative to free the timber (or
charge) of dripping preservative. When the timber is given a preliminary
steaming-and-vacuum treatment, the preservative is admitted at the end of
the vacuum period following steaming.
It is impossible to remove all the air from the wood cells regardless of
the method of treatment employed. For this reason, even under the most
favorable conditions, there is some unfilled airspace in the cell cavities
of the treated wood after impregnation by the full-cell process.
(2) Empty-Cell Processes. Two empty-cell treatments, the Lowry and

the Rueping, are commonly used, both of which depend on compressed air in
the wood to force part of the absorbed preservative out of the cell cavities
after preservative pressure has been released. In the Lowry process, which
is also designated as the "empty-cell process without initial air," the
preservative is admitted to the treating cylinder at atmospheric pressure.
When the cylinder is filled, pressure is applied and the preservative is
forced into the wood against the air originally in the cell cavities. After
the required absorption has been obtained, pressure is released, a vacuum is
drawn, and the air under pressure in the wood forces out part of the pre-
* servative absorbed during the pressure period. This makes it possible, with
a limited net retention, to inject a greater amount of preservative into the
wood and to obtain deeper penetration than when the same net retention is
obtained with the full-cell process. The Lowry process is convenient to use
in any pressure-treating plant, since no additional equipment is required.
* The Rueping process is called "empty-cell process with initial air"; this
process differs from the Lowry empty-cell process in that air is forced into
the treating cylinder before the preservative is admitted. The air pressure
is then maintained while the cylinder is filled with preservative; thus, the
wood cells are left more or less impregnated with air pressure.
* c. Classification of Wood Preservatives. Wood preservatives may be

grouped into two broad cli sses; preservative oils and waterhorne preserva-
t ives. Each of these classes may be further subdivided in variouS ways.
For example, prescrvative )i Is in:. lide petroleum refining byproduIct oils
252
such as coal-tar cruosote and other creosotes, mixtures of coal tar creosote
with coal tar, petroleum, or other oils, solutions of toxic chemicals such
as pentachlorophenol or copper naphthenate in selected petroleum oils or
FV other solvents, and various mixtures of these solutions with the byproduct
oils and mixtures. The waterborne preservatives include solutions of single
chemicals such as chromated zinc chloride (CZC) or chromated copper arsenate
(CCA), which ;re not resistant to leaching, and various formulations of two
or more chemicals that react after impregnation and drying to form compounds
with limited solubility and sometimes with high resistance to leaching.
2Preservatives vary greatly in effectiveness and in suitability for

different purposes and use conditions. The effectiveness of any preserva-
tive depends not only on the materials of which it is composed, but also
on the quantity injected into the wood, the depth of penetration, and the
conditions to which the treated material is exposed in service.
1(1) Coal-Tar Creosote. Coal-tar creosote is defined by the American

Wood Preservers Association as a preservative oil obtained by the distilla-
tion "of coal tar produced by high-temperature carbonization of bituminous
coal; it consists principally of liquid and solid aromatic hydrocarbons and
contains appreciable quantities of tar acids and tar bases; it is heavier
than water; and it has a continuous boiling range of at least 1250 Celsius,
beginning at about 2000 Celsius." Coal-tar creosote is highly effective and
is the most important and most extensively used wood preservative for
L general purposes. Coal-tar creosote solutions vary and usually contain from
30 to 70 percent of coal tar by volume; the most prevalent mix contains 50
tpercent
I: coal tar.
(2) Chemicals Dissolved In Solvents Other Than Water. Preservatives

composed of toxic chemicals carried in nonaqueous solvents, such as petroleum-
oil distillates, are now being used to an increasing extent. These were
originally devised for the purpose of providing a clean treatment without
causing swelling of the wood and were originally applied by nonpressure
methods.
A shortage of cresote that developed during World War II created an

active interest in the use of these preservatives as a possible substitute
for creosote, especially in the pressure treatment of poles. Particular
attention was directed to the chlorinated phenols, which are known to have
a high degree of toxicity. Pentachlorophenol is the best known and most
widely used in this vroii. Other preservatives of this type, which in the
past have been largely limited to use in surface treatments, are the metallic
naphthenates, such as copper naphthenate. The latter has also been used to
a limited extent for- pressure-treated poles.
* Although some of these toxic chemicals, particularly pentachlorophenol,

have given excellent results over a considerable period of time, service
records are still inadequate to evaluate them completely in comparison with
:oal-tair crcosotes.
3)) aterhorne Preservatives. A variety of chemicals in water

solution are used as wi,)oa preservatives. These include zinc chloride,
sodium fluoride, irsn i c in various forms, copper sulfate, and silnlil ,r toxic
chem i ca
1 s . ost Of thtse salts are used in combination with one or moc
253
Si
I
other chemicals, frequently including a chromium compound. Chromated zinc

chloride (CZC), which is composed of a mixture of zinc chloride and sodium
dichromate, has come into wide use in recent years. The preservative is
now much more extensively used than straight zinc chloride, which was
C( formerly the most widely used waterborne salt. A less widely used compound,
Fluoro-chrome-arsenate-phenol (FCAP), is one of the preservatives listed in
the current standards and government specifications.
Arsenic compounds have been used as preservatives for many years. They
are important ingredients of a number of proprietary preservatives, some of
which have demonstrated high effectiveness and are extensively used. Three
effective compounds commonly used are chromated copper arsenate (CCA), acid
copper chromate (ACC), and ammoniacal copper arsenate (ACA). Three types of
CCA are specified in Interim Federal Specification (U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, 1974). The type is chosen according to availability and economics.
Copper sulfate, although extensively used in Europe for many years and
demonstrated to be moderately effective in retarding decay, has found
little use for wood preservation in the United States except in certain
proprietary preservatives, in which it is combined with other chemicals.
Several of these preservatives are of high effectiveness and extensively
used. Copper sulfate is corrosive to iron and steel and, therefore, cannot
be used alone in ordinary treating equipment.
(4) Proprietary Preservatives. Various patented or proprietary pre-

servatives are sold under trade names for pressure treatment. For the most
part they are composed of various waterborne salts and are injected in water
solutions. Others employ a volatile solvent to carry the toxic substance
into the wood. Some of the waterborne preservatives contain chemicals that
are intended to react after injection into the wood and to form substances
that are of low solubility and resistant to leaching.
Wolman salts is one of several proprietary names for a waterborne salt,

chromated copper arsenate (CCA), also known as "green-salt." Chemonite is
another proprietary name for ammoniacal copper arsenate (ACA). Other
proprietary names for preservatives can be found in the American Wood
Preservers Association Standard (AWPt) M9. It lists a number of proprietary
names for each of the standard preservatives.
8. Specific Applications for Treated Wood.
a. General. Tables 33 and 34 indicate the amount of preservative to be

retained in various wood forms using approved practices for preservative
treatment with creosote and solutions containing creosote, pentachlorophenol,
and waterborne preservatives. The net retentions in the tables are
minimum
penetration requirements. Higher net retentions may be needed for severe
use conditions and should be specified when applicable. Data in the tables
are taken from Federal Specification TT-W-571J.
Coa 1 -tar crcosote, creosote-coal tar solution, creosote-petroleum solu-

tion, and pent:i'hlorophenol in hevy petroleum solvent and the four water-
horne prcservatives, ACA, and CCA Types A, B, and C are ordinarily to be
254
Table 33. Preservative retention for timber treatment (from AIWPA C.' and CSj.
r Retention by SPECIES ipcf)
C, Q
. Types of E
Preservative r _
C
X
0o C, 0 .
Creosote, 8.03 8.03 5.0 6.0

or 6.0"
Pentachlorophenol .43 .43 .25 .3
.or .3
ACC, ACA, CCA .253 .253 .25 .25
< CZC .453 .453 .45 .45
FCAP .253 .253 .25 .25
Creosotel 10.0' 10.0 6.0 8.0

or 7.0"
r- Pentachlorophenol .55 .5 .3 .4
U. or .35"
C - ACC .55 .S .5 .S
Ln CCA or ACA .45 .4 .4 .4
Creosote, 12.0 - 6 6
Pentachlorophenol .6
ir CCA or ACA .6
Creosote'r 2S.021 25.067 1 I :.-
09CCA or ACA 1~.5~ R

" Creosote: :0.0
2lncludes
creosote-coal tar.
2Creosote-coal
3
tar not recormended for single treatment of these woods.
1n saltwater atmosphere, above splash zone, use retentions for "Freshwater
and Soil Contact."
4
For members under 5 inches (13 cm) thick.
51n soil contact in saltwater Splash zone or atmosphere, use retentions (or
"Splash :one."
6
AWPA C2 lists treatments for these woods "Sub)ect to Marine Borer Exposure."
but \WP\ C18 does not recommend them for Saltwater use. NR: Not recommendvd.
Teredo 1- pres.ent with no to light limnoria activity.
'limnoria. ictvitv is moderate to heavy hut pholads are absent.
?Lrmnori.i present ,ith teredo or pholads.
255
Table 34. Preservative retention for treatment of wood piles (from AWPA C3).
Retention by SPECIES (pcf)
Types of Preservative
.9 0.0
o N
.,I 2
4J.
-4
0 M
in C -1 k-
0.. CA o AA
$4 O)OC
0 O)-_
$. 0
0 Q -
0 C
Creosote1 12.0 17.0 6.0 12.0 17.0
oPentachorophenol .6 .85 .3 .6 .85
d CCA or ACA .8 1.0 NR4 .8 1.0
cV) oy-4
to Ar ACA 2.les.
I~Crueseosote-ca or2.0a0051r0. 0.2
CNtrecoeded. 0.
o~CC o AA .. 25,NR 2..3

T .rdo is present with no to light limnoria activity.
CIFed. Spec. Tr-W-571J recommends these where teredo is present with light lim-
noria activity-. Navy prefers these over dual treatment for fender piles.
4 L.mnoria activity is moderate to heavy but pholads are absent.
Limnoria is present with teredo or pholads.
25 6
i/
0
/
used for wood exposed to severe weathering cond itions, such as contact with
soil or water and for important aboveground tructures exposed to the
weather. Because oil-type preservatives afford protection against weathering
and checking as well as against decay, they are generally preferable to
waterborne preservatives for the treatment of sawed wood that is to be used in
contact with the ground. If cleanliness, freedom from odor, or paintability
is essential, either of the four water orne preservatives mentioned above
may be expected to give good protectiok to sawed wood that is selected for its
receptiveness to treatment and treatecy to meet the minimum penetration
requirements. The same four preservatives may be used for wood in contact
with saltwater where limnoria are the only threat. Pentachlorophenol in
a volatile petroleum solvent (Table 33) is ordinarily to be used in above-
ground structures, particularly where cleanliness and paintability are re-
quired. All the waterborne preservatives (Table 34) are suitable for
such use. Pentachlorophenol in a light petroleum solvent is also generally
limited to aboveground use especially where moderate cleanliness is desired
and freedom from residual solvent is not essential. If water repellency
also is desired in order to avoid surface damage due to wetting during
storage, it should be stipulated by the purchaser. In some harbors, condi-
tions are highly favorable for limnoria, and the life of creosoted piling
may be extended by mechanical barriers. AWPA Standard C3 includes a dual
treatment that is recommended for trial in harbors where experience has
shown that a high limnoria hazard exists along with other organisms.
Painting of treated wood involves special considerations. Wood treated

with creosote, solutions" containing creosote, and pentachlorophenol in heavy
petroleum solvent cannot ordinarily be painted satisfactorily. When re-
quested it can be conditioned by the producer to improve its cleanliness.
Difficulties may be enfcountered in painting wood treated with pentachloro-
phenol ia a light petroleum solvent. Wood treated with waterborne preserva-
tives should be properly seasoned after treatment and may require light
brushing or sanding in order to provide a paintable product. Since "cleanli-
ness" is a relative term, it is recommended that the purchaser make known
his specific requirements and the end use of the material, and that the
supplier be required to furnish evidence that the material be suitable for
that use. In the absence of accepted methods for determining cleanliness,
paintability, and water repellency of pentachlorophenol-treated wood, the
purchaser may elect to use arbitrary test methods which should be described
to the supplier.
-' b. Timbers and Lumber.
(1) Functioning Environment. The treatment required for marine
timbers and lumber depends on the environment in which they function.
Timbers subject to the marine environment but not submerged or intermittently
submerged, are treated differently than those that are submerged. The
reason being that submerged timbers are subject to marine borer attack and
must be treated according to the anticipated attack.
Unsubmerged timbers are highly subject to fungus attack, particularly
where water spray or airborne moisture can frequently wet them, but they
cannot be attacked by marine borers.
0 An example of submerged use would be the framing and bracing members of
a wood pier. Another would be wales, particularly the lower wales of
257
fender piles and wales at the top of wood groins. These are frequently
located at or below the water level. The planks of Wakefield piling used as
a groin and wood cribbing below water are other examples.
When timber and lumber are used above the water but near enough to be
frequently wetted by splash and spray they would be in the spray or splash
zone. Pier decks and wood fittings such as handrails are frequently in this
use zone. Timber bulkheads and cribbing above water are also frequently in
the splash zone.
Where wood is used away from the immediate contact with saltwater or
its splash and spray, two different treatments are called for. They are
pressure treatments that have different retention requirements depending on
whether the wood is placed in contact with the soil or above the soil in
air. Retention requirements for these uses are shown on Table 33.
Examples of wood in contact with soil would be bulkheads and retaining

walls using Wakefield piles or horizontal planking supported by vertical
piles. Sometimes boardwalks are incorporated into a bulkhead structure and
these frequently are in firm contact with the soil. Sand fences and cribs
placed above the tide line are usually in direct contact with the soil.
Wood in air is probably best visualized in causeway decking (far enough
removed from the water to be free of the direct influence of splash and
mist) buildings, towers, navigation aids and other such structures built on
piles or concrete foundations. Whatever the foundation, wood in air must be
clear of the ground by at least 200 millimeters (8 inches) and well venti-
lated. In the southern United States or in especially warm and moist
climates, additional clearance should be considered (ASCE, 1975).
(2) Preservative Retention Standards. The adequacy of preservative

treatment may be determined by the quantity of preservative retention or by
its penetration into the wood.
(a) Retention By Assay. The quantity of preservative required

for adequate protection is given by the American Wood Preservers Association
(AWPA) in pounds per cubic foot (pcf). The retained quantity is measured
by assaying the contents of core samples.
A Timber and lumber used in submerged locations should be pressure treated

using the full cell process to achieve retention equal to or greater than
the amounts shown in Table 33. In those parts of the world where teredo and
pholad attack is expected and where Limnoria tripunctata attack is not
prevalent, creosote or creosote-coal tar treatment will provide adequate
protection. Where 1. trm nctata attack is expected, and where either
teredo or pholad attack is expected, the dual treatment with creosote or
creosote-coal tar and either CCA or ACA preservatives to the retentions
shown on Table 34 will give the best protection known (AWPA C3).
Timber :ind lunber in the splash zone can be protected by using either of
the oil base preservatives, creosote or creosote-coal tar or one of the
waterborne preservatives CCA or ACA to the retentions shown on Table 33.
The creosote or creosote-coal tar preservatives are usually preferred
because the waterborne preservatives are subject to leaching.
258
0
Creosote and creosote-coal tar mixtures are commonly employed for sawed
material (such as bridge timbers) used under relatively severe conditions.
Retentions specified for such timbers vary from about 942 to 3 927 newtons
. per cubic meter (6 to 25 pounds per cubic foot), about 1 570 to 1 890 newtons
(10 to 12 pounds) being li.toSt common. Both empty-cell and full-cell methods
are employed, depending on the amount of sapwood, retention required, size
of timbers, and similar factors. The full-cell process is commonly employed
in the treatment of resistant heartwood timbers and timber for use in salt.-
water.
4 Waterborne salts are widely applied in the treatment of sawed lumber

under conditions that make it impractical to employ preservative oils.
Specifications for retentions of both preservative oils and water-borne

salts often fail to take into consideration the relation of the timber
dimensions to penetration and retention. The specifications may require a
net retention in large heartwood timbers that cannot be obtained because of
the small ratio of surface area to volume, although the same retention might
be obtained without difficulty in heartwood timbers of tie size or smaller
or in large-size timbers containing a large proportion of sapwood. In
timbers containing 50 percent or more sapwood, it is recommended that at
least 1 570 newtons per cubic meter of preservative oil be specified.
(b) Retention by Penetration. The AWPA standards for adequate

penetration of the preservative indicate the required penetration in inches or
percent of the thickness of the sapwood, whichever is greater. Penetration
requirement of preservatives in timbers and lumber generally varies according
to species. However, for some species it also varies by size. Timbers and
lumber smaller than 5 inches (127 millimeters) require less penetration when
the species is coastal Douglas fir, hemlock or pine species other than south-
ern pine and ponderosa. Requirements for penetration are found in tables of
AWPA Standard C2. The following are representative examples of preservative
penetration requirements found in the tables. For use above ground or in
freshwater, the penetration required for southern pine is 63.5 millimeters
(2.5 inches) or 85 percent of the sapwood for all sizes. Coastal Douglas fir
would require a penetration of 12.7 millimeters (0.5 inch) and 90 percent of
the sapwood for sizes 5 inches (127 millimeters) and larger but for sizes
under 5 inches the requirements would be 10.16 millimeters (0.4 inch) and 90
percent of the sapwood. Oak, for the same uses, would have only the percent-
* age requirement with white oak requir'ng 95 percent of sapwood and red oak
requiring 65 percent of annual rings. In the marine environment, the penetra-
tion requirements would be similar for each preservative of the dual treatment.
(c) Treatment of Cuts and Holes. Insofar as practical, wood

pieces should be trimmed, dapped, bored and counterbored before pressure
* treatment because field treatment cannot match the thorough penetration and
distribution of preservatives obtainable in the pressure retort. However,
it is not always possible anJ practical to avoid all field cuts and bores.
When pretreated wood is cut in the field it is essential that the exposed
wood be generously mopped with the same preservatives. The top faces of
field cuts are particularly vulnerable to fungus attack and should be given
* extra careful field treatment. Wood submerged in saltwater is vulnerable
259
0
6
to marine borers that can enter the wood in veryv snia ll cracks or exposcd
areas.
c. Piles.
(1) General. The principal woods used for piling are southern pine
and coastal Douglas fir, although a few other woods, such as red pine,
lodgepole pine, western larch, and oak, are used in some localities. No
untreated wood, commercially available for pilings, either domestic or
imiported, will resist borer attack for more than several years. However, one
! species of tropical tree known as greenheart (Po,: ,odi7ae or e t,'zybra
,'czaci), which is not treatable, may last 2 or 3 years longer than treated
Douglas fir, in the same water. Timber piles should conform to the require-
ments of ASTM Standard D25.
Untreated pine and fir piles usually last no longer than 2 years in the
U ocean, often less than 1 year where marine borers, such as L. tripurltita,
are present in great numbers. Treated piles have a life expectancy averaging
8 to 10 years where tripunctata are present. Limnoria tripunctata was selected
as an example because this is the only known species of Limnoria which will
attack and destroy heavily creosoted piling (Civil Engineering Laboratory (CEL),
1974)).
The Forest Products Laboratory has tested a large number of preservatives

to study their effectiveness in protecting wood against marine borers.
Results obtained in these experiments, as well as experience in general,
have shown that heavy retentions of coal-tar creosote are essential if the
lest protection is to be obtained (USDA, 1952). The heavy retentions ensure
better penetrations and also furnish a reserve supply of creosote to provide
aainst early depletion by leaching. Over much of the coastal region of the
United States, marine timbers are exposed to severe borer attack, and it is
poor economy to specify retentions that will not give the maximum protection
iinder such conditions. Specifications for such timbers should require
treatment to refusal by the full-cell process, and the specified retention
should be th. minimum that will be accepted. No maximum should be specified.
The Civil Engineering Laboratory (CEL, 1974) reports that a compound that
is toxic to L . tr-2nunctata does not prevent Teredo diegensis attack and a
compound that is toxic to T. cfejencis is not effective against L. tripunctata.
Experiments by CEL indicate that a dual treatment of wood piles should be
used in moderate or warm waters to effectively defend against marine borer
attack. The dual treatment consists of metallic salts, either ammoniacal
copper arsenate (ACA) or chromated copper arsenate (CCA) and coal-tar creo-
sote. A 157-newton per cubic meter (1.0 pound per cubic foot) treatment of
metallic salts is applied in water solution. After drying, the wood is
pressure treated with coal-tar creosote to a 3 140-newton per cubic meter
(20 pound per cubic foot) retention. The above treatment may be specified
as conforming to American Wood Preservers Association Standard C3. Ihis
treatment significantly increases the expected life of wood piles used in
moderate or warm waters but it also reduces the strength and toughness of
the wood. Eaton, Drelicharz and Roe (1978) of the Civil Engineering Labora-
tory report that dual-treated piles lose 27 to 54 percent of their untreated
,•flexural strength, measured as modulus of rupture, and about 50 percent of
their untreated flexural toughness, measured as energy absorbed per unit
260
L
L
0
volume. They recommend creosote treatment alone rather than dual treatment
for fender piles in cases where breakage from impact may limit the useful
life before marine borer attack. Appendix B describes their results, in-
cluding effects on other mechanical properties.
In northern waters or where attack by L. tripunctata is not anticipated

and ?m'do is the only threat, pressure treatment of 3 140 newtons per cubic
meter of coal-tar creosote would be sufficient. The effects on properties
are described in Appendix B. Other chemicals, such as pentachlorophenol,
should not be used in seawater because this chemical will hydrolize. That
is, the presence of water will split the chemical bonds and unite with the
radical ions of the original compound to form acids and bases.
Table 34 shows preservative retention requirements as set forth in AWPA

Standard C3 for single and dual treatment of wood species most likely to be
used for piles in the United States. Preservative retentions in pounds per
cubic foot are measured by assay of bore samples.
Requirements for adequate preservative treatment of piles include

minimum penetrations. Penetration requirements for various species of wood
piles and use conditions are also set forth in AWPA Standard C3. Penetration
AD tests are made by gauging the penetration distance from the outside face of
the pile. Representative preservative penetration requirements for the wood
species most frequently used for piles are presented in Table 35.
Table 35. Representative preservative penetration requirements.
Foundation or Saltwater
Freshwater Dual Treatment
Southern Pine 7.6 cm or 90 8.9 cm or 90

pct of the pct of the
sapwood sapwood
Coastal Douglas Fir 1.9 cm and 85 2.5 to 4.4 cm and

pct of the 85 pct of the
sapwood sapwood.
(2) Treatment of Pile Cutoffs, Framing Cuts and Holes. "fter

driving treated wood piles in a wood wharf or another structure, excess wood
in the piles is sawed off at the desired elevation. This exposes untreated
wood at the cutoff, which necessitates some kind of preservative treatment
in place. The usual method is to swab the cutoff with creosote, cover that
with Irish flax, and add another coat of creosote before placing the pile
cap. On inspection, cones of dry rot have been found in the pile tops with
the foregoing treatment, after only a few years' service.
A method which has adequately protected the cutoff areas and is inexpen-
sive consists of boring five or six 19.1-millimeter (0.75 inch) holes, about
25.4 millimeters (1 inch) apart in a circular pattern, in the untreated area
of the cutoff. This is shown in Figure 68. The holes are then filled with
a 50-50 mix of liquid coal tar and creosote. A layer of Irish flax is
S 261
0 (A
4-) 0
0 0-
-j
4
C) (1)
4
-)
0'-
Cl.
262
.
placed on top and covered by a 3.8-millimeter (150 mil) layer of high density
polyethylene before placing the pile cap. Side and end grain penetration of
the preservative completely impregnates the entire pile top to a depth of
more than 25.4 millimeters in less than 2 years.
d. Poles. Prior to World War II, most of the pressure-treated poles

used in the United States were treated with American Wood Preservers Associa-
tion specification grade 1 coal-tar creosote with a specified distillation
residue above 3550 Celsius of not more than 20 to 25 percent. Coal-tar
creosote treatment may still be the preferred preservative under conditions
where waterborne preservatives could leach away or cost may be the con-
trolling factor.
u In recent years solutions of pentachlorophenol have attracted attention

as substitutes for creosote or for use in mixtures with creosote, and large
quantities have been used. Thousands of poles have been treated with
pentachlorophenol dissolved in the lighter petroleum oils or with solutions
containing various proportions of coal-tar creosote and pentachlorophenol
dissolved in a petroleum-oil solvent. These poles have not been in service
for sufficient time to determine how the results will compare ultimately
*with those obtained from creosoted poles. Experimental installations under
observation, however, are giving excellent results, so that this preserva-
tive may find a wide field of use in the future.
Most of the poles that have been pressure-treated and on which the best
service records are available are southern yellow pine and coastal Douglas-
fir. Preservative retention quantities for these and other species are
shown in Table 36. The data are taken from Federal Specification TT-W-5TIJ
which gives a more complete specification on the treatment of wood poles.
9. Joining Materials.
a. Metal Connections. The various members and parts of wooden coastal

structures are in nearly all cases joined together by metal. Most common
are the bolts, spikes, and driftpins which fasten heavy timbers in structures
such as groins, jetties, bulkheads, and piers (Fig. 69). Another cate-
gory includes such items as spike grids and split ring connectors for
increasing the shear capacity of bolted joints (Fig. 70), and sheet metal
- framing anchors for lighter structural framing and miscellaneous hardware
such as bearing plates and straps. A third category of metal connection
material would include tying items such as rods, wire rope, and chain
(Fig. 71). Metal connection material for a timber structure is subject
to much the same deteriorating factors in a coastal environment as are
metal structures. These are predominantly corrosion and, in some cases,
* abrasion. They are discussed further in Sections VII and XI.
In addition to resisting corrosioa, the material may also have to

resist chafing, or abrasion by drifting sand, floating debris, or moored
vessels. This factor should be considered in selecting the anticorrosion
coating or system, as discussed in Section XI. Because even the best
* protective system will have only limited life in a severe marine exposure,
a program of periodic inspection and preventive maintenance will probably be
needed.
263
i
6
Table 36. Preservative retention for treatment of poles (Fed. Spec.

TT-W-571J, AWPA C4 and C23 combined).
Retention by Species' (pcf)
Preservative .14
0
r-4 *dO-4
O0 0. 0 0 0
Coal-tar 7.5 to 93 9 to 123 10.5 to 13.53 12 to 16 16
Creosote 2 124
Pentachloro- 0.38 to 0.45 to 0.603 0.53 to 0.683 0.60 to 0.80 0.80
phenol in 0.453
heavy 0.604
petroleum
ACA 0.603 0.603 0.603 0.60 0.60
CCA 0.603 0.603 0.603 0.60 0.60
'Retentions are for use as utility poles except for Southern, Ponderosa, and
Red Pines and Coastal Douglas Fir which are used for building poles as noted
in Footnotes 3 and 4.
2
According to AWPA C4, creosote coal tar also may be used for utility poles.
3
According to AWPA C23, the highest retentions are used for building poles as
well as utility poles.
4Fed. Spec. TT-W-571J requires these high retentions for building poles but
not utility poles.
b. Adhesives.
(i) Field Application. At present, the use of adhesives to form or

G assemble wood structural members is largely confined to factory production
of building components. Here the wood parts to be joined can be milled to
close tolerances and the joining and curing processes can be closely con-
trolled. For use in a coastal structure where they are exposed to the
weather or subject to immersion, a wet-use adhesive, phenol or resorcinol
resin or a blend of the two, should be specified for shop-fabricated members.
* Such members have only limited use in coastal structures, primarily for such
items as footbridge girders and trusses, and small-craft docks in marinas.
There is also some use of adhesives in field assembly of wood structural

members primarily for buildings. This use is at present largely in secondary
connections where a failure would not be hazardous to life or property. The
* necessary gluing pressure is often provided by nailing. Because in-field
gluing and alinement of material may be much less precise than in the shop,
it is neceisary to use different adhesives, which, until recently, have not
264
TWO MEMBER JOINT, TWO MEMBER JOINT
MEMBERS OF EQUAL MEMBERS OF UNEQUAL
THICKNESS
U THICKNESS
MULTIPLE MEMBER JOINT ANGULAR JOINT
TIMBER
FRAMING N
DRIFT PIN
- DRIVEN IN
"-',,- WOOD PILE
P)NNED JOINT DRIFT DRIFT SPIRAL

BOLT PIN DOWEL
5 Figure 69. Typical bolted and pinned wood joints.
'o 265
GRID
__________________ RING APPLICATION
I GRIDS
APPLICATION
SPLIT RING SPIKE GRIDS
METAL PLATES 8 BOLTS

CONNECTING WOOD STRINGERS
* Figure 70. Split riings, spike grids and metal plate connectors.
266
provided the joint strength and
rigidity obtainable in factor), gluing.
(The relatively recent development of
fast-curing, gap-filling phenolic and
phenol-resorcinol resin adhesives for
construction may allow onsite gluing
to further expand into the area of
primary load-bearing connections
{American Institute of Timber Con-
struclion (AITC), 1974}.
(2) Shop or Factory Applica-

tion. Conditions of service de-
termine the type of adhesive required.
( In general, dry-use (water-resistant)
adhesive should be used for interior
locations and wet-use (waterproof)
adhesive for exterior locations.
However, under some conditions, a
member glued with dry-use adhesive
may be used satisfactorily on an
exterior member for certain uses. It
is not practical to use both types of
adhesives within the length of the
same member. If any part of a
member's length requires wet-use
adhesives, wet-use adhesives must be Figure 71. Pile dolphin tied
used throughout its length. It with wire rope.
should be kept in mind that the use
of a wet-use adhesive will generally
increase the cost of a laminated member; therefore, it should not be speci-
fied unless actually needed.
(a) Dry-Use Adhesives. Casein adhesive with a suitable mold

inhibitor is the standard dry-use adhesive of the structural glued laminated
timber industry. It has proved its dependability for over two generations
in Europe and North America. It is used in large quantities by other wood
products manufacturers as well as this industry. Casein adhesive with mold
4 inhibitor is satisfactory in properly designed, constructed, and maintained
buildings as long as the members are not subjected to repeated wettings or
high humidity over a long period of time. Although casein adhesives can
withstand some wetting during erection of the members, special attention
should be given to tile protection of the top face of beams, rafters, or
arches during shipment and erection when end or beveled faces are exposed at
these locations. Angular cuts are often made that pass through one or more
laminations and result in feathered ends on the individual laminations.
These surfaces have greater than average moisture absorption and should be
properly end-sealed to prevent delamination of the feathered ends. Although
such damage is not likely to be of structural concern, it may be unsightly.
All end cuts should be well sealed (AITC, 1974).
I Exterior Use. Two major requirements must be met to

ensure proper performance of casein adhesives in exterior loc,,tions. If the
requi rements can not be Iet , wet- use adhesives sha11 be used. Complete
267
0
protection from the direct effects of precipitation on members must be

provided either by undercutting the ends to keep off wind-driven moisture or
by the use of fascia boards or end caps to prevent water from collecting on
vertical surfaces of the members. Ends of members should be coated with
white lead paste or treated with water-repellent sealer before the cap is
applied. Casein adhesives are not considered suitable for laminated members
intended for exterior use where the moisture content of the wood exceeds 16
percent for repeated or prolonged periods of service.
2 Interior Use. Only one major condition must be satisfied
to ensure proper performance of cacein adhesives in interior locations: the

moisture content of the wood must not exceed 16 percent for repeated or
prolonged periods of service.
3 Performance Requirements. Dry-use adhesives shall

comply with the requirements of ASTM Standard D3024-72 for structural glued
laminated timber.
(b) Wet-Use Adhesives. Phenol, resorcinol, and melamine base

adhesives will withstand the most severe conditions of exposure. They are
more expensive than water-resistant adhesives. Phenol-resorcinol base or
resorcinol base adhesives are the most widely used wet-use adhesives in
structural glued laminzited members.
1 !Use. Although the wet-use adhesives may be employed for

all conditions of use, they are generally used only when the equilibrium
moisture content of the members in service exceeds 16 percent, such as the
following:
(a) Members which must be pressure treated;
(b) marine vessels and structures such as barges, ships,

piers, wharves, docks, slips, and dredge spuds; and
(c) structures and members exposed to the weather, such

as bridges and bridge girders (other than for temporary
construction such as falsework and centering).
2 Performance Requirements. Wet-use adhesives shall

comply with the requirements of ASTM Standard D2559-72 for structural glued
laminated timber. Only adhesives meeting the requirement for wet use shall
be used with California redwood.
10. Repair Materials and lethods.
a. Adhesives. Adhesives are rarely used in field repairs.
b. Concrete Encasements. Wood-bearing piles which have received

damage from marine borers (Fig. 72) (either partially or totally destroyed)
can be restored to their design capacity, in place, by encasing them in a
reinforced concrete jacket. Piles are enclosed with nylon jackets (adding
steel reinforcement as necessary) and the jacket is filled with a tremie
concrete. A similar successful method is to enclose the damaged part of the
pile with a fiberglass form, installing the necessary reinforcing and filling
tile space between tile form and the pile with a hydrophyllic epoxy (Fig. 73).
268
o .04
44
~- H 4-
1-4
,4 -!..
0 o
C)
4l - .. t 4
40, -
-4 V) U4
-- 4
-J
* 269
Wood pilings that have been severed by macine borers have been success-
fully restored, in-place, by literally dozens of methods. Most of these are
based on external reinforcement, such as heavy wall steel pipe, overlapping
the upper and lower pile sections, followed by corrosion protection of the
steel by a plastic wrap. Small scale tests in the laboratory have proved
the efficiency of these methods in repairing piles, both in the bearing and
bending capacity, to achieve their full design loads.
c. Synthetic Materials Wrap. Wood piles can be protected, in place,

from marine borer attack, by wrapping with flexible synthetic sheet such as
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyethelene sheeting (cigarette fashion) from 305
millimeters (12 inches) below the mud line to 305 millimeters above the
highest tide line. In preparing a wood pile for a jacket it is important
that all sharp protrusions be removed. In case of barnacles, sharp edges
can be smoothed by various simple hand or mechanical devices (Fig. 74).
Modular kits are available which permit fast and positive application
from above or below water. This system effectively removes wood piles from
their environment. Marine borers attacking the piles while encapsulated
under the wraps die from lack of oxygen within 48 hours, while the synthetic
4 sheating prevents further intrusion.
This system has been successfully used on both coasts of the United
States, Germany, Australia, the Bahamas, and elsewhere for more than 20
years. The U.S. Navy has also used the system on numerous projects (see
NAVFAC specification 75M-Bl0a).
Other methods of wrapping wood piles with synthetic film before driving
have also been tried as shown in Figure 75. Unless the piledriving crew are
very careful, the PVC jackets can be ripped during driving. Fortunately,
permanent repairs can be made by nailing patches of synthetic film over torn
areas with aluminum alloy 5056 roofing nails.
d. In Place Treatment of Timber Cracks. If such cracks make the pile

structurally unsound and also expose it to internal marine borer action,
the crack can be bolted together with form-fitting steel washers on each
side of the pile by one or more bolts. The entire area should then be
jacketed with a synthetic film jacket.
e. Replacement. In wood structures, parts such as framing members are

frequently repaired by replacement of the damaged member. Replacement is
relatively easy because the fasteners are usually in accessible places and
the wood members are in discrete sizes of individual pieces. When repairing
treated wood, treatment of the new member must be to the same specification
as the original. Cuts and bored holes are to be made prior to pressure
treatment in the shop when possible. Cut faces of pieces to remain in place
must be coated with similar material as the original. New fasteners should
be used where there is any damage or corrosion to th2 original.
Damaged wood piles are removed by pulling, after removing deck and
stringers when present. Before pulling, remnants of the damaged pile and
270
4-
>
0)
II
4)0
- 4-)
o -
I 271
oil,
11j 72
Fi~ u u T C wr pp d pi e ea y or d r v ng O l ot c ur4
II"
of Pote t of \ngLc .
* L,272
I
fastenings must be cleared away to make space for the replacement pile. A
replacement pile can then be set in the same hole as the original and driven
to refusal. If it is to support a deck, the pile is driven alongside the
pile cap, cut off below the pile cap, and pulled over into place. The cut
is treated with preservatives and shims are inserted to fill the space
between the pile and pile cap. A driftpin is then hammered into place to
secure the pile.
a. Chemical Attacks. Chemical actions of three general types may

affect the strength of wood. The firgt causes swelling and the resultant
weakening of wood. This action is almost completely reversible when the
swelling solution is removed. The second type of action brings about perma-
nent changes in the wood such as hydrolysis of the cellulose by acids or
salts. The third action also brines about permanent change in wood and
involves delignification of wood and dissolving of hemicellulses by alkalies.
(1) Saltwater and Freshwater. Saltwater and freshwater penetrate

the wood fibers. Between zero moisture content and the fiber saturation I
-. !content (about 30 percent moisture content) wood will swell. The rate of
- swelling is proportional to the moisture content up to the fiber saturation
point. As wet wood dries, the outer part of the wood loses moisture faster
than the inner parts thus the shrinkage rate is uneven and can result in the
development of checks or cracks. When wood is immersed over extended peri-
ods, water can soften the fibers.
Water and particularly saltwater carries dissolved oxygen and marine

biota that can severely impact wood or wood fastenings. As a bearer of
oxygen, water enhances corrosion of iron and steel fastenings. When wood is
periodically wetted and dried in the presence of oxygen it becomes suscept-
ible to fungus which causes dry rot.
(2) Strong Acids. Strong acids (such as nitric and hydrochloric)

and highly acidic salts (such as zinc chloride) tend to hydrolyze wood and
cause serious strength loss if they are present in sufficiently high con-
centrations. When the pH of aqueous solutions of weak acids is above 2, the
rate of hydrolysis of wood is small and is dependent on the temperature.
0 (3) Wood Oxidation. Wood oxydation by air in dry locations is slow
and attacks the spring wood first to produce a rough or weathered looking
surface. Very dry wood can resist hundreds of years of normal exposure to
oxidation. Wood can be dissolved by strong acids but basically wood is
considered to be somewhat resistant to the action of acids and basic hydro-
xides. Wood is also resistant to most commercial solvents.
b. Pollutant Attacks. Pollution in both the air and water environments

may have the effect of prolonging the useful life of wood by reducing the
oxygen supply that oxidizes the wood and supports the biota that attack
wood.
0 c. Sunlight Exposure Effects. Wood in sunlight will expand because of

the increase in temperature. In most structures the wood's increase in
length for normal rise in temperature is negligible and as a result secondary
• 273
p
stresses due to this change may be neglected. Cut pieces of wood will warp
toward the sun unless restrained or dried before use.
d. Wave and Current Effects. Because wood has less strength than some
other commonly used structural materials, a larger wood member is needed to
adequately protect the wood against the force developed by water currents
and waves even where a solid face is presented to the wave and current
forces. The resilient characteristic of wood, however, allows wood members
to absorb impact energy and rebound intact better than concrete and steel.
e. Effects of Severe Temperature and Ice. Temperature effect upon wood

strength is immediate and its magnitude depends on the moisture content of
the wood. If the exposure is above normal atmospheric conditions for a
limited period and the temperature is not excessive, wood can be expected
to recover essentially all its original strength. Air-dry wood can be
exposed to temperatures of about 65.60 Celsius (1500 Fahrenheit) for a
year or more without significant permanent loss of most of its strength
properties. Ice or fre-,zing conditions will impact mechanically by causing
fiber failure and thus loss of strength through a reduction of section.
f. Marine Organisms. As discussed in subsection 6 , Destructive Biota,

'4 the principal marine organisms that cause wood destruction in the coastal
zoi2 are Teredoes, Linmoria, Poria and Merulius. Most of these animals
aLttack wood as free-swimming organisms. They bore an entrance hole in the
wood, attach themselves and grow in size as they bore tunnels into the wood.
Wood structures are protected from these animals by proper treating with
creosote or coal-tar solutions or by a protective enclosure.
g. Periodic Wetting and Drying. Wood in a marine environment should

always be protected from excessive moisture or water and therefore has
iittle change in its structural or mechanical properties. If the preserva-
tives eventually leach out of the wood cells,then alternate expansion and
contraction of the wood cells can result in gradual and slow deterioration,
Wood structures have a history of long service life even when subjected to
alternate wetting and drying.
h. Wind Erosion. Wood being a relatively soft construction material as

compared to concrete or metal, it can be eroded by wind action. Wind does
not erode wood directly but strong winds picking up particle. of sand or
other materials will cause a wood surface to wear. Erosion of this kind
ri
will usually take place near the ground line.
i. Effects of Burrowing Animals. Marine animals will burrow into wood

very rapidly unless the wood is protected by appropriate preservatives,
Wood is sufficiently soft as to offer little resistance to burrowing attack
and in addition serves as a food source to the animals. Onshore termites
are very destructive to wood. These attacks, if left unchecked, will result
eventually in the loss of all structural properties of wood.
j. Effects of Flora. There are no reported effects of flora growth on

wood.
k. Fire. Wood, when exposed to fire, forms a self-insulating surfac

layer of char and thus provides a degree of its own fire protection.
274
L
Although the surface chars, the undamaged wood below the char retains its
strength. Heavy timber members will retain their structural integrity
throughout long periods of fire exposure because of their size and the slow
rate at which charing penetrates inward from the wood surface.
1. Abrasion. In the coastal environment, abrasion of wood occurs from

sources such as scour by wind- and water-driven sand as well as the working
or rubbing at joints in the wood structure. Abrasion can be from beneficial
use as from vehicle traffic on a pier or from rubbing of floats on anchor
piles. The wearing away of a wood structure in this manner will eventually
reduce the structural integrity of the structure.
m. Seismic Effects. Seismic activity can have a significant effect and

in some locations a devastating effect. Ground shaking can stress structures
to overload and cause destruction. Natural alluvial terraces or manmade
landfills in the coastal zone are subject to liquefaction during severe
earthquakes which cause the ground to slump and flow horizontally. Structures
founded on such terraces in a severe seismic area are subject to destruction
if liquefaction occurs. However, under less severe conditions, wood performs
very well in seismic events because of its resiliency. This characteristic
of wood allows it to flex during ground shaking and reduce the stresses that
might destroy structures of more rigid materials.
n. Human Activity. Human use of wood structures can eventually cause

the wood to wear out; the worn wood parts could be replaced or the whole
structure could be abandoned. On wharves and piers ship moorings wear or
Abreak fender piles and vehicular traffic on the deck wears out the surface
timbers. Human use engenders risks in the form of explosions, fires, and
accidental impact loads, all of which can destroy wood members of coastal
structures. Vandalism can cause serious damage to wood: some wood may be
sacrificed for firewood; wood may be destroyed by the target practice of
shooters; and amateur wood carvers may cause deterioration.
12. Uses of Wood In Coastal Construction.
a. General.
(1) Dimension Lumber. Untreated dimension lumber can be used in

temporary situations during the construction phase of a project or where the
life of the wood is to be less than a few months. It can also be used in
any situations where the wood can be protected either by a covering, for
example interior framing of a building, or where it is to be painted and
maintained in a painted state for the projected life of the installation.
Untreated dimension lumber should not be used in direct contact with the
* ground or sea water. Untreated dimension lumber is used in form work for
concrete. It is also used in a variety of ways such as for dunnage or
machinery supports.
Foundations and sill plates for frame buildings are usually pressure
treated with chromated copper arsenate. Any use where contact with the
0 earth exposes the lumber to rot, fungus, or insect attack requires treatment
to obtain a satisfactory useful life. Specific treatment would be determined
by the conditions of service. Exposed uses subject to severe weathering or
prolonged (or periodic) immersion in seawater should be pressure treated
275
with coal-tar creosote; otherwise, one of the other treatments could be
satisfactory.
(2) Piles and Poles. Wood piles and poles used in the coastal
environment are nearly all pressure treated with coal-tar creosote to
resist insect attack or, in water, marine borers and limnoria. Properly
treated piles and poles will also withstand rot and fungus attacks. Piles
are used for building foundations, support for piers, wharves, trestles,
jetties, groins, and bulkheads. Also, they are used in fender systems along
the wharves and to anchor floating moorings for small boats.
It is unlikely that untreated piles or poles would be used in the

coastal environment except for temporary uses during construction for false
work or to carry electric power and telephone lines to the construction
site.
(3) Beams and Stringers. Lumber classified as beams and stringers

{having 5 inches (125 millimeters) as their least dimension) are seldom
used untreated in the coastal environment. The principal use would be in
protected space as framing for buildings or covered structures where the
-. covering or painting provides sufficient protection.
Coal-tar creosote treated beams and stringers are used extensively in
the coastal environment.
(4) Glued and Laminated Wood.
(a) Plywood. Dry-use plywood is seldom used in the coastal

environment because of its extreme susceptibility to the generally high
humidity. Any use would have to be very temporary or very well protected
from the prevailing moisture.
Wet-use plywood has many applications in the coastal environment.

Diaphragms in buildings, roofs, walls, and floors are regularly sheathed
with wet-use plywood. Plywood is sometimes used for gussets in wood frames
to join the members. Plywood is used extensively in making forms for
concrete work. Signboards are frequently made of plywood. Covers, such as
for pits and valve boxes, can be made of plywood where traffic is light or
in nontraffic areas. Wet-use plywood can be further treated with preserva-
0 tives to extend its useful life in extreme environments, such as immersion
in seawater.
(b) Laminated Wood. Wood in this category is wiat is generally

referred to as "glue-lam," or more properly glued laminated wood. Because
of its better quality control, strength, and capability of being sized to
suit the need, it can be the preferred material for many applications where
columns, post , beams and girders are used. In the coastal environment,
wet-use glue is absolutely essential and glue-lam members must have pre-
servative treatment in any use where other wood forms would require it.
(5) Miscellaneous Wood Forms. Although most people think of

•0 finished lumber and timbers cut to rectangular sizes from large trees or of
piles peeled and trimmed when they think of wood, there are other useful
, ais of wood that can be used in the coastal zone. Small branches, saplings,
276
6
brush, cane, bamboo, and reeds have all been used to make devices to control
water currents, stabilize bottom sediments or to control dry sand buildup.
Where these wood forms are indigenous to the area or readily available they
can be valuable materials.
(1) Breakwaters and Caissons. Wood is seldom used in offshore

structures of this type but dimension lumber and wet use plywood may be used
for navigation aids or other incidental small structures that may be mounted
on offshore breakwaters and caissons.
(2) Pile Dolphins. Wood is frequently used offshore for pile

dolphins and other mooring or anchorage devices such as guide piles for
floats or piles for channel markers. Pile dolphins are clusters of wood
piles tied together as in Figure 71.
(3) Floats. Wood is used extensively in the construction of

floating structures. Although the tendency is toward synthetic materials
for small flotation devices, wood remains the most used material for framing
flotation units and providing a platform for access and mooring fastenings.
Wood flotation units such as logs could be used to form floats or booms for
the containment of surface debris.
(1) Breakwaters and Jetties. Wood uses in shore-connected break-

waters and jetties would be the same as described for offshore structures.
(2) Groins. Wood is frequently used in the construction of groins.

Wakefield sheet piles are commonly seen used as shown in Figure 61. The
sheet piles are secured with timber wales at the top. Wood planks spanning
between wood piles create another type of groin structure as seen in Figure
76.
(3) Bulkheads. Wood bulkheads are usually one of two kinds.

Wakefield sheet piles are driven along the bulkhead line and tied back to
the embankment by timber wales and tie rods to imbedded anchors (deadmen).
Otherwise, vertical piles acting as soldier beams are driven at regular
intervals along the bulkhead line and wood planks are placed to span hori-
zontally between them. Piles can be tied back to deadmen.
(4) Revetments.
(a) Pile Revetment. Slopes can be stabilized using parallel

piles laid along the slope as shown in Figure 77. Piles used this way
must be securely tied to headers or staked down.
(b) Fascine Mattresses. The word "fascine" cowes from the Latin
"fascina" meaning a bundle of sticks. Fascine mattresses are used as
• submerged scour aprons and as filter blankets along revetments. There are
many ways to construct the blankets but they basically all consist of
sticks tied together in bundles and arranged in mattresses about 20 meters
* (62 feet) wide and up to 200 meters (620 feet) long. The mattresses are
277
I-I
-4
Figure 76. Beach protection with "billboard" groins,

Ninilchik Harbor, Alaska.
I"
Figure 77. Piles laid on slope to prevent beach erosion,

Ninilchik Htarbor, Alaska.
278
brush, cane, bamboo, and reeds have all been used to make devices to control
water currents, stabilize bottom sediments or to control dry sand buildup.
Where these wood forms are indigenous to the area or readily available they
can be valuable materials.
(1) Breakwaters and Caissons. Wood is seldom used in offshore

structures of this 'ype but dimension lumber and wet use plywood may be used
for navigation aids or other incidental small structures that may be mounted
on offshore breakwaters and caissons.
(2) Pile Dolphins. Wood is frequertly used offshore for pile

dolphins and other mooring or anchorage devices such as guide piles for
floats or piles for channel markers. Pile dolphins are clusters of wood
piles tied together as in Figure 71.
(3) Floats. Wood is used extensively in the construction of

floating structures. Although the tendency is toward synthetic materials
for small flotation devices, wood remains the most used material for framing
flotation units and providing a platform for access and mooring fastenings.
Wood flotation units such as logs could be used to form floats or booms for
the containment of surface debris.
(1) Breakwaters and Jetties. Wood uses in shore-connected break-

waters and jetties would be the same as described for offshore structures.
* (2) Groins. Wood is frequently used in the construction of groins.

Wakefield sheet piles are commonly seen used as shown in Figure 61. The
sheet piles are secured with timber wales at the top. Wood planks spanning
between wood piles create another type of groin structure as seen in Figure
76.
(3) Bulkheads. Wood bulkheads are usually one of two kinds.

Wakefield sheet piles are driven along the bulkhead line and tied back to
the embankment by timber wales and tie rods to imbedded anchors (deadmen).
Otherwise, vertical piles acting as soldier beams are driven at regular
*intervals along the bulkhead line and wood planks are placed to span hori-
zontally between them. Piles can be tied back to deadmen.
(4) Revetments.
* (a) Pile Revetment. Slopes can be stabilized using parallel

piles laid along the slope as shown in Figure 77. Piles used this way
must be securely tied to headers or staked down.
(b) Fascine Mattresses. The word "fascine" cores from the Latin
"fascina" meaning a bundle of sticks. Fascine mattresses are used as
'* submerged scour aprons and as filter blankets along revetments. There are
0 many ways to construct the blankets but they basically all
consist of
sticks tied together in bundles and arranged in mattresses about 20 meters
(62 feet) wide and up to 200 meters (620 feet) long. The mattresses are
277
A
Figure 76. Beach protection with "billboard" groins,
Ninichik Harbor, Alaska.
-4
4h
Figure 77. Piles laid on slope to prevent beach erosion,

Ninilchik Harbor, Alaska.
I 278
made in a place that is normally dry but can be flooded (either at high tide
or by removing a gate) for towing the mattress to its final location. The
( mattress is then loaded with stones and sunk into place. It is then covered
with stones as needed to resist the expected currents. Examples of fascine
mattresses are shown in Figure 78. Finer material is placed on the bottom
of the mattress where it contacts the sand and coarser material is on top to
support the stones. These mattresses will deteriorate rapidly if left where
they would receive periodic wetting. Therefore, they will only work where
they are completely submerged all the time. Where damage by marine borers
is expected, preservative treatment could be applied but the cost of treatment
may indicate that some other material be used (Van Bendegon and Zanen, 1960).
(5) Submerged Screens. Submerged screens for current control can

be made of "wattles" (flexible branches woven around posts) as shown in
Figure 79 or can be made by combining stones and small poles (or bamboo)
into cribs. The cribs are formed by forming a lattice work of poles to form
a cage (crib) and filling it with stones for stability. Figure 80 shows
some crib types.
(6) Piers and Wharves. Piers and wharves may be made entirely of
wood construction with incidental use of metal fastenings and rock for slope
protection. Piles, pile caps, stringers and decking would all be treated
and placed as discussed in earlier paragraphs of this section. These wood
members can also be used in conjunction with other materials, such as con-
crete piles.
Mooring dolphins and fender piles for piers and wharves are frequently
made of wood to take advantage of the energy absorbing property of wood even
when the remainde. of the structure is of some other material such as
concrete.
(7) Sand Fences. Fences made of brush have proved more effective than
fences made of boards in building sand dunes on the Outer Banks of North
Carolina (Savage, 1963). In this installation, brush was held upright
between pairs of wood plank rails as shown in Figure 81. The filtering
action of the brush apparently trapped more sand than the wind deflection
action of wood slats.
4 279
9.to
CrOss - sec lion Cross - Seclion
Figure 7j. Two methods of making fascine mattresses

(Van Bendegon and Zanen, 1960).
.4>
Fiur 79___re cretcnro cenmd

of ~ ~ _____ [wtls
-NDC,15)
2804
FRUSTRUM CRIB
~TRIANGULAR
PRISM CRIB ,
Figure 80. Examples of wood-formed cribs (Van Bendegon and Zanen, 1960).
0 '7
S-c
Figure 81. Sand fence using brush for filter material

(Savage, 1903).
281
a2
IX. PLASTICS
1. General.
a. Chemical and Manufacturing Properties. Chemically the term "plastics"

is applied to a large group of synthetic materials that are processed by
molding or forming into a final shape. Plastics are composed of chainlike
molecules of high molecular weight, called polymers, that have usually been
built up from simpler monomers.
All plastics share many common properties and, in general, have four
things in common. First, at some stage in their production they are soft and
pliable and can be formed, by the application of heat, pressure or both, into
definite desired shapes. Second, plastics are organic materials; i.e., they
are based on a carbon structure. This distinguishes them from such materials
as metals, ceramics, and concrete. Third, plastics are synthetic materials
and are products of chemical processes that alter the characteristics of the
raw materials from which they derive. Fourth, plastics are high polymers;
they consist of monomer atoms joined together into molecular aggregations.
Different monomers are used to manufacture each different type or family

*le of plastics. Each plastic has a particular combination of properties, pro-
cessing requirements, and economics that make it ideally suited for certain
applications, yet unsuitable for many others.
b. Thermoplastics and Thermosets. Plastics in general may be classified

into distinct groups. These are thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics
nr thermosets. Thermoplastics soften repeatedly when heated and harden
when cooled. At high temperatures they may melt and at low temperatures
become brittle. The process of heating and softening and cooling and
hardening may be repeated indefinitely for plastics such as polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride, acrylics, nylon or polystyrene. Thermosetting plastics
go through a soft plastic stage only once. When hardened, an irreversible
change takes place and they cannot be softened again by reheating. Some
thermosetting plastics are polyesters, epoxies, phenol-formaldehydes,
melamine-formaldehydes and silicones.
c. Copolymers and Composites. Plastics can be combined like metal

alloys to attain the best qualities for a particular end use by selectively
*O drawing from the best attributes of the blended components of the polymers.
The process is referred to as copolymerization and the products are called
copolymers. Plastics used for structures, including those used in the
coastal zone, are most commonly composites or copolymers rather than pure
forms. Reinforced plastics are one category of composites in which the
plastic is strengthened and stiffened by combining it with high strength
* fibers such as glass. Sandwich-type plastics contain a variety of strong,
thin facings and lightweight cores. There are also the polymer concretes,
which contain plastic matrix in place of or in addition to inorganic
cement.
d. Structural Properties from Additives. Because all plastics are

* synthetic, during their production various things can be done to alter
their characteristics by the introduction of additives. These include
282
plasticizers, fillers, colorants, stabilizers, and impact modifiers.
Plastics which are hard and rigid or brittle at normal temperatures can be
made pliable and flexible by the addition of plasticizers.
Fillers are normally added to both thermoplastics and thermosets to

enhance their processing, performance, or economics. For example phenolics,
without the addition of fillers, are hard and brittle, shrink in molds and
may crack. The addition of finely ground wood flour makes it easier to
mold and less costly. Powdered mica will enhance electrical resistance
while the addition of asbestos will improve heat resistance. Impact
resistance can be improved by the addition of chopped fibers such as
natural fibers, tire cord, rayon or glass. Colorants are easily added to
plastics although they are not usually necessary in coastal structures.
* Stabilizers are an important group of additive materials used to

increase the resistance of plastics to deteriorating influences of weather,
ultraviolet light, or radiation. Most plastics in their pure form do not
have a great deal of resistance to these environments. The addition of
stabilizers retards thermodegradation and oxidation. Materials with these
kinds of additives, in outdoor exposures, may have a design life of 30 to
• 40 years.
Another important category of additives are the impact modifiers. The

inclusion of various fillers or plasticizers will increase the impact
resistance of plastics which are normally very brittle.
e. Durability Properties. In addition to structural qualities,

plastics possess other desireable characteristics as a construction material.
They are easily formed, corrosion resistant, lightweight, wear resistant,
energy absorbent, impact resistant, flexible and ductile, and are used for
insulation due to their thermal and electrical resistance. Energy absorb-
tion and impact resistance vary with the different plastics. Rubber, being
a synthetic and not usually considered a plastic, can be formulated to have
a high degree of impact resistance within a large range of stiffness
characteristics.
Fire is a necessary consideration in the selection of all structural

materials. Plastics will burn or disintegrate if exposed to fire or high
* temperatures. Some will burn easily, some slowly, others with great
difficulty. Some will not support combustion in the absence of flame.
Improved fire resistance can be achieved by incorporating flame-retardant
chemicals into the molecular structure of the plastic materials. Phosphorus
and halogens have been effectively used for this purpose.
* 2. Geotextile Filters.
a. General. Because the most common use of plastics or geotextiles in

coastal construction is as a filter, that use is the predominant topic of
this section. These filters have been known as filter fabrics, construction
fabrics, plastic filter cloth, geotechnical fabrics, and engineering fabrics.
* ASTM Joint Subcommittee D-18.19/D-13.61 is developing test procedures for
evaluating these fabrics and has adopted the name of "geotextiles." Geo-
textiles are used in engineering as filters, materials separators, and
reinforcement for soils. These fabrics may be used in coastal structures to
* 283
perform one or more of these roles, however; they are most frequently used as
* filters which permit the passage of water through the fabric but not soil or
sand particles. Geotextiles used as materials separators prevent the mixing
of materials that should remain apart such as poor subgrade soil and good
subgrade gra, 71. Geotextiles have also been successfully used as reinforcing
in the paving of roads and to restrain lateral movements of embankments built
on soft soils. Koerner and Welsh (1980) give design guidance for many uses.
The use of geotextiles has expanded rapidly in the past 20 years and
many different kinds are available today. However, there are constraints
that must be removed before geotextiles achieve unqualified acceptance.
One of these is lack of standardization. Many fabrics are made by suppliers
in different ways, out of different materials, and for different uses. In
choosing a fabric for a project, it may be necessary to consider tensile,
elongation, and puncture properties, plus factors such as fabric elasticity,
porosity, permeability, and resistance to abrasion, chemicals, light,
weather, and temperature as well as resistance to biological attack.
Because geotextiles have many different uses in coastal structures,

drainage ditches, riverbank protection, and subgrade construction, no one
* fabric is right for all applications. It remains to be determined just
what properties are important for each end use and what range of values for
each property is sufficient. However, based on the successful use of many
geotextile filters over the past 20 years, the promise of longevity is
exceedingly favorable. A prospective geotextile user should obtain advice
and information from engineers experienced in their use as well as from
more than one supplier.
The term geotextile filter as used in this report refers to a permeable

fabric constructed of synthetic fibers desPwned to prevent piping (prevent
soil from passing through it) and remain -:tmeable to water without signifi-
cant head loss or without permitting the evelopment of excessive hydrostatic
pressure.
b. Design Properties. A geotextile filter must be sufficiently

permeable to relieve the hydrostatic pressure differential between its
,;ides by allowing the passage of ground waterflow without detrimental head
loss, and it must prevent the passage, or piping, of adjacent granular or
* fine soil. A geotextile is used to replace all or part of a conventional
filter system consisting of one or more layers of granular material.
Figure 82 illustrates a geotextile replacing a layer of gravel beneath a
revetment, showing how the filter is designed to prevent protected soil
from being washed through the overlying armor. It also demonstrates how a
geotextile can be incorporated into a toe protection apron. To be effective,
* the geotextile must be designed to suit the grain size, ground water, and
wave conditions of each specific site as well as the type of structure in
which it is to be included.
In order to function satisfactorily, the geotextile filter must have

the physical durability and filtering integrity to perform consistently
* throughout the design life of the structure. Durability depends on the
chemical composition of the fibers, construction of the fabric, and physical
properties of the fabric in its conlpleted (finished) form. To ensure
durability, specifications for fabric should describe the basic chemical
* 284
FILTERGEOTEXTILE
GRAVEL FLE
GRAELO FIC PRAIN GEOTEXTILE FLE
INTO TOE SCOUR PROTECTION APRON
Figure 82. Geotextile filters in revetments.
* 285
4/5,
AD-A129819 MATERIALS
MOFAIT AND NICHOL
COSTRUCTION INC LONG BEACH CRSTRUCTURESMU
FOR COASTAL FEB 83 CERC-SR-10
CL R DACU72-88-C-0886
UNCLSSIFIED F/G 03/3 N
0
Illi* ll
I-
2.
11 i---- 11.8
MICROCOP( RESOLUTION TESt CHART
4.
6 •O•O. , O•O
composition, fabric construction, and additives. The 1977 Chief of Engineers
Civil Works Construction Guide Specification CW 02215 (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers 1977) states that "The plastic yarn shall consist of a long-chain
synthetic polymer composed of at least 85 percent by weight of propylene,
ethylene, ester, amide or vinylidene chloride." All geotextiles for coastal
applications must meet this requirement. Filtering integrity depends on the
fabric's ability to resist piping through the fabric and clogging. These
properties are discussed in subparagraph c below. These topics are covered
in subparagraphs 2c(l) and 2c(2). Filtering integrity also depends on the
4, fabric's resistance to loss of permeability due to distortion of the pores
by elongation of the fibers under stress, a physical property of the fabric,
or by melting in fire.
(1) Chemical Stability and Resistance. The first extensive

research and testing of geotextiles for filters was by Calhoun during the
period 1969 to 1972 (Calhoun, 1972). In the course of his investigations,
tests were conducted to determine the chemical stability and resistance of
three types of synthetic polymers, polyvinylidene chloride, polypropylene
and polyethylene. Further research by Bell and Hicks (1980) also investi-
gated chemical properties of these three polymers plus polyester and
polyamide. The results of these testing programs established the fact that
these synthetics have high chemical stability and resistance to chemical
attack (acids and alkalies), and can be used in conventional soil applica-
tLons with confidence. If the fabric is to be used in an environment
containing petroleum products, it is recommended that the geotextile's
resistance to these materials also be determined.
(2) Fabric Construction. Selection of a geotextile for a filter

should be based on the filtering and physical properties as well as the
-hemical properties of the fabric consistent with the site-specific require-
ments. Bell and [licks (1980) found that most fabric engineering properties
are more strongly influenced by the fabric construction than the polymer.
One of the most extensive and thorough fabric strength testing studies,
involving 27 commercially available fabrics, was performed for the Army
Engineer District, Mobile, by Haliburton, Anglin, and Lawmaster (1978). It
was concluded that fabric construction had more influence than the type of
vnthetic fiber in the fabric. Because fabric construction is the pre-
dominant factor affecting physical properties and filtering performance,
three general types of fabric construction are discussed: woven, nonwoven
40 rd combination fabrics,
(a) Woven Fabrics. As the term implies, woven fabrics

(commonly called cloths) are manufactured by weaving. Normally, the yarns
cross at right angles, overlapped one over the other. The longer direction
of the cloth, when it is being woven, is called the warp or machine direc-
• tion. The narrower direction is referred to as the fill or cross-machine
direction. In geotextiles, normally the warp direction is stronger than
the fill, although the cloth may be produced with equal strength in both
directions or a stronger fill than warp. Filters are woven using a variety
of yarns discussed below.
* 1 Monofilament Yarns. Monofilament yarns are a single

filament of a polymer, which prohibits absorption of water by the yarn.
This was the only type of geotextile used in coastal structures in the
United States from 1958 to the mid 1970's. Fabrics woven of monofilament
• 286
yarns have relatively regular and uniform pore sizes. "Some engineers believe
that because of their simple pore structure, the monofilament fabrics are more
pm reliable filter materials and use them in critical installation, where their
higher cost can be justified" (Bell and Hicks, 1980). The fabric is thin.
2 Multifilament Cloths. Multifilament cloths are woven

of yarns containing many fine filaments, except fibrillated yarns which are
produced from synthetic sheets. Fibrillated yarns are formed of fibers
from sheet plastic film. All multifilament fabric can be produced with
higher tensile strengths than monofilaments. With the exception of fib-
rillated fabrics, multifilament cloths also have a simple, relatively
regular and uniform pore size, and generally are thin. Fibrillated fabrics
have a slightly more irregular pore system and generally are thicker.
3 Mono-Multifilament Combination Fabrics. Mono-multi-

filament combination fabrics contain monofilament yarn in one direction and
multifilament in the other. The pore sizes are consistent and controlled
by the weaving process. The openings are oblique to the plane of the
fabric. The cloth is slightly thicker than monofilaments.
At 4 Slit-Film. lhe term as used herein refers to a fiber

which has a ,Jth many time- its thickness. Such fabrics are also called
ribbon, split-film, slit-tame, .oid split-tape. Because of the poor dis-
tribution and uneveni si-s of the pores, there is a great variation in
their retention and filtration capabilities. The fabrics are thin. Slit-
film fabrics are :.- recommended for use as filters.
" (b) Nonwoven fabrics. Nonwoven fabrics include all materials
which are not woxen or knitted. tIhcy consist of discrete fibers, which may
have a preferred orl.nt:it in ,or a% be placed in a random manner and do not
form a regular or siwple 'etttern .i-Jo wovens. Nonwoven fabrics are
composed of eitl'Vr 01ntnumas,
l !larent or staple filament fibers. Con-
tinuous filaments irc extruded, J- :wn and laid in the fabric as one con-
tinuous fiber. qtaple iilancit> iru cut to length before being laid in the
fabric. The engineering :ropcrtit, ; ot nonwoven fabrics are controlled by
the fiber type, the ieometric relationships of the fibers, and the methods
of bonding. Four methods of tbonding are described below.
1 Needle Punched. Barbed needles are punched through

the fabric web, perpendicular to the plane of the fabric and withdrawn,
drawing filaments with them. This causes the fabric to become mechanically
entangled. These fabrics have a very complex pore structure and the fabrics
are compressible, so the nature of the pore structure changes. This results
in a different in-situ filtration performance than might be indicated by
isolated permeability and particle retention tests. The fabric is relatively
thick and has the appearance of felt.
2 Ifeat Bonded. The fabric is subjected to a high

temperature, which results in the filaments welding themselves together at
the contact points. These fabrics have a relatively discrete and simple,
* though irregular, pore structure and are thin.
S Resin Bonded. The fabric web is impregnated with a

resin which coats and cement; the fibers together. Pore structure and
* 287
fabric thickness are intermediate between the two fabrics described above.
Normally, they have less permeability and fewer voids.
r
4 Combination Bonded. A number of nonwoven fabrics are a
combination of two or more of the above methods to construct a finished
product. Due to the variety and numerous combinations available, it is
impossible to make an applicable statement regarding pore properties and
thickness of this classification of fabrics.
(c) Combination Fabrics. Fabrics have been produced by combin-

ing woven and nonwoven fabrics using one or more of the bonding methods
described above. Usually, these combination fabrics are produced to enhance
a particular property or performance requirement not found sufficient in
either of the singular types of fabric construction. Hundreds of such com-
qbinations are possible with an equal, or greater, number of finished fabric
forms and properties. Each must be evaluated in view of the application
being considered.
The 19"7 CE Qz:ide Specification CW 02215 (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,

19f7l s'cates that '"The fabric should be fixed so that yarns will retain their
-elative pcsition with respect to each other. The edges of the fabric should
be 'K i~hed to p-uvent the outer yarn from pulling away from the fabric."
Re.laruless of the fabric construction, this requirement is necessary to
ensure continuous acceptable performance.
(3) Physical Property Requirements. In few other applications is a

filter exposed to so many damaging forces as in most types of coastal struc-
tures. Consequently, physical property requirements for geotextile filters
are more stringent for these applications. Suitable physical (mechanical)
p-operties are not only necessary during the construction process, but in the
permanent ztructurc- at. well. Due to such structure's constant exposure to
dynamic loading, from waves and currents, armor and underlayer movement,
earth and hydrostatic pressure, and rapid fluctuations, any geotextile used
must ha;ve suff-'cient tensile and abcasive strength to retain its integrity
throughout the life of the project.
'lIle test methods used to determine geotextile's physical property re-

(rl.rements a'e primarily textile tests. However, the test methods and re-
,2irements referred to herein can be related to the field performance of
.,'ven geotextile filters. Evaluation has confirmed successful performance of
fabrics having a particular character. Many of the required test results
have been verified by more than 20 years of field performance.
If test methods or results and specifications other than those re-

quired in this section are employed, they should be thoroughly evaluated to
determine if the method and results are applicable to the intended function
or performance in the application of interest. Test methods for required
physical property determination are described in Appendix C.
(a) Properties Re quired for All Applications.
1 Tensile Strength. Adequate fabric strength is necessary

to withstand dynamic forces, prevent the movement of the geotextile filter
through voids in the stone l yer above the fabric, as often occurs with
288
aggregate filters (Dunham and Barrett, 1976), and permit the use of larger
stones adjacent to the filter, thereby possibly reducing the overall thick-
ness of the structure (Barrett, 1966; Dunham and Barrett 1976). When armor
is removed or rearranged, the fabric's independent strength should also
retain the soil (Barrett, 1966; Fairley, et al.,1970) and prevent cavity
formation.
2 Elongation at Failure.this is part of the tensile test
described in Appendix C. Percent of elongation must be known because exces-
sive elongation will distort and enlarge the pores and change the soil
retention capabilities (piping resistance) (Steward, Williamson, and Mahoney,
1977). If excessive elongation is necessary to develop the fabric's ultimate
strength, the fabric will probably never develop its required strength in-
situ.
3 Seam Strength. It is advantageous to use geotextile
filter sheets or paneT in large lengths and widths in most applications.
The larger panels reduce the number of overlaps required which is the most
probable cause for error during construction. Fabrics are manufactured in
various widths 1.8 to 5.2 meters (6 to 17 feet), and then sewn together or
bonded by cementing or by heat to form large panels as much as 25.6 meters
q (84 feet) wide. When sections are sewn together the yarn used must conform
to the chemical requirements in subparagraphs 2b and 4b. If the seam strengths
are too low the sheets may separate and permit piping to develop.
4 Puncture Resistance. Puncture resistance is required

to enable the geotextile filter to survive placement of other materials on
it during the construction process and to prevent rupture or penetration by
the overlying material when the structure is exposed to wave action.
5 Burst Strength. Burst strength must be considered to
assure the engineer that the fabric will retain its integrity when subjected
to earth forces especially when the material above it contains relatively
large voids.
6 Abrasion Resistance. In all types of use, abrasion
resistance is impoitant during construction. In one case, fabric was
r maged during construction of a French drain merely by placing small
ilter aggregate into the trench it lined. In coastal structures such as
4 revetments, abrasion resistance is required not only during construction
but also throughout the life of the structure, for these structures are
subjected to continuous or intermittent wave attacks which result in
movement of the overlying material adjacent to the fabric.
(b) Optional Requirements for Special Site Conditions. In

4 certain climatic conditions and geographic locations, it may be desirable to
test the geotextile for freeze-thaw resistance, high temperature surviv-
ability, and low temperature survivability. When soils in the project site
are contaminated, or are subject to infiltration, by high quantities of
acids, alkalies, or JP-4 fuel, it may be advisable to test the geotextile's
resistance to the specific contaminant. Test methods are described in
* Appendix C.
(c) Properties Required for Construction
Conditions. The
physical properties of geotextiles required for specific sites and structures
289
4
vary with loadings as well as with function. Loadings may be classified in

three service categories:
(1) Severe dynamic loadings,
(2) dynamic and static loadings, and
(3) most stringent placement and drainage.
Severe dynamic loading is characterized by continued abrasive movement

of materials adjacent to the fabric due to wave action. Dynamic and static
loadings are characterized by more restrictive placement procedures to
limit abrasive movement and include gabion applications. The most stringent
placement controls and drainage applications nearly eliminate abrasive
movement of materials adjacent to the fabric. This category includes
'q weepholes, linings of vertical walls, relief wells, linings for French and
trench drains, and wrap collector pipe.
For each loading category certain construction parameters and limitations

must be met. In Tables 37 and 38 construction limitations for each category
ar' listed vith reference to three specific applications: quarrystone revetment,
rI,.,k renement, and subaqueous applications. Block revetment includes pre-
cast cclilar block (a cast or machine-produced concrete precast block havirg
continuous voids through the vertical plane normally with smooth or near
vertical sides) and interlocking concrete block (a cast or machine produced
concrete block having interengaging or overlapping edges). The subaqueous
applications include groins, jetties, and breakwaters; scour protection for
piers, piles, and caissons; and toe aprons for bulkheads.
Minimum geotextile filter physical property requirements are shown in

'Fable 39 based on the construction limitations in Tables 37 and 38. Test
methods are described in Appendix C. The physical property requirements in
Table 39 are not the same as stated in the current Civil Works Construction,
Guide Specification, Plastic Filter Fabric, No. CW-02215 (U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, 1977). Because this report is concerned only with coastal struc-
t :'s, the test methods and requirements set forth herein are based on field
P. .:.mance and verification in these types of structures and relevant
1Moratory research.
Filtering Integrity.
(1) Piping Resistance Criteria. To prevent piping, it is necessary

to know the soil retention capability of the geotextile filter or granular
filter when conside-ing a filter system. In his extensive and thorough
research and developiment project with geotextiles for filters, Calhoun
(1972) developed a special procedure for determining the piping resistance
(soil retention capacity) of fabrics. The result of this procedure,
described in Appendix C, was to determine the equivalent opening size (EOS)
of the fabric.
Knowing that the soil retention ability of a fabric is directly related
to the hydraulic pressures, flows and forces it encounters, Calhoun (1972)
conducted hydraulic filtration and clogging studies to develop a formula
that related the EOS to required performance criteria. For geotextile
290
I
Table 37. Construction limitations: quarrystone revetment.1
CATEGORY
A B C
Parameter Severe Dynamic Stringent

Dynamic and Static Placement and
Loading Loading Drainage
Steepest Slope IV on 2H lV on 2.5H IV on 3H
Min. Gravel thickness

above filter None None 20 cm
* Stone adjacent to
geotextile:
Max. stone weight 3 1.1 kN 0.78 kN Gravel
Max. drop height 1m 1m 1.5 m
Max. stone weight 1.8 kN 1.3 kN

6 Riprap weight range 4 0.89 - 3.3 kN 0.22 - 2.2 kN NA2
Max. drop height 0.61 m 0.61 m
Max. stone weight 1.8 - 8.9 kN 1.3 - 8.9 kN

Max. drop height placed placed NA
Subsequent Stone Layer:
Max. stone weight NA NA 0.67 kN

Max. drop height 1.2 m
Max. stone weight NA NA 1.3 kN

Max. drop height NA NA Im
Max. stone weight 44 kN 44 kN 4.4 kN

Yax. drop height 3m 2.5 placed
Max. stone weight > 44 kN > 44 kN > 4.4 kn

•lax. drop height placed placed placed
NOTE: a. Stronger principal direction (SPD) and seams of the geotextile
should be perpendicular to the shoreline.
b. There is no limit to the number of underlayers between the armor
and the geotextile.
IThis table may also be used for sand core breakwaters (a jetty,
groin or breakwater in which the core material consists of sand
rather than stone).
2Not
applicable
3Weight
of quarrystone armor units of nearly uniform size.
* 4Weight
limits of riprap, quarrystone well graded within
wide size limits.
0 291
Table 38. Construction limitations: block revetments and
subaqueous applications.
CATEGORY
A B C
1
Block Revetment
2
Precast Cellular Block
Steepest Slope:
Individual Blocks IV on 2H IV on 311 NA3

Cabled Blocks4 IV on 1.SH IV on 2H NA
Max. block weight >3.1 kPa 3.1 kPa NA

2
Interlocking Concrete Block
Q Steepest slope NA IV on 2H IV on 2.5H
Min. gravel thickness

Above filter NA 15.2 cm 15.2 cm
Max. block weight NA >3.1 kPa 3.1 kPa

5
Suba ueous Applications
Steepest Slope IV on I5H IV on 15H 1V on 15H
Stone Adjacent to Geotextile:
Max. stone weight 8.9 kN 8.9 kN 3.3 kN

Min. drop through water 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m
Max. stone weight >13.3 kN >13.3 kN >3.3 kN

Max. drop height placed placed placed
Subsequent Stone Layer(s)
Max. stone weight no limit no limit no limit

Max. drop height NCP6 NCP NCP
1
* Stronger principal direction (SPD) and seams of the geotextile should be
perpendicular to the shoreline.
2
With flat base.
3
Not applicable.
4
Precast cellular blocks cabled together in a horizontal plane.
5
No limit to the number of underlayers between the armor and the geotextile.
• 6
As in normal construction practice: the geotextile does not require
special limitations in these layers.
292
K
Table 39. Minimum geotextile filter physical property requirements.
CATEGORY
Property Test method A B C
Severe Dynamic Stringent

Dynamic & Static Placement
Loading Loadings G Drainage
Tensile Strength 4 -SPD 1 App. C-1 1.56 kN 0.89 kN

BPD 2 0.89 kN
WPD 3 0.98 kN 0.44 kN
Elongation at Failure App. C-1 <36% 36% 36%
Seam Strength4 App. C-2 0.87 kN 0.80 kN 0.36 kN
Puncture Resistance App. C-3 0.53 kN 0.53 kN 0.29 kN
I Burst Strength App. C-4 3450 kPa 3790 kPd 1650 kPa
Abrasion Resistance 4-
SPD App. C-5 0.44 kN 0.27 kN
BPD 0.29 kN
WPD 0.29 kN 0.15 kN
OPTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Freeze-Thaw Resistance App. C-6 90% of required strength
High Temperature
Survivability App. C-7 80% of required strength
Low Temperature
Survivability App. C-8 85% of required strength
Effects of Acids App. C-9 90% of required strength

-* Effects of Alkalies App. C-10 90% of required strength
Effects of JP-4 Fuel App. C-Il 85% of required strength
21SPD
BPD
= Stronger Principal Direction
= Both Principal Directions
* 3WPD
= Weaker Principal Direction
4
1n accordance with the specifications for the tests for these proper-
ties, these forces are applied over a width of 25.4 millimeters (I inch).
293
0
filters adjacent to coarse- ,rained soils conitaining 50 percent or less

particles by weight passing U.S. No. 200 sieve, the piping resistance is
- calculated using:
D88 of protected soil 1
EOS
where D 8 5 is the effective grain size in millimeters for which 8S percent

of the sample by weight has smaller grains. For geotextile filters adjacent
to fine-grained soils containing more than 50 percent particles by weight
passing U.S. No. 200 sieve, the FOS should be no larger than a U.S. No. 70
sieve. Fabric with the largest possible FOS should be specified to promote
drainage and reduce the likelihood of clogging. Geotextiles with an EOS
smaller than the '1.S. No. 100 sieve should not be used as filters.
When the protected soil contains particles ranging from a 2.54-centimeter

(1 inch) size to those pas-tsing the U.S. No. 200 sieve, only the gradation of
soil passing a 1.5. No. 4 sieve should be used in selecting the fabric.
Whenever the prorected _oil is so sized or graded that a fabric cannot
satisfy the above requirements and the soil is to be protected with a multi-
laye red grinalar ' Iter, a geotextile filter will often satisfy the require-
ments of aIi !ut tne filter layer immediately adjacent to the protected soil
(primary filter loyer).
There are additional restrictions regarding the percent of open area

POA) of the geotextile which must be considered in applying the piping
resistance formulz,. The POA determination method is described in Appendix
C. These criterii for determining piping resistance have been widely and
.auccessfu!ly used by the engineering profession.
'i1'e origmial )S determination method developed by Calhoun (1972) was

based on the sieving of rounded to subrounded sands. Geotextiles rated by
this method were usel in the filtration and clogging tests which resulted
in the piping .:r ttcia formula stated above. The 1977 CE Civil Works
,onstruction ;ide Specification C(-02215 (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
,
.'77) modified th. original !:0S determination method by substituting glass
beads for sand, The 1977 Guide Specification EOS determination method is
described in Appctlix C. .awr eotechnical engineers and soil testing
labratories who haid experience with the sand determination method prior to
)-" indicate thie :.,rid behavior is more typical of the material to be
protected. Most often stated ol ections to beads are:
,'a) they develop static electricity;
(b) there i:s a size problem: many are not "true" when received
from the manufacturer;
(c) a con tiinuious bre(kd f-nthe heads occurs during sieving;
* (d) difmerent :,stilts t: IL ,iined for the same geotextile

whe. beads are isod compmre,! to the results when sand is employed:
generally heads yield i la ziprrent opening value (smaller
a
sieve number) thin sarI hcads - lOS equals No. S0 sieve vs.
h..,
* 294
sand - EOS equals No. 70 sieve), on some occasions the discrepancy
is reversed. (B.R. Christopher, P.E., Corporate Laboratory
Director, STS Consultants Ltd. (formerly Soil Testing Services,
Inc.), Northbrook, Illinois, personal communication, 1979-82).
Other sources have stated similar experiences and indicate inconsistent

results are obtained when sand is replaced by beads.
Geotextile filter selection criteria for piping resistance are the

same for all applications in coastal structures. The criteria are based on
the work of Calhoun (1972); the U.S. Forest Service criteria; experience
with laboratory testing, field experiments, installations and monitoring as
presented by Steward, Williamson and Mahoney (1977); and the authors' (of
this section) personal experience, performance records, and communication
with users and researchers. Geotextile filters meeting the Calhoun EOS
determination criteria have had field verification (service records) for
more than 20 years.
(2) Clogging Criteria. In shore protection structures (such as

revetments), geotextile filters may be exposed to severe static and dynamic
loading, turbulent flows, rapid fluctuations, high-pressure differentials,
and sudden or regular drawdowns. Designers primarily concerned with sub-
surface drainage must recognize the necessity for more stringent property
and performance criteria for fabrics being considered for this environment.
It is especially true with respect to the filtration and clogging performance,
because, if the filter clogs, it could cause a more severe problem than if
it had been omitted. Usually underdrains have low rates of flow and
relatively low hydraulic gradients. Due to the large-grained sand present
in many coastal areas, filters adjacent to French and trench drains and
surrounding collector pipes are often exposed to higher flow rates than
would normally be expected in these applications. It is the responsibility
of the designer to specify a geotextile filter that retains the soil being
protected, yet will have openings large enough to permit drainage and
prevent clogging.
Many fabric suppliers provide fabric permeability and waterflow rate at

a specified head as fabric performance criteria; however, these data are of
little use in tstablishing filter-clogging criteria.
(a) Corps of Engineers Criteria. Calhoun (1972) developed

the most widely used filtration-clogging geotextile filter criteria in 1972
after an extensive 3-year research effort. While the criteria were rather
simple, they were based on numerous hydraulic-soil-fabric filtration and
* clogging tests. Using his method described in Appendix C, Calhoun de-
termined the EOS of the fabric and in addition determined the POA.
As mentioned in the discussion of piping resistance, with certain

restrictions for fine-grained soils, Calhoun's criteria allowed the ratio
of the soil's D 8 5 to the fabric's EOS to be equal to or greater than 1.
0 The criteria also had an added limitation that no woven fabric should have
a POA less than 4 percent nor EOS with openings smaller than U.S. No. 100
Standard Sieve. Calhoun established that the larger the POA, the less the
fabric was susceptible to clogging.
* 295
0
The current 1977 CE Guide Specification (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,

1977) introduced the gradient ratio (GR) based on Calhoun's original work.
SDetermination of gradient ratio is set forth in Appendix C.
(b) Forest Service Criteria. The U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service (USDAFS) has conducted numerous laboratory and field tests,
including an evaluation of geotextile filter performance in various types of
structures. Their criteria for piping resistance (soil retention) and
clogging are similar to Calhoun's, as discussed above and stated in Appendix
C, the EOS-POA combined criteria. The service does have some disagreement
with the current 1977 CE Guide Specification (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
1977) as discussed by Steward, Williamson, and Mohney (1977). They feel that
the currently recommended GR test should be modified to repr t the range
of varying seepage rates and fabric strains accompanying the ilargement of
openings in nonwoven fabrics due to stretching anticipated i i field, and
that intermittent flow should be added. They suggest that t' -R test has
not been confirmed by monitoring field performance. Concern Also ex-
pressed that due to higher elongation, EOS of nonwoven fabri LI be more
variable and more subject to change under load than that of v, .n fabrics.
For all critical and severe filter applications the U.S. Forest Service
• indicates that ony woven geotextiles should be used (Steward, Williamson,
and Mohney, 1977). The USDAFS definitions of these terms are quoted below:
"Critical: Projects where failure of the filter could result in

failure of an expensive or environmentally sensitive part of a
project, such as:
(1) rock blankets greater than or equal to a 3-foot-horizontal

thickness,
(2) retaining structures,
(3) road fills greater than 10 feet in height,
(4) underdrain trenches greater than 5 feet in depth, and
(5) bridge repair.
* Severe: Conditions of moderate to high seepage out of erodible

soils with a hydraulic gradient evident moving from soil toward
the filter, such as:
(1) spring areas,
* (2) soils with flowing ground water, and
(3) soils with high internal hydrostatic pressure."
Both the above definitions seem applicable to most coastal applications.

Calhoun (1972) also concluded that only woven fabrics be used in coastal
* projects. The Forest Service indicates a preference for the woven filters
and that the sometimes "lower material cost of the lightweight non-woven
fabrics for critical or severe seepage conditions appear to be outweighed by
296
S!
the risk and consequence of possible failure at this time". Fhey also state
that in similar installations, graded aggregate filters have a 50 percent
chance of functioning properly, while woven geotextile filters have a rate
near 100 percent.
(c) Combined Criteria. In crder to develop a laboratory and

field performance verified geotextile selection criteria for filtration-
clogging properties, the authors of this section relied on the experience of
knowledgeable users, theLr own personal experience, and a combination of
parts of reports citing criteria relevant to coastal applications by Calhoun
(1972), Steward, Willia.nson, and Mohney (1977), and CE 1977 Guide Specifi-
cation (U.S. Arm,, Corps of Engineers, 1977).
5 To achieve lesired cloggiing resistance, woven geotextile filters adjacent

to soils containin 0opercent or less particles by weight passing through a
U.S. No. 200 -icJve, shohld have an effective POA equal to or greater than 4.0
pez'cent. (hw~n u,.'VvaeJ kith stone, the POA of the geotextile is the effec-
tive percent .-en i:rea. If half of the geotextile is covered by flat based
concrete b witout a gravel layer between the fabric and the blocks, a
wc:s
POX eq.al to or greater than 5.0 percent is required to yield an effective
. Eq I 'o
eqi .,:er than 4.0 percent.)
Noii,uoxen ceutextiles in the same application should have a gradient ratio

equal to or less than 3.0. This same gradient ratio is used as the criteria
for selection of Lill geotextiles adjacent to soils with more than 50 percent
particles by weight passing the U.S. No. 200 sieve, or soils with a very
slight gradation curve or those that are skip-graded (gap-graded). Geotex-
tih:s with the Iirgest possible POA available in the required EOS sieve
X':zber shO,
. b _spec
- i cOtd.
As >tdtdJ preciouslv, ASTM Subcommittee D-18.19/D-l3.61 is developing

test methods for cotextiles. When these, or other, test determination
iethod0; ank! rormul;t- are submitted to the specifier, they should be
evaluated t,, determine it their results meet the requirements discussed
above. it i.-recoended that both sets of tests be conducted and the
rcsit. t::c_,rclateJ to the requirements stated in this report.
i i L.!m ,t. Thu geotextile filt." must be laid loosely, not in a

tr...t .J- 9~:fl{-- ,n t free of wrinkles, creases, and folds for all
'pplicatioi -;or, >lu and beneath jetties. When the slope continues above
,rod beyon1d th' stric'trie, the filter should be keyed-in by being placed in
a trench at th, upper terminus cf the structure. When a gravel layer is
placed on the geotextile, it must have sufficient p,rmeability so that it
* does not reduce the flow from the filter. The largest size sheets available
should be useO to reduce the number of overlaps required. Overlaps of
adijoining sheet< should he a minimum of 4b centimeters (18 inches) and
staggered for in~tallatio.s in the dry. For underwater applications, the
overlaps should bc I meter (. feet). Strict inspection and enforcement is
required with respect to drop height limitations and overlaps.
On slopes, co..str ction begins it the toe and then proceeds up the
slope. Hori zonti I inderwater placement (such as groins, jetties, and scour
* 29/
protection for vertical walls and piers) starts at the shoreward end and
proceeds away from the shore, or starts adjacent to the protected structure
and proceeds to the outer limits of the scour protection.
When securing pins are required to prevent the geotextile from slipping
during construction, they shall be 3/16-inch in diameter, of steel, pointed
at one end and fabricated with a head to retain a steel washer having an
outside diameter of no less than 3.8 centimeters (1.5 inches). The pins
should have a minimum length of 46 centimeters when used in soils having a
medium to high density. For loose soils, longer pins should be used. They
should be inserted through both strips of overlapped fabric at the midpoint
of the overlap. The maximum pin spacing along overlaps should be 0.6
meter (2 feet) for slopes steeper than IV on 3H, I meter (3 feet) for
slopes of IV on 3H to lV on 4H, and 1.5 meters (5 feet) for slopes flatter
than IV on 411. Additional pins shall be installed as necessary to prevent
any slippage of the geotextile, regardless of location.
e. Repair Method. If the geotextile filter is damaged during the

placement of the fabric or of the stone (or blocks) on the fabric, it
should be repaired as follows: Cut the damaged part of the fabric out of
the sheet and position an undamaged piece of geotextile filter, 1.2 meter
(4 foot) longer in each direction, where the fabric has been removed.
Extend the edges of the new fabric 0.6 meter (2 feet) beyond and under the
edges of the undamaged original filter.
f. History of Uses in Coastal Construction. The first use of geotex-

tiles was as a filter beneath an interlocking concrete block revetment on
the Atlantic coast in South Palm Beach, Florida, in 1958 (Dallaire, 1977).
The fabric used was woven of monofilament yarns of polyvinylidene chloride
(saran), containing stabilizers to make the filaments resistant to ultra-
violet and heat deterioration. The equivalent opening size (EOS) was equal
to a U.S. Standard Sieve No. 100 and the percent of open area (POA) was 4.6
percent. Physical properties were as follows: tensile strength approxi-
mately 890 newtons (200 pounds) (warp), 445 newtons (100 pounds) (fill);
elongation at failure less than 33 percent; burst, 1 790 kilopascals (260
pounds per square inch); puncture, 310 newtons (70 pounds); abraded strength,
250 newtons (57 pounds) (warp), 85 newtons (19 pounds) (fill).
In the following 4 years, geotextile filters were used in a number of

coastal structures on the east coast of the United States. In every in-
stance, the fabric was the same as in the first use at South Palm Beach.
While the fabric performed satisfactorily in these installation, field
observations during construction led to the conclusion that construction
would be simplified, and a superior structure would result, if a filter
could be developed with higher tensile strength, burst, puncture and
abrasion resistance for use in conjunction with quarry stone construction
materials. Development of a geotextile woven of polypropylene monofilament
yarns consisting of at least 85 percent propylene and containing stabilizers
and inhibitors to make the filament resistant to ultraviolet and heat
deterioration was completed in 1963. The new fabric had an EOS equal to a
No. 70 U.S. Standard Sieve and a POA of 5.2 percent. Physical properties
were as follows: tensile strength approximately 1 690 newtons (380 pounds)
(warp), 979 newtons (220 pounds) (fill); elongation at failure less than 30
298
percent; burst, 3 720 kilopascals (540 pounds per square inch); puncture,
620 newtons (140 pounds); abraded strength, 440 newtons (100 pounds) (warp),
310 newtons (70 pounds) (fill).
In 1969 the U.S. Army Engineer District, Memphis inspected three bridge
abutments protected by geotextile filters overlayed with 560-newton (125
pound) stone. In one abutment built in 1962, the fabric, similar to the
890-newton tensile strength fabric referred to above, had numerous holes
attributed to abrasion and could be easily torn by hand. The other two
abutments, built in 1964 using the stronger, 1 690-newton tensile strength
fabric, were in excellent condition and no evidence of loss of strength was
apparent (Fairley, et al., 1970).
The following list identifies the first uses of geotextile filters in
coastal structures by U.S. government departments and agencies:
1961 - U.S. Navy, U.S. Naval Station, Mayport, Florida. Beneath stone
revetment.
1962 - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research

Center, Fort Belvoir, Virginia. Beneath interlocking concrete
block revetment (Hall and Jachowski, 1964).
1962 - U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Colonial

National Historical Park, Yorktown, Virginia. Beneath stone
revetment and repair of damaged shoreline riprap.
1963 - U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Lake Winnibigoshish,

nippewa National Forest, Minnesota, Erosion Control beneath
gabions (first filter application with gabions).
1964 - U.S. Air Force, Capehard Marina, Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida.
Beneath stone breakwaters.
By 1966 woven geotextile filters had been included in the following types
of coastal structures in North America: filters beneath stone and inter-
13cking concrete block revetments, linings for the interior of vertical
seawalls (bulkheads) to permit the relief of water through weepholes and
the joints (tongue and groove, king pile and panel, T-pile and panel),
wrapping for collector pipes and "french drains," beneath stone jetties,
groins and breakwaters, sturity for the slopes of "sand core" jetties,
linings for the interior of steel cells, and scour protection around steel
cells and piers of drilling platforms down to a 46-meter (150 foot) depth
as in the North Sea (Barrett, 1966).
Lake Texarkana, Texas, was the location of the first installation of a

nonwoven textile in a coastal structure in the United States. Construction
in 1976 consisted of a precast cellular block revetment lying directly on the
fabric. The geotextile filter was composed of 100 percent polyester con-
tinuous fiber, the filaments mechanically interlocked by needle punching.
The EOS equaled a No. 100 U.S. Standard Sieve, other properties were:
tensile strength, 1 330 newtons (300 pounds); elongation, 65 percent;
burst, 3 450 kilopascals (500 pounds per square inch); abraded strength,
730 newtons (165 pounds).
299
3. Other Forms of Plastics Used in Coastal Structures.
a. Flexible Forms for Concrete. High strength fabric such as nylon may
be used in conjunction with concrete to control erosion. To form slabs, the
fabric is put down as a double layer along a bank or shoreline and acts as a
mold form for concrete that is injected into it. Figure 83 shows two types
of double layer fabric forms. Figure 84 shows installation of a concrete
filled form.
FILTER POINTS FABRIC
ARC TIES
CONCRETE FILLER COVERS CONCRETE
FILLER
Figure 83. Two types of double layer fabric forms

(courtesy of Fabriform).
Grout-filled fabric tubes may be arranged in various configurations

along the shoreline. They are useful as groins, dikes, breakwaters or
weirs. Figure 85 shows an arrangement of tubes and a filling point.
Figure 86 shows the use of fabric pillows as concrete forms for erosion
control. Koerner and Welsh (1980) give examples of slab and tube forms.
b. Sheet Forms. Synthetic sheet materials made of polyethylene, vinyl

or rubber are used as linings and as covers for controlling water seepage
and preventing pollution. These liner-type materials may be bonded together
to form a large continuous sheet. As such it is useful in lining storage
ponds or pits where coastal pollution is a problem. Synthetic sheet materials
* are also utilized in harbors to control and to clean up oil spills. Flexible
plastic sheeting is held between floats so that it passes through the surface
layer as a pollution dike (Fig. 87). The polluting material is retained
within the flexible floating dike. Such diked areas can be set up in advance
of operations that might result in a spill. For example, the regular off-
loading of oil at a cargo terminal would require that a containment boom be
* on standby or deployed in a particularly environmentally sensitive location.
The confined retained pollutant can then be cleaned up by a simple surface
skimming oper!tion.
Mol1ded F0rm-,.
(1) .,uarls ind Rubhing Strips. Fenders or guards are frequently

fabricated from rtjbber and high strength synthetic plastics or plastic-
fab.,c comhinatiuis. Examp les of these structures are illustrated in
300
d
IA
As .4-
,.
.~( . A ) ,
A -
-MEJ 4
t oc
301
FI.1- I 1,0ga P0dt LbeS beinlg
SIIL~ f'ill ed with sand for beach
nourishmient pro'ject, North Sea Coast Gerianly
photo courtesy of Langeoog).
4-
[ r~"Ile
S onc ret c -Ci I l ed Im'. sof sy'ptiheti fie use fo
302
r
HADL
I FLEXIBLE
CLOSED - CELL
FOAM FLOTATION
URETHANE COATED
SYNTHETIC FABRIC
K EVL AR
FILAMENT
STRENGTH BALLAST LEAD
MEMBER WEIGHT
OIL CONTAINMENT BOOM
Figure 87. Oil containment boom made oF synthetics.
41 303
L
QC
00
* docks and piers *timber jetties
I0
tanker terminal , port and harbor walls

* structures
Figure 88. Typical uses of molded high

density polyethylene (courtesy
of Schlegel Corporation).
(2) Fenders and Bumpers. Rubber and high density polyethylene

(HDPE) are excellent and widely used materials for fenders and bumpers.
High density polyethylene has excellent properties for marine application
such as sliding fenders. It has excellent low friction properties, good
toughness, and resistance to abrasion and impact damage. High density
polyethylene may be cross linked to form a three-dimensional structure to
make it even higher in strength. However, its elongation and flexibility
properties are reduced as its strength is increased.
Polyethylene outlasts wood rubbing strips on fenders four to five times,

is easily machinable or extrudable, and requires little maintenance. It also
* has greater fire resistance than wood. This fire resistance can also be
enhanced by certain formulation modifications of the polyethylene.
Rubber, in the form of tires and molded shapes, is utilized with excellent
success as rubbing bumpers. Old tires are frequently found in harbors as
bumpers for small craft. The energy absorption capacity of old tires is
* unpredictable and not relied upon for larger vessels. For larger vessels, a
chain net of tires over a rubber or HDPE cushion block to provide energy
absorption may be used. Figure 89 shows such an application.
d. Pipe Forms
• (1) Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRIPJ. lii, special pipe is

coming into wide lisave today. It is often referred to as RTRP (reinforced
thermosetting resin pipe). As mentioned above, thcYrnn,et ttiT1I, resins such as
304
* 1r*
Figure 89. Sea cushion with tire chain net (photo

courtesy of Seaward International).
epoxy or polyester may he used in combination with fiberglass to manufacture

a tough corrosion-resistant pipe. This pipe is utilized in and around the
waterfront to avoid the necessity of corrosion procedures such as coating,
coating and wrapping,or cathodic protection.
The material costs of FRP pipe are higher than steel pipe. However,
• installation costs for FRP pipe can he significantly lower than that of
steel pipe due to its lightweight, case of handling, and capability of
making field joints. In fact, the total installed cost of FRP piping is
usuallv lower than that for steel pipe in the same size range.
(2) Nonreinforced Pine. Nonreinforced plastic pipe in the

* smaller size range, to about 23-cent imeter (10 inch) diameter, is used in
many construction projects. It does not have the structural strength of FRP
in large diameters but is sufficiently strong in most small diameter applica-
tions. Nonreinforced plastic pine is produced by the extrusion process.
I"ihe present technolovy for piPe extrusion uses PVC powder compounds produced
by cold blending techniques that do not require high-cost intensive mixing
l equipment. Nonreinforced plastic pipe has a large use in the electrical
industry as electrical condhit and, because of its lower cost and excel lent
corrosion resistance, is finding expanded use as a water and drainage pipe.
305
e. Epoxy Grouts. Epoxy resins, when mixed with sand, tor1 a chLII caIl
grout which has excellent chemical and physical properties. TIhes;e grMats
may be used to patch cement construction such as roadways, or to patch
certain worn or corroded metal parts. These epoxy grouts have SUl)erior
adhesion properties with high strength and corrosion resistance. Many other
grout types are available, e.g., silicates, acrylics, and lignin.
a. General. The environment interacts and combines with the magnitude

IL and duration of stress, strain, and temperature to further alter material
response and strength of plastics. Chemical environments, {for example,
ultraviolet (UV) exposure, contact with petroleum products and sustained
elevated temperature), can have profound influence on performance and hence
must be a consideration in the design and use of plastics. However, many
qi synthetics have a high chemical stability and resistance to chemical attack
by acids and alkalies. The fnilure to design for environmental effects as
they interact with sustained stress or strain has been the chief cause of
failure of plastic products.
Fillers and plasticizers alter the basic response and strength of

plastic materials. Fillers (e.g., clay, limestone, carbon black, and other
inert materials), introduced to increase stiffness, improve processing
characteristics, or lower costs, may also be used to improve UV resistance
or heat resistance. Plasticizers change the physical properties of plastics
such as impact resistance, flexibility and toughness and abrasion resistance.
The introduction of strong fibers, such as glass, will improve strength,
stiffness, and dimensional stability.
Stabilizers are an important group of additive materials, used to increase

the resistance of plastics to the deteriorating influence of weather, UV
light, or radiation. Stabilizers are also used to retard degradation by
heat. Flame-retardant chemicals, such as phosphorous and halogens, can be
incorporated in the molecular structure to improve fire resistance.
Plastics in common use in the coastal environment, such as the epoxies,

polyesters, polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride, are generally
not considered to be hiodet'radahle. However, these plastics in virtually all
st-uctural forms (such as tanks, pipes, bouys or geotextile fabrics) have a
-. high corrosion deterioration in the coastal environment and when exposed to
chemicals, except for some of the aliphatic solvents, such as keytones.
b. c;eotechnical 'abrics. Atmospheric temperature, chemicals (in

concentrations normally found in soils), and wetting and drying are factors
having little or no effect on geotextiles conforming to the chemical and
physical requirements stated in the text and Table 39. Trees may grow
through the fahric. In the few cases where this has been observed, there
was no detrimental effect to the function of the filter because the geo-
textile wais sealed tightly :(a3ainst the tree trunk at the point of penetra-
tion.
No standard test method has heen developed to determine the biological

resistance of _eotextiles. However, all investigators have con1c luded that
fabrics composed of the synthetic polymers described earlier, are inert to
306
I
biological attack, with the passible exception of polyamidc (nylon).
Research has shown, ho,,ever, that bacterial activity in the fabric inter-
stices can clog a fabric, reducing its permeability. B.C. Beville, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Orlando, Florida, in
1968 performed the follo.,ing test (Calhoun, 1972). Iwo slotted collector
pipes were installed in separate trenches. Each was wrapped with a geo-
textile filter of different physical type and chemical composition. In a
matter of weeks, the nonwoven glass fiber fabric on one pipe became clogged
with an iron sludge. The sludge was formed by iron bacteria that oxidized
and precipitated iron into the water. There was no sludge buildup on the
woven polyvinylidene chloride cloth on the other pipe.
Other factors discussed in detail below can also have an adverse effect
on the performance or physical properties of geotextiles.
(1) Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation. All synthetics discussed pre-

viously, without UV stabilizers, are subject to degradation when exposed to
UV radiation. The fabric will be exposed to UV rays during construction.
The length of time of exposure will vary with the size of the project and
the construction sequence. In a drainage installation, when completed,
• there is no concern for the effects of UV radiation. However, for certain
types of coasta- structures, such as revetments, UV resistance must be
considered. Continuous or Intermitent UV exposure may result from any one
or a combination of the following:
(a) The stone armoring may be relatively thin and rays

penetrate to the fabric through voids in the armor;
(b) the armor may be precast cellular block, cast with a hole
through the concrete from the top to the bottom of the block, per-
mitting daily exposure to UV rays;
(c) armoring materials may be rearranged or removed by storm

or other occurrence exposing the previously shielded fabric; and
(d) a construction oversight may have permitted the geo-

textile filter to be exposed after the structure's completion.
O The i977 CE Guide Specification (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, 1977)

requires that the fabric "contain stabilizers and/or inhibitors added to
the base plastic if necessary to make the filaments resistant to deteriora-
tion due to ultraviolet and/or heat exposure." For most coastal installa-
tions the phrase "if nece:;sary" should be eliminated.
* Of the synthetics discussed, in an untreated state (no stabilizers or

inhibibitors added to the polymer) polye:"Zer has the greatest resistance
and polypropylene and polyethvlene the least resistance to IV degradation.
Steward, Williamson. and lohrev (1977) report that untreated nonwoven
polypropylene and polyester fabric samples completely disintegrated within
18 months when lcft ceot, in the field. Bell and Hlicks (19SU) indicate
* that, when const rcted of the same fiber and having an equal amount of IV
stabilizers, wovn u*mo iIaner.t fabrics would be the most resistant to UV
radiation, ,nultifilament .,over and the nonwoven fibr'ics wnol d have inter-
<
mediate resistance.r_1d .1it -filil woven would be th leaist r',i stant.
* 307
One monofilament woven polypropylene fabric in which carbon black was
incorporated in the filament during the extrusion process retained satis-
factory strength properties after 11 years of exposure (no cover material)
"( in a coastal environment (Soil Testing Services, 1980).
As yet, no standard test has been developed to measure the length of

time fabric, either untreated or treated, may be exposed to UV before
harmful degradation takes place. ASTM Subcommittee D-18.19/D-13.61 is
currently attempting to develop such a test method. As stated above, there
are numerous design reasons for UV stabilizers being necessary in geotextiles
for coastal structures, especially in the absence of a method for determining
fabric life.
(2) Fire. The melting point varies with the polymer used in the
fabrics from 1735 to 2600 Celsius (2740 to 5000 Fahrenheit). If fire gener-
ates heat beyond the fabric melting point, it will alter the geotextile
filter's piping and permeability performance. Some polymers will burn
(support combustion), while others only melt.
(3) Ice. Ice formation within the structure of thick nonwoven

fabrics will enlarge the pore openings. Depending on the polymer and
fabric construction, some recovery (of unknown extent) may take place. The
soil retention capability will be reduced.
(4) Kinetic Energy, Kinetic energy, in the form of direct wave

attack on unarmored geotextiles may cause rupture. Wave energy transmitted
by armor stone may damage covered geotextiles, if requirements described in
Tables 37 and 38 are not met.
(S) Abrasion. Abrasion can tear fibers, weakening the fabric as

mentioned earlier. Fabric can be abraded by overlying material during con-
struction and storms, and by waterborne debris if the cover is removed.
(6) Vandalism. If the fabric is not protected by a cover of earth

or armor it can be damaged by vandalism.
308
I
X. RECYCLED AND OTHER MTERIALS
1. Introduction.
In emergency situations or when funds are lacking and the need is

great, almost any material, with a specific gravity greater than water, has
been used either as a temporary or permanent protective device against
damaging waves or currents. Even for temporary protection,materials with a
specific gravity of less than 1.5 are of little value. Other materials
that may provide emergency or short-term protection may be so difficult to
recover, or remove, as to be undesirable. Others may be environmentally
undesirable due to hazards to bathers, visual or chemical pollution, or
there may be the possibility that waves or currents may transport the
material to an undesirable location or cause undue scour.
New materials are continually being offered for coastal installations,

but durability and resistance to fatigue and chemical breakdown are vital
to the economic life of a coastal structure and, too frequently, only a
long period of time will determine how the untested new material will
function.
2. Concrete.
a. General. Salvaged concrete may be used as found in its original

form so long as lifting and transport equipment can handle it. It may be
of reinforced or unreinforced concrete broken into sizes more easily
handled, or it may be crushed and reduced to sizes ranging from sand to
cobbles.
b. Concrete Rubble. Concrete broken into sizes capable of being

transported and handled by conventional rock-placing equipment can be used
in the same manner as rock rubble for the armor and underlayers of rubble-
mound structures. It is generally of two types--unreinforced or reinforced
concrete. Unreinforced is preferred. If reinforcing steel is protruding,
it is unsightly and dangerous to bathers or recreationalists climbing on
it. If possible, protruding sections of steel should be cut off. In
saltwater the exposed steel will corrode rapidly and split the pieces of
concrete into smaller units and reduce their effectiveness to resist the
force of waves or currents.
(1) Revetment. The most common use of concrete rubble is in

revetment. It may be used for armor stone or for the underlayer and design
slope and sizing should follow the same design procedure as for rock. It
must be kept in mind that concrete only has a specific gravity of about 2.3
to 2.5 and does not have the hardness of most stone so it will have a
* limited life. In place, it generally presents a somewhat unattractive
appearance as compared to rock but, if in the wave wash area, will be
abraded into a less angular shape and appear similar to waterworn rocks.
It is acceptable as an underlayer beneath armor rock and near urban areas
may bte less costly.
0 'Ihe primary use of salvaged concrete or concrete rubble in revetments

is for emergency, low costs, or temporary revetment of an eroding bank or
bluff. It is generally available for the cost -f hauling an, in many areas
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St
like the coastline of the Gulf of MexicQ, the southeastern United States or
parts of the shorelines of the Great Lakes may be the only protective
Imaterial immediately available. Sources of salvaged concrete for use in
revetment are broken highway or landing strip paving, foundations for
structures, broken piles or light standards, manholes, large sewer or water
pipe. Thin slabs, particularl) those reinforced with wire mesh, should not
be used as they tend to form flat planes upon which other materials slide
into deeper water and the exposed mesh is hazardous to recreationalists and
the rusting of the mesh causes rapid deterioration.
(2) Groins. The application of salvaged concrete is the same for

groins as revetment but as groins are usually located in recreational areas
the concrete is much less desirable from an esthetic and safety point of
view.
(3) Jetties. Concrete rubble is generally not desirable as armor

material for jetties unless the jetties are located in small bays or lakes
where waves are of limited height. The several thousand pieces of armor
material required are usually not available in design size from broken
concrete. Jetties are also usually designed for a long life and the concrete
blocks tend to wear rapidly or disintegrate. Concrete rubble may, however,
be used as graded core material.
(4) Breakwaters. Concrete rubble is generally undesirable for the

armor or underlayers of a breakwater unless it is in a small bay or lake.
Wave action may be too severe and it is not feasible to obtain an adequate
quantity of design size pieces. Concrete rubble is acceptable as a filler
within the core section, as long as it is well mixed with the remaining
core material to avoid excessive voids.
c. Crushed Concrete. Equipment is available now to economically crush

unreinforced concrete to most any size and gradation desired. Because of
the need to completely rebuild miles of old highways, crushed concrete will,
in some areas, compete with the cost of crushed stone.
(I) Protective Structures. The principal use for crushed concrete

in breakwaters, groins, and jetties would be for the core and bedding
layer. Density is not so important here as for the cover layers but the
4 crushed concrete should satisfy the same size, gradation and durability
requirements as those established in the SPM {U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
Coastal ELgineering Research Center (CERC), 19771 for stone. The same
criteria apply to the use of crushed concrete for use as filter layers in
revetments, seawalls and bulkheads, and special measures may be required to
control the amount of dirt in a crushed concrete mix.
(2) Roads and Parking Lots and Storage Areas. Crushed concrete is
frequently used as a base course for roads, parking, or storage areas,
particularly in commercial harbors. Properly graded, it is as effective as
crushed stone and in urban areas may be less costly.
d. Unbroken Concrete. Unbroken concrete would normally be so large as

to he a supplement to cover stone. It would consist of foundation blocks.
light standards, concrete piles, manholes and other reasonably compact
concrete structures weighing between 0.44 and 88 kilonewtons (100 aind 20 (000
310
pounds). 'liev arc generally of an awkward shape to place and, if made of
reinforced concrete, can have severe handling and corrosion problems,
particularly if used in saltwater. They are generally unsightly and :an be
difficulL to recover when no longer needed.
Concrete barges or concrete hulled ships have, on a few occasions, been

used in breakwater, groin or jetty construction. They may be incorporated
into the mass of a breakwater or jetty, or may be used singly or in a line
to act as a groin. In general they have not served well because their
smooth sides and bottoms and large surface area compared to mass permit
them to slide or tin out of position. The interior of these barges or
ships may be difficult to fill with ballast and they are subject to the
same deterioration problems of these slabs of concrete. Such barge or ship
hulls can be extremely difficult and costly to remove or salvage.
(I) T emporary or Emergency Protection. This is the most prevalent

use of unbroken concrete units and many times does more harm than good.
Unbroken concrete units are usually large enough that they should have an
underlayer, or bedding layer, of smaller rocks, as in the design of a
rubble-mound stone structure. Shapes such as light standards and pilings
are usually too long and rigid to act as flexible and effective units, and
in general there is little variety in size or shape to provide a well-
graded section such as can be done with stone. Without a bedding layer,
these units tend to work into the sand bottom and can be very difficult to
remove. However, in emergencies they may be the only medium to high
density material available and may be used pending later availability of
properly graded stones.
2 Supplement to Armor Stone. Generally, for rubble construction,

these unbroken concrete units are not available in a sufficient range of
sizes to be used as armor stone. However, if they fit some of the design
sizes for armor stone, and esthetics and the safety of recreationalists are
not a controlling condition, they may be used in combination with armor
stone to reduce costs.
5 Supplement to Core Stone. Unbroken concrete units are frequent-

ly used in conjunction with core stone to simply provide bulk and reduce
costs. Care must be taken to fill all voids inside and around these units
so that they become an effective part of the core. Problems may be en-
countered if their dimensions do not allow them to fit within the core
boundaries and they should not be placed so that large flat surfaces are
near horizontal thus encouraging the sliding of other stones across them.
3. Asphalt.
a, General. The primary types of asphalt mix used as a salvaged

material in shoreline structures are the asphalt and concrete mixes and the
asphalt and sand mixes. Both are used much in the same manner as salvaged
concrete; i.e., ais a substitute for stone. Depending on the proportion of
asphalt, both the mixes tend to be of a lower specific gravity than stone
or concrete and for this reason are less desirable. Both are less durable
than stone or coricrete. Because of its black to brown coloration it is
less desiribl c from an esthetic point of view th;an concrete or rock.
311
I
It is possible through heat processing to melt asphalt down and reuse it

as a mixing agent but the cost is prohibitive and the material is of no value
for shoreline structures.
b. Asphalt in Rubble Structures. Broken asphalt concrete can be used
in the underlayer if the same design criteria are followed as for stone. As
a cover layer it is not desirable as it is of low specific gravity, is not
as durable as stone or broken concrete, and due to its color and appearance
is not esthetically appealing. Asphalt-sand has little durability, a charac-
teristic that makes it undesirable in the cover layer.
c. Crushed Asphalt Concrete. Crushed asphalt concrete or asphalt-sand

is an acceptable substitute for stone as core or bedding material in
coastal structures but must be used with care as filter material because of
the difficulty of obtaining and maintaining an adequately graded mix to
properly act as a filter. The most common use is as a base material for
roads, parking lots, and storage areas in the same manner as discussed for
broken concrete. Either broken or crushed asphalt concrete or asphalt-sand
may be used as fill material so long as the voids can be filled.
-I 4. Concrete Blocks and Bricks.
a. General. Salvage material, consisting generally of hollow concrete

blocks, cinder blocks and bricks, may be used in random placement. These
materials are seldom used unless for emergency protection or of economic
necessity'.
b. Concrete Blocks. These are generally hollow blocks salvaged from

dismantled buildings or broken in production during the curing period. In
the western United States these blocks are made of concrete, have a specific
gravity of about 2.3 in seawater,and are not particularly durable. In the
eastern United States they are frequently fabricated using cinders or slag
for aggregate and are known as cinder blocks. These are even less durable
than the concrete block and have a very low specific gravity (about 1.5 to
2.0).
(1) Rubble Structures. Concrete blocks are frequently used for

emergency protection because they are frequently readily available for only
4 the cost of transporting. They generally break down through handling and
are of no value in the armor layer or in the underlayer. They are not
durable nor are they esthetically acceptable. However, they can be used as
temporary protection during an emergency in isolated, nonrecreational areas
as long as it is realized that they must be covered with designed layers of
stone that will act as a protective material.
6 (2) Crushed Concrete Block. Concrete blocks will generally crush

easier than broken concrete or stone and can be used in the same manner for
bedding layers, filter layers, or as part of a base course for roads,
parking lots, and storage areas.
* c. B'icks. Common building bricks have a specific gravity of about

1.9. They are not generally durable when subject to abrasion nor are they
esthetically desiratlc.
6I 312
S ;va> 1ick be rejects from the ki ln.-
1;aav ' :i
2- ram dismantled
buildings oi strutures. They may be a whole brick, Abrn brick, or a
cluster of ;)ricks still bound by mortar.
Pf1 kiuhblc Structures. Salvaged brick i., K ri>Fo! :I ther

the armor l.aer" or the underlayer of a breakwater, Jcttr, ,ra, c, , \ctment
due to its low specif'ic gravity, lack of durability, and I:,ck of esthetic
appeal. It Also tends to create slip planes. It may be used as core
material as Jong as it is mixed with other materials and satifies th,
general design criteria for core stone.
(2) Crushed Brick. When brick is crushed it ma- he - sed a., !,ase
course material for roads, parking areas, and storage areas in the same
manner as crushed stone. It has limited value as bedding material because
of the low specific gravity and tendency to reduce to sand atnd clay sizes.
It is of almost no value as a filter material because of lack of dur;ability
and a tendency to break down and fill the voids necessary for it to act as
a filter material.
5. Salvaged Ships, Barges, Railroad Cars, Automobile Bodies, RPefrigerators,

and Others.
a. General. Because of their size and weight, it is always a temptation

to use these no longer functioning objects to achieve "instant structures."
In particular, some salvaged ships and barges might provide up to 300 meters
(1000 feet) in length for a protective structure. Its weight may be several
thousand tons. But there are difficulties involved in placement and perhaps
'C even more difficulty in the task of removing these objects.
b. Salvaged Ships and Barges.
(1) Salvaged Ships. Salvaged ships are generally steel hulled,

although there may be a few concrete-hulled ships from World War II, and they
may be from 15 to 300 meters (50 to 1000 feet) in length. These ships are
generally 20 tD 50 years old and much of the internal equipment, particularly
the heavy engines usually have been removed. The curved cross section of a
typical ship's hull plus the partially streamlined bow and stern makes them
difficult to place precisely and prevent shifting of position or capsizing.
The general concept is to maneuver the ship into a predesignated location,,
sink it in place and fill it with sand, gravel, or rock to provide stability.
The steel hull plates of these ships originally vary from () to 19

millimeters (1/4 to 3/4 inch) in thickness, have already been exposed to
20 to -(0 years of corrosion, and have a very limited life as a partially
sunken ship. The plates can be subjected in shallow waiter to abrasion by
the sand that is constantly in motion and the force of breaking storm waves
• in shallow waiter can he considerable. Once the hull opens up the disintegra-
tion of- the, ship can be very rapid and it will soon lose its effectiveness
as a protect ive st rtiettire.
I.en : :at vmn 1rry protective structure if the .shin s.t les too
deeply iri tia : inid hottom, rolls over, partially n'.e, r)tc- , a"
!)rdi:;i
is no
* Ionger flo, 1 lle, it can he extremely difficult avid co t'v to remove. It
is ohvis thait as the. ships disintegrate and ar, iioved by ves or cuirrents
313
U
they can become a hazard to navigation, a danger to recreationalists, and
very unsightly from an esthetic point of view.
(2) Salvaged Barges. Barges may be of wood, steel or concrete.

They are usually smaller than ships, more rectangular in dimension, and
easier to plce into position. They are usually flat bottomed and have a
tendency to slide out of position under the force of storm waves. If
positioned on sand, they are also subject to severe scouring action and may
tilt or slide out of position. Like ships, they are usually many years old
and seriously deteriorated before being salvaged. Wooden barges are the
least desirable. They lack the deadweight of steel or concrete and once
they start to disintegrate, the process is more rapid. Also, if filled
with sand or gravel for stability they may even attain partial buoyancy as
the waves remove this material.
Concrete barges are unsightly and dangerous due to the mass of rein-
forcing bars exposed as they deteriorate and break up. Steel barges, like
ships, have relatively thin hull plates and through corrosion or wave
forces deteriorate very rapidly, especially in seawater.
(3) Breakwaters and Jetties. Neither salvaged ships or barges are

recommended for breakwater or jetty construction. Wave action is generally
-• too severe and, in the case of breakwaters, the waves strike broadside,
the most unstable position. Even for temporary or emergency protection,
salvaged ships and barges are not recommended due to the difficulty of
removal.
(4) Groins. There has been some limited success with the use of
several barges in tandem. They must be securely fastened to each other and
well seated on the bottom. Even so, because of deterioration, provisions
must be made to either remove them or cover them with rock at a later date.
(5) Revetment. Salvaged ships or barges are not recommended for

revetment. They are rigid structures and in an area of breaking waves will
generate so much scouring action that more erosion may result than without
these structues.
c. Salvaged Railroad Cars, Automobile Bodies, Refrigerators, and Others.

These are used mostly for bank or shore protection in nonrecreational
areas. They are all unsightly and, while made of metal, generally do not,
have much weight compared to total dimensions and are easily moved by waves
or currents. Because of their rigidity and numerous flat surfaces they can
cause accelerated scouring and may even accelerate the erosion process.
Like other metals they are normally corroded before salvage and, if in
seawater, tht corrosion process is accelerated. Railroad cars and automobile
bodies, in particular, will disintegrate within a few years. Their use is
* not recommended except in a nonrecreational area and only then as an emergency
temporary measure, to be removed as soon as a long-term protective system
can be implemented.
6. Rubber Tires.
a. General. About 2 million rubber tires, too worn for further use on
trucks and automobiles, and not capable of being recapped or retreaded, are
314
II
available annually throughout the United States. While, as a material,
rubber tires are strong and durable, they have almost no salvage value.
Hence, they are generally available at very low cost or just for the cost
of hauling. Rubber tires have been used for years as fenders on barges,
work boats, and docks but it is only since about 1963 that they have been
seriously considered as a low cost, and readily available, material for
protection structures.
b. Characteristics. Salvaged rubber tires have a specific gravity of

about 1.2. They are tough, flexible, durable and almost inert to chemical
reaction in either fresh or salt water. In fact, the critical strength
factor of a scrap rubber tire system is not the "tire" but the fastenings
and the mooring system.
c. Uses.
6 (1) General. Salvaged rubber tires have been used primarily to

form floating breakwaters but they also have potential use for revetments,
groins, bottom stabilizers, and fishing reefs. Experiments are underway to
use them as an additive to asphalt concrete paving.
-* (2) Floating Breakwater. Like all floating breakwater systems,

the use of the floating rubber tire system is most successful where the
need is to protect a basin area against short-period waves such as in bays,
harbors, and lakes. Several different arrangements of tires have been used
and model tested but the basic principles are the same.
(a) Flotation. Flotation is provided either by entrapped air

or by the filling of a part of the tire with urethane foam. The air system
works only for tires held in a vertical position. A regular schedule of
adding air to replace lost air or compensate for added weight due to sea
growth or the entrapment of silt must be established. Tires are bundled
*together in modules of a workable size and weight and then the modules are
assembled into a floating breakwater of design length, width, and depth.
Other design factors are the density of the tire assembly and the allowable
load stresses on the fasteners and the mooring system.
(b) Fasteners. The scrap-tire assemblies have been secured by

steel cable, galvanized iron chain, nylon rope, or (one of the most success-
* ful) scrap cuttings from conveyor belt material fastened together with nylon
bolts, nuts and washers. The floating breakwater is a dynamic system, in
constant motion, so it is imperative that an adequate inspection and mainte-
nance schedule for these fastners and their hardware be established. Salvaged
telephone or power poles may be used as inexpensive spreaders to frame the
assemblage of scrap-tire modules. Poles and spreader framework may be
* specially treated to extend the useful life of fasteners; however, in view of
the low-cost aspect of salvage systems generally this expense may not be
justified.
(c) Mloorings. Standard mooring systems of steel cable or

galvanized iron chain with anchors or anchor blocks are generally used to
* hold the breakwater units in place. Mooring stresses will depend on wave
forces, density ()f the tire modules, width of the systemand depth of the
315
S•
water as related to the depth of the floating breakwater system. As with
fasteners, a prudent inspection and maintenance schedule is mandatory.
(3) Revetments. If the tires or modules of tires can be securely
anchored to the bottom of the natural slope they can serve as revetments.
With a specific gravity of only 1.2 they cannot be expected to stay in
place of their own weight. They do not act as a revetment in the same
manner as rock rubble; i.e., by completely absorbing or reflecting wave
energy before it reaches the native bank material. The rubber tire revetment
will only partially reduce the energy of the waves and, under persistant
attack, increased turbulence may even accelerate the erosion of the native
material. It may be feasible to use the rubber tires in conjunction with
underlayers of rock to act as a revetment, providing the tires are securely
anchored in place.
(4) Bottom Stabilizers. Rubber tires are being used in parts of

the Chesapeake Bay where waves are small and erosion is slow or intermittent;
they apparently function by encouraging the growth of marsh grasses and
the resultant increase in an accumulation of mud to stabilize the entire
mass.
Some success in use of tires to control littoral drift has been reported
in areas of low turbulence by simply anchoring rubber tires to the seabed
to slow the bedload movement of sand either by currents or wave-induced
movements in the littoral zone. This is obviously not feasible in the
breaker zone of the open coast and the entrapment of sand outside the
breaker zone would be slow and of minor quantities. This application may
have particular merit in lakes, reservoirs or bays where surf is not severe.
(5) Fishing Reefs. Modules of rubber tires, placed in deep water

will, because of added surface and the many voids and crevasses, encourage
the growth of marine plants and animals. The modules must be anchored in
place but this is not as difficult as when used for floating breakwaters or
revetments.
7. Uses in Coastal Construction.
a. General. The use of recycled materials is very sensitive to the

degree of emergency or lack of availability of new materials, the availa-
bility of the recycled materials, and the suitability of the materials to
accomplish the desired design objectives. In some cases such as floating
breakwaters, the recycled material, in this case rubber tires, may actually
be the preferred material. In every case, the conditions peculiar to the
project determine the usability of recycled materials. When suitable,
recycled materials can be used in the following types of coastal structures.
4 b. Offshore Structures.
(1) Breakwaters. Concrete rubble and salvaged asphaltic concrete
can be used as a substitute for stone underlayers or cores but their lower
densities must be considered when making the substitution. Crushed concrete
can be an effective core material. Concrete blocks and brick can also be
used as rubble in place of stone underlayer or core allowing for their
lower densities. Crushed, these materials can be used for core material.
316
6
Rubber tires are used to make floating breakwaters capable of attenuating

short-period waves. Salvaged ships and barges should not be used as break-
waters in the ocean or large lakes and have limited use as a type of caisson
in that they are generally located at a remote station and towed to the site
where they are sunk and perhaps filled with sand or rock to serve as break-
waters or reefs.
(2) Reefs. In addition to barges, automobile and railroad car

bodies, broken concrete and rubber tires can be formed to trap sand for
beach contouring and to encourage the growth of marine biota. Broken
asphaltic cement, concrete blocks and bricks can all be used to create
rubble-mound reefs. Below the wave and breaker zone such materials are more
durable and more likely to serve successfully.
(1) Breakwaters, Jetties, and Groins. Salvaged concrete, broken

asphalt cement, concrete blocks, bricks, salvaged ships and barges, salvaged
railroad car bodies, and automobiles can be used as discussed for offshore
structures but they all have severe limitations.
(2) Seawalls and Bulkheads. Toe protection and backfill materials,

* where rock would normally be used, can be of salvaged concrete, asphaltic
cement, concrete blocks or brick. These materials could also serve as
aggregate for preplaced aggregate concrete.
(3) Revetments. All the materials discussed in this section

except the ships, barges and car bodies can be used to stabilize revetments.
The finer particles of crushed materials would be suitable for filter
blankets, the rest as rubble or cover material.
(4) Piers and Wharves. Salvaged rubber tires make good bumpers
and fenders for small craft using the piers and wharves. Tires are also
good buffers between independent floats or structures that might otherwise
bump or scuff each other in moving with tides, waves or currents.
Broken concrete, asphaltic concrete and broken concrete blocks or

bricks can be used as revetment to protect the shoreside embankment of
piers or wharves.
317
XI. PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS FOR MATERIALS
1. Corrosion.
a. General. To understand the reason for using coatings or applying

cathodic protection, a brief review of corrosion fundamentals is necessary.
These principles apply to any metal structure. Corrosion is defined as
the deterioration of a material, usually a metal, or of its properties
because of a reaction with its environment. Three conditions are necessary
for metallic corrosion to occur:
(1) There must be an electrical potential difference between

two metallic electrodes, anode and cathode. This can exist because
of metallic composition differences, metallic surface condition
differences, or because of differences in the environment contacting
the electrodes;
(2) the contacting environment (electrolyte) must be

electrically conductive with positively and negatively charged
ions present; and
(3) there must be a metallic connection between the electrodes.
b. Corrosion Process. Corrosion is a natural process involving

electrochemical reactions with a resulting flow of direct current from
anodic areas of the substructure (corroding areas) to cathodic areas of
the substructure, through the surrounding and contacting electrolyte (soil
or water environment). A simplified diagram of the corrosion process on
iron or steel in water is shown in Figure 90. The circuit is completed
through the metallic connection between anode and cathode. They both may
be part of the same structure. This current flow is called galvanic
current and usually is in microampere or milliampere quantities.
With steel substructures, corrosion (loss of metal) takes place only at
anodic areas as the result of current flow into the electrolyte from
anodic areas. In the case of iron or steel, metal loss amounts to about
90 newtons (20 pounds) per ampere-year of current flowing from the metal
into the contacting electrolyte. Loss of metal is directly proportional
to the amount of current. One milliampere of current leaving the substructure
from one point into the electrolyte will cause penetration of 9.5 millimeters-
(3/8 inch) steelplate in less than I year. See Table 40 for corrosion
rates of other metals, including anode materials. With iron or steel
substructure the electrochemical reaction prevents corrosion of areas
where current flows from the electrolyte into cathodic areas of the
substructure. Anodes, cathodes, and corrosion current as related to
steel in water are shown in Figure 91.
c. Corrosivity of the Environment. In air the corrosivity of the
environment on a structure will depend on the temperature (ranges and mean
averages), relative humidity, wind conditions, proximity to the water,
rainfall, and chemical fumes (from cargo or nearby plants). Corrosivity
generally increases with increases in temperature, relative humidity, wind
velocity (particularly off water); with closeness to the water; with
increased rainfall; and with higher concentrations
8 of chemical fumes.
318
--- CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW (+ TO-)
--- ELECTRON FLOW----
' +
H+ H+ H+
OH- OH- OH-

L~i. 2e-.2H*-H2
H+? Fe-Fe&+2e a..

o ON Fe*+.2OH--Fe(OH)2q
4e- +02+ H20--40H OH- H

-OH
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW
Fe-Fe+2e
Fe+++20H-e-Fe(OH)2
L~2e-+2H--H2
H+ ION FLOW
OH-
CATHODE STEEL ANODE
A Figure 90. Corrosion process.
If the structure is to be immersed, the corrosivity will depend on the

temperatUrc of the water, chemical composition (salt content, dissolved
oxygen and the presence of other chemicals), velocity of the water (movement
by tides, waves, gravity, etc.), and splash zone effects (a combination of
* mechanical and corrosive effects). Corrosivity on immersed or partially
immersed structures generally increases with increases in temperature,
increases in corrosive chemical content, increases in fluid velocity and
in the splash 7-ne. It should be noted that high purity water such as
distilled water or deionized water is a special condition and can cause
coating to blister or delaminate.
319
Table 40. Corrosion rate of some common metals.
Consumption Rate
Metal (newtons per ampere-year)
Lead 333.6
Copper 204.6
Tin 191.3
Zinc I 102.3
Iron 89.0
Magnesium 1 75.6
Aluminum i 26.7 (seawater)
Carbon i 8.9
High Silicon Iron 2 less than 0.44
Magnetite Fe3 04 2 less than 0.044 5
2 less than 0.044 5 (seawater)
Lead-Silver
Platinized Titanium 2 less than 0.000 044 (seawater)
1
Galvanic anode material
2 Impressed current anode material
PIPELINE
CATHODE - CORROSION- ANODE

CURRENT
a. Single cell
PIPELINE
CATHOOE
ANODE
CATHODE
ANODE
CATHODE (3
* b. Multiple cells
Figure 91. Corrosion process in pipelines.
320
d. Corrosion Prevention. The corrosion process on a given structure
can be prevented or stopped if any one of the three conditions necessary
* for corrosion can be eliminated. The principal methods for preventing or
mitigating corrosion are described below.
(1) Coatings. A perfect coating will electrically insulate the

anode and cathode areas from contact with the electrolyte, preventing flow
of corrosion current. As is well known, a perfect coating is an impossi-
bility for anything other than a laboratory-scale project. Also, all
coatings disintegrate in time, imposing an ever-increasing area of poorly
coated or bare metal. Cathodic protection is an ideal way to deal with
coating discontinuities (holidays) and poor coating in general. Coatings
(with cathodic protection) are feasible for practically any subsurface
structure. An exception would be the underwater parts of offshore oil
production platforms where coating repair or replacement would not be
possible.
(2) Insulated Joints. Insulating joints between metal plates or

piping joints will minimize stray current or galvanic corrosion where it
A interrupts corrosion current flow. In this application, the metallic
connection between widely separated anode and cathode areas is broken by
the insulating joint. Insulated joints also serve to separate dissimilar
metal areas, as well as to separate cathodically protected areas from
unprotected areas.
(3) Cathodic Protection. The corrosion process on a given

subsurface structure can be prevented or stopped by supplying an excess of
electrons to all subsurface parts of the structure. The result is that the
structure becomes all cathode because of the electrons provided by forcing
direct current to flow through the contacting electrolyte (water or soil),
from a nearby subsurface source (anode) onto all subsurface parts of the
structure. Hence the name, cathodic protection. When the current is
adjusted properly, it will counteract corrosion current flowing into the
electrolyte from the substructure with an opposing and slightly more than
equal flow of current flowing from the electrolyte into the substructure.
. Loss of metal has been transferred from the protected substructure to the
external anode which will require occasional replacement.
2. Coatings.
4
a. Introduction. Environmental conditions affecting coastal structures
range from mild to severely corrosive. To provide suitable service life
for coastal structures, protective coatings are usually required, ranging
from little or none (other than decorative painting) to complex and extensive
multicoat systems. Specific coating demands depend upon type of substrate
* to be coated and it,; environment.
321
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
0
This section will cover the basic design considerations that must be
given to the structures to be protected and to the selection, application
and inspection procedures necessary to provide a protective coating system
with years of dependable service life. Repair, rehabilitation, proper
maintenance procedures and other important facets, including economics, are
also described.
Protective coatings are designed primarily to isolate metal surfaces

from exposure to corrosive elements. Coating thickness will vary from
50 to 75 micrometers (2 to 3 mils) for simple alkyd coating systems to 380
to 760 micrometers (15 to 30 mils) for certain high build coal tars, coal-tar
epoxies or urethanes (1 mil equals 25.4 micrometers or 0.025 millimeter;
where any conversion in a discussion results in numbers less than 0.1, micro-
meters will be used).
Conventional paints, surface preparation and methods of application

should not be used in corrosive areas of coastal structures. Only high
performance protection coatings such as epoxies, zinc rich, chlorinated
rubber, and polyurethanes must be considered. Products selected for use
should be resistant to the environment and capable of serving as a barrier
between the environment and the substrate. Writing appropriate specifica-
tions to cover all facets of the work will play an important role in terms
* of obtaining the protective coating job desired including, particularly,
cost per unit area per year of service life.
b. Design and Specifications. In the design of new structures, it is

important to consider surface requirements for ease of coating application
and effectiveness of coating. The design should (1) provide smooth, flat,
easily curved surfaces, and (2) avoid overlapping surfaces, edges, back-
to-back structures (brackets, beams or L's), riveted surfaces, sharp
protrusions, and weld splatter (see Fig. 92).
Like other personnel in any design and construction organization who

are engaged in translating an owners requirement into design and the
design into a structure, the protective coating specifier must give careful
consideration to all aspects of the coating work requirements. The speci-
fication must detail coating selection, surface preparation, coating
application, coating inspection, touchup, and repair to ensure a successful
job.
c. Generic Classes. Numerous coastal marine coating tests and surveys

of field applications have been made. Table 41 lists some of the coating
systems used for various surface substrates. In the discussion which
follows, various uses and precautions are prese.ited for each coating system,
with a brief description of chemical composition and properties.
Coatings are composed of many raw materials. These materials can be

divided into three categories--vehicle, pigment, and additives as shown
in Table 42. The vehicle or liquid part of a coating is composed of
resin, solvent, and plasticiser. The vehicle resin contributes to many of
the basic properites of a coating including water resistance, chemical
resistance, cure time, elongation, toughness, and iidhesion to substrate.
322
40
SPECIFICATION CONSIDERATIONS
bo FULL SEAM WELD Fl' // SKIP

WELDS .
ROUND CORNERS CHANNELS'J-"F

2BACK-BACK
DO QONT
POCKETS OR CREVICES. ALL CONSTRUCTION INVOLVIN6 POCKETS
OR CREVICES THAT WILL NOT DRAIN OR THAT CANNOT BE PROPERLY
BLAST-CLEANED SHOULD BE AVOIDED.
M ROUGH
PINHOLE w /fUNDERCUT
GRIND SMOOTH
OpONT
CONTINUOUSLY WELDED JOINTS. ALL WELDED JOINTS SHOULD GE CONTINUOUSLY
WELDED. ALL WELDS SHOULD BE SMOOTH, WITH NO POROSITY, HOLES, WIH
SPOT4, LUMPS OR POCKETS. GRINDING SHOULD BE USED TO ELIMINATE POROSITY,
SHARP EDGES AND I4IH SPOTS THAT DO OCCUR.
p -- CLEAN WELD SPATTER
GRIND SMOOTH \--WELD FLUX
DO DONL
REMOVE WELD SPATTER. ALL WELD SPATTER SHOULD BE
REMOVED.
| ~ ~~WELD"-'
1
* kL._.
I/8" RADIUS SHARP CORNER
DO DONT
MINIMUM RADIUS OR CORNERS. ALL SHARP EDGES SHOULD ME GROUND
TO A MINIMUM RA.IUS OF I/6" (3.2mm).
Figure 92. Examples of design details to

aid coating application.
323
00
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o 0
o 00
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>- CL V c
:3 0 0 - c
0 0 0 u ;
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u
4J -0- 10 14 00 g !
0' c w. o4E , PWw :
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- Q x Z - ) - -
0 0C
C 0' 0 a, 00
0
0 w w 0. 0~ C 1 0 0
0' 0> 1 1 4
0). CLV V) 00 >~ 0) - r= C cW
C o 00010
(Y. Z- 1 gt>.
0C v .C w 0?C .
*0 w-
0 C.C >'- t o~
I1~U C >))))
-~~o 0410
0 0_
C CL 000 <E U.o
>000 w 0 0 o 0
4)0 0 00 0=0 =0 00 000 0O Vo4
o OO(
(D~ L W0 M D L ( DLL. Z ( CDCe LU L
0
0
U))
O AO
10
4 c-I .0c 0
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Pt-0 .0
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~' 0 0 0
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6 324
e
Table 42. Coating components.
VEHICLE
RESIN 1PLASTICISER SOLVENT PIGMENT ADDITIVES
Prime Prime Surfactants

Alkyd Glycols Dilutents Extenders Drying Agents
Epoxy Color
Coal Tar Mineral Corrosion Anti-Skinning

Spirits Inhibitor Agentf
Vinyl
MEK Toluene
~Other
Coatings are usually named or designated by their resin systems. For

example, an alkyd coating contains an alkyd resin, an epoxy coating contains
an epoxy resin, and a silicone alkyd contains an alkyd resin as the primary
* resin system with additions of silicone resins. Plasticisers are added for
modifying the properties of the resin. Solvents are used for dissolving or
dispersing the resin for manufacture. Solvents are also useful for develop-
ing and controlling application properties of a coating. For example in a
cold climate, the solvent must be volatile enough to evaporate at low
temperatures. Conversely, in tropic or desert climates, the solvent must
be slow enough (less volatile) to allow the coating to flow out and properly
cover the hot surface before it volatilizes.
The pigments are the finely ground solids which are added to give
coating body, color, and corrosion-inhibitive properties. Special additives
are added, usually in small amounts, to give the coatings many special
properties.
Table 43 lists generic coating types suitable for use on concrete and
steel (both immersed and nonimmersed). Selection of a recommended coating
system for a given service condition is determined from specific properties
of coating types, des:ribed below.
(1) Alkyds. Alkyds are formed when oil is combined chemically

with glycerol phthalate. They cure by reaction with oxygen and have
excellent wetting properties and fair to good weather resistance. Alkyds
have poor resistance to acids and alkalies and only fair abrasion resistance.
* They should be used only for mild environments in selected harbor locations.
They should not to be used where surfaces are continuously damp or immersed
in water.
(2) illicone Alkyd. Silicone alkyds possess properties similar to

alkyds as defined above but possess somewhat better heat resistance,
* weather resistance, and gloss retention. They cannot be used for immersion.
Also they are softer and are less resistant to abrasion.
325
I
Table 43. Recommended coating systems.
Type of Surface Coating Type
Concrete Coal Tar
Coal-Tar Epoxy
Epoxy
Steel (Nonimmersed) Alkyd
q Silicone Alkyd
Silicone Acrylic
Coal Tar (Good)
Coal-Tar Epoxy (Good-Excellent
Epoxy (Good-Excellent)
Urethane (Good-Excellent)
Vinyl
Zinc Rich
Steel (Immersed) Coal Tar

Coal-tar Epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy Phenolic
Phenolic
Vinyl
326
(31 Modified Alkyds. Modified alkyds have additional resins added
(such as ester gum, phenolic, styrene, vinyl, acrylic and chlorinated rubber)
to improve properties such as weather resistance and corrosion resistance.
They may be used for some coastal structures, however, because of the limited
corrosion resistance of alkyds, immersion service or exposure to corrosive
environments is not recommended.
(4) Acrylic (Solvent Base). Acrylic coatings may be formulated

as solvent-base or as water-base materials. The solvent-base coatings
are composed of copolymer acrylic resins in an aliphatic hydrocarbon
solvent. They cure by evaporation of solvents and in some respects
possess the toughness and corrosion resistance of a baked enamel. Acrylics
have good resistance to general weathering. They have excellent gloss
retention and color stability. Their resistance to marine atmospheres and
corrosive environments is good. They have good impact resistance and fair
heat resistance. Acrylics may be used as topcoats for epoxy, modified
alkyd, zinc rich and universal primer. They are not recommended for
immersion.
(5) Acrylic (Water Base). The water-based acrylic products are

widely used fo- masonry, stucco, or wood for both interior or exterior
application. They are also used to a limited extent for metals. Because
they are water based they are nonflammable and may be used in fire hazard
areas. They are quick drying and may be easily cleaned with water. Acrylic
water-base coatings have excellent color retention, good flexibility and
toughness, and are easy to repair. They have only fair corrosion resistance.
Acrylic resins are used in conjunction with other resins to improve

color stability and general weathering resistance.
(6) Chlorinated Rubber. Chlorinated rubber coatings are composed

of rubber polymers chemically treated with chlorine in a blend of
solvents. They cure rapidly by solvent evaporation. Chlorinated rubber
coatings have fair to good corrosion resistance to marine and chemical
corrosion. They resist most dilute acids, alkalies and salts and have fair
weathering resistance and color stability. They are suitable for immersion
in salt and fresh water to 490 Celsius (120' Fahrenheit). Chlorinated
rubber coatings have fair abrasion and impact resistance but possess only
poor resistance to organic solvents.
(7) Coal-Tar Coatings.
(a) Mastics and Coal-Tar Cutbacks. Coal tar is a byproduct

of the coal coke industry and has outstanding water resistance. For this
reason it has been found to be an excellent coating material for use on
many coastal structures. Its high resistance to moisture makes it useful
for immersion or for the splash zone service. It is one of the finest
coating materials for resistance to water or moisture. For this reason, it
is frequently used for protecting steel or concrete in immersion. Coal-tar
products are usually applied by spray because of their heavy consistency,
but touchup is frequently handled by brush. Additional thinner may be
added when the coating is applied by brush.
327
(b) Modified Coal-Tar Coatings. Coal-tar coatings are frequently
modified with other materials such as epoxy or polyurethane. The modified
products have the excellent water resistance of the coal tar with the
improved toughness and solvent resistance of the modifier. Properties of
coal tar and the modified materials are as follows:
(1) Coal-tar properties: low cost, excellent resistance

to water, low moisture vapor transmission, poor resistance to
organic solvents, and poor abrasion resistance and toughness;
(2) epoxy properties: tough, chemical resistance, and

solvent resistance; and
(3) urethane properties: elastomeric and abrasion

resistance.
Two component coal-tar epoxy and coal-tar urethane coatings are dis-
cussed. Coal-tar epoxy systems contain coal tar, pigments, solvents, epoxy
resin, and either an aliphatic or aromatic amine or polyamide curing agent.
Coal-tar urethaneas contain coal tar, pigments, solvent and reactive urethanes.
These "chemically cured" coal-tar coatings can be applied in one coat to
dry film of 0.13 to 0.64 millimeter (5 to 25 mils). Most coal-tar epoxies
have excellent adhesion, abrasion, and impact resistance. Their resistance
to immersion effects in salt and fresh water is excellent and they withstand
a wide range of chemical corrodents. Proper measurement of two components
is mandatory for proper cure and coating properties. It is recommended
that these coatings be mixed by use of power mixers. Subsequent coatings
must be applied within manufacturers' specified time and temperature
limitations to avoid delaminization between coats. The coal-tar epoxies
have a variable Dot life when mixed depending on the temperature. Repaira-
bility is a major problem and color is limited to black. They tend to
chalk lightly in sunlight and weather and lose their original black gloss
within 6 months to I year.
(8) Epoxies (Catalyzed). Epoxy coatings are based on epoxy resins

and are supplied as two component materials. One component. contains the
epoxy resin, the other the curing agent. The two components must be
thoroughly mixed before application. A broad spectrum of service conditions
is covered by a wide variety of materials based on these versatile resins.-
Amine or polyamide type curing agents are most common. Epoxies have
excellent durability and toughness and possess high chemical and moisture
resistance. They resist strong alkali, and ' e excellent adhesion proper-
ties and abrasion resistance. They may be use( in marine environments and
are not damaged by moisture or immersion in water.
Epoxies may be used in conjunction with special fillers to make mastic-

like materials which find applications as concrete grouts, surfacers or
"bug hole" fillers. These mastics or grouting compounds may be applied as
heavy coats by trowel or in some cases by spray. They are used in marine
application to protect concrete or steel in the splash zone. Heavy layers
of the mastic are built up in the splash and tidal zone. Layers of glass
fabric may be introduced, between coats of mastic to add strength to the
splash zone coating system. Application is sometimes by hand in a process
328
0
known as "palming" (Fig. 93). Gloves should be worn when handling epoxy
materials as many people have a toxic reaction tu epoxies.
WELD OR PPLIED BY
CORRODED AREA PALMED EPOXY
PLE PX
rFigure 93. "Palmed" application of epoxy

underwater coating.
Certain epoxy polyamide coatings and mastics will cure on moist surfaces,
or even under water. It is this property that allows these materials to be
utilized for coating and for repairing wet or submerged structures which
require protection. Epoxy coatings have excellent corrosion resistance to
most chemicals. They perform well in alkaline media but are only fair in
contact with acids. Because of their inertness they are sometimes difficult
to repair or topcoat. Because of adhesion problems, very few coating
materials will adhere to a well-cured epoxy. Epoxy coatings tend to chalk
and for this reason, colors fade, particularly dark colors. The lighter
colors are most frequently specified for use where the coating will be
exposed to sunlight and weather. To summarize, epoxy coatings have excellent
corrosion resistance and toughness, but are fair to poor in-weather re-
sistance.
*Q(9) Epoxy Phenolic. Epoxy phenolic coatings are epoxy-type

coatings which have been modified by the addition of phenolic resins. The
phenolic resin adds corrosion resistance as it promotes cross linking and
bonding of the epoxy resin as illustrated in Figure 94.
With the increased resistance of the epoxy phenolic coatings to attack

* by corrosive chemicals or environments, these materials find application as
linings for tanks, barges, ships,and piping.
329
10
fEPOXY
Figure 94. Cross-linked epoxy phenolic.
The disadvantages of epoxy phenolics, as compared to epoxies are:
(a) Increased brittleness of coating;
(b) lack of toughness and thus more subject to damage upon

impact (cracking, shattering, delamination);
(c) requirement for heat in curing (not true with all epoxy
phenolics);
(d) lack of availability in high build formulations; and
(e) slightly more difficult to repair and topcoat due to

adhesion problems {see paragraph (8)}.
* (10) Phenolics. Phenolic coatings include baking phenolics of the

alcohol soluble type and phenolics of the oil soluble type in combination
with drying oils. The baking phenolics have excellent resistance to
corrosive chemicals, acids and caustics. They require baking for curing
(cross linking). The baking phenolics form tightly cross-linked coating
films with exceptionally high corrosion resistance, which is higher than the
4 epoxy-phenolics. Because of their tight cross linking they are brittle and
subject to damage and delamination if subject to impact. These materials
are used as linings for tanks, barges, and piping.
The phenolic coatings designed for atmospheric service are made from
phenolic resin combinations and drying oils. These, at one time, were
* considered the best air-drying coatings for water resistance and weak
chemical resistance; they were used extensively as marine maintenance
coatings. They are still considered superior to most alkyd coatings in
330
4
hardness, abrasion i , i.e, and chemical resistance. Their limitations
include somewhat less 'rer resistance than certain alkyd coatings. They
possess only fair gloss retention and are applied at comparatively low film
thicknesses. The\ ai (ul 'e good surface preparation for best performance.
Many phenolics beoe r tr- v,,ith age.
(llJ Polvu'r>~a. Trse generic class products, more commonly

called "urethanes," a'ec usoal 1y comprised of either moisture-cured, single-
packaged systems, coe _ package which requires heat to cure, or two-
pinge
packaged catalyst-kcure! typvI,. All urethanes contain isocyanate. The
single package syste:5 include one which cures by reaction with moisture
and one which is cire d by heat. The two-packaged systems are cured by
reaction with a crrirIg ag;nt such as an hydroxl-bearing polyols.
Due to the wide \.rex of fcicrulations available, tha selection of the

proper urethane fo- 'ic
if job is often difficult. Chemical resistance
(fumes, splashes, and spills)), especially with those cured by hydroxi-bearing
polyols, is very .nood. Cth(s ray be somewhat limited in this respect.
These type coatings i , known for their toughness and resistance to
abrasion and impact. IiTe urethanes based on an aliphatic resin possess
outstanding resistanct; to .sunlight and weather including excellent gloss
-* retention. These ar,- eJ extensively on ships and aircraft where color
retention is importart. ther urethane formulations based on aromatic
urethane resins havte p ,-
'ather resistance. They should riot be used as
exterior coatings.
Adhesion properti f,,m:icly good to properly primed metal or direct

to masonry. Urethanes i, ,hefe generally well when directly applied to
fiberglass , rial B, : some formulations which ha-e high build
properties. Many ur l['.e hve excellent low temperature cure character-
istics and may be it ,.iratdres as low as 2 Celsius (350 Fahrenheit).
Urethanes have excLi, :t i ility and elongation properties. Because of
the inertness of tK, t. :,n.nt polyurethanes, repairability and recoating
can he ditfi.:e lt d,.0 , er, problems.
(12) 'inv . ii- ,> includes all polymers and copolymers of

vinyl chloride with , i .i i ard vinylidene chloride. 'They are
single-packaged co 1:i, ,,nJ: ;ire by solvent evaporation. Vinyls are also
processed with oil a.u , i.,s such as alkyds, phenolics, and acrylics.
* Most offer good overalt cc-,,u ion resistance. They are somewhat similar iii
this respect to chlurinatcd ruo;bei.
Vinyls withstand h ,h ii,:iidity and are comparable to epoxies in many

respects in resistance to salt atmospheres and immersion in water. They
have good abrasion iapact resistance. Flexibility and elongation
id
* properties of vinyl eatings are good. Vinyls are among the best coatings
from standpoint of resistance to oxidation. Many have good gloss retention.
Their repairability is eel good, and they usually present very few problems
on recoating. Resinstart to foat solvents, however, is poor and they have a
limited heat resistice.
* 1/(13)
[norn'm i . These products are formulated with metallic
zinc dust, at re ,ati.e.e high pigment volume concentration, with inorganic
binders. Met illi :.'i , cait at
o (O to 90 percent by volume in the dried
ris
331
film. As a single coat syst r. they have r:'m ,: , :ros
cu I- rc, .. 1-,
on coastal structures for protecting met:i] -xpsod 0 , .g"cslvc'
atmospheres. They may be topcoatted to !1,:,
t
even greater anticipal:, erv
. -e i f,.. I z',. "i' .,
'.
used
1 in industrial v! - .
be used without t ,"
the past, is lining hydroc -n , r: .
Inorganic zinc has exccj tz-t abrasiol:-e.,',,:I Ie

preconstruction primer. It . c rorcoat. - I hIqI
ifo'
Zinc coatings offer excellent re:iintar 1 i .
and to freshwater. primers are often r-I - pri..
-in-rich 2 g..
topcoats such as ,-hlorinatf J ru; he-, 'in.I c-o. -r
certain acry lic . .. - u ch,.. : .
topcoated for continuo'is . . in waer..
ment is stringent aid applic.itiot requires skilled S
(14) Organic Zinc. rhi., c.assificat i,'n ;)f 5Sico;'r)<c ,

zinc dust with organic binders such as eprlxv resins. Zirc dust c,-tent
will vary between 45 and 80 percent by va1, w in the dry film. Pt-rFormance
of the coating is related to the percentage of zinc in the final .i- film.
-. Generally, the more metallic the zinc, the better the performance. Organic
zinc coatings also show excellent resistance to high humidity spl::ih and
spray conditions of both fresh and salt water. Al.rasion resistan. e is
somewhat less than the inorganic zinc primers. The organic coati. s will
tolerate mildly alkaline atmospheres. They are often preferred to 'inorganic"
zinc as primer for chemical atmospheres because surface preparation and
application procedures are less critical.
(15) Underwater Curing Coatings and M4astics. These materi ls are

two-component 100 percent solids polyamide cured epoxy nonshrinkirg compounds
(sometimes combined with appropriate fillers), designed to chemically
displace water on the surface and form a tight bond. Extensive and careful
laboratory and field tests, combined with experience information, have
shown that good protection can be provided to in-place underwater .tructures
with these mastics.
They are applied by gloved hand (palming) or trowel to a iry ilm

thickness of 3.2 to 6.4 millimeters (125 to 250 mils), and cure while under
-* water after several days. Tensile strength, adhesion, impact strength and
abrasion resistance are fair to good. They can he used as patchi;:. com-
pounds to seal metal, concrete, wood, fiberglass and many other s'lbhitrates
specifically in situations where the surface is damp, wet, or undcr water.
The surface preparation recommended is sandblasting for best results.
Costs of material and application are very high, $54 to $162 per ,,quare
* meter ($5 to $15 per square foot).
(16) Other. There are other special coatings that may bc used
from time to time for certain applications for coastal structures. These
materials are combinations and modifications of the abo\e goaneric .ating
classes. They will not be discussed in detail in this report. 11e.i e
* coatings include vinyl polyurethanes, epoxy/fiber reinforced mortars and
coatings, polyester/glass flake combinations, glass flake/coal Lar/epoxy,
100 percent solids urethane/elastomeric membranes, catalyzed hypali/coal
332
I
0 7 7 0 5 5 .
2 :7
Time to Handle
Aromatic a0. C. 0 . 0 w
44 Aliphatic LI z. L1 LX. 0 L m 0 0 Lm 4
I C-
o " Alkali u
4 0
FA Acid a. 0 I L u I l
0 M E
0 Codnsto w z
C)
Ln
44 ) Condesion o. a. ., "4 Li w w w
0
C) r. Li.U.
Abrasion o l i;-L
- I I
.- 0 W. CL
Gloss and
Color Retention o
0 X) 0 r
0i- 0 -a 0
44 C0 00 0
Glss an Lj~Li L. Li. 0- 0.- >i Ii
W e 1 C)M °0
C) r.n.0 F. F-
C)
U) a) 00 C' a)
H
333 4
4
tar and others. Table 44 compares the qualities of various types of

coatings.
d. Surface Preparation.
(1) Methods and Limitations. Proper preparation of the surface to

receive the coating may be the most important activity in a coating job.
Regardless of the chemical and physical properties of a coating (such as
chemical resistance, moisture resistance, impermeability, abrasion resistance
and weather resistance), it cannot properly fulfill its function unless it
adheres to the substrate. Proper surface preparation consists of preparing
the surface to the proper degree of cleanliness and roughness (surface
profile) to receive a specific coating. There are a number of methods used
for cleaning and roughening a surface.
Coatings designed for usage in corrosive environments have been found

to give best performance when applied to clean, freshly blasted surfaces.
The more resistance or durability expected of a coating system, the better
the surface preparation must be. The better surface preparation, the better
the performance. Methods of surface preparation have been defined and de-
scribed by the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) (1975), and by the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) (1979) of Houston, Texas.
Methods of cleaning include hand cleaning with brushes, mechanically

cleaning with brushes, and blast cleaning with abrasives. Hand and mechan-
ical cleaning procedures are defined and described by SSPC specifications:
SSPC-SP-2, Hand Cleaning, and SSPC-SP-3, Mechanical Cleaning. These
procedures are usually carried out by using wire brushes.
Blast cleaning procedures are the preferred method of cleaning as they

provide surface roughness (surface profile) as well as cleaning the surface.
These procedures, described and defined by the SSPC and NACE, are based on
the degree of cleanliness of the surface. All loose surface contamination
must be removed. The percent of firmly adhering residues allowed to remain
are indicated in Table 45.
Table 45. Residues permitted to remain on blast-cleaned surfaces.
Surface Preparation Degree of Firmly Adhering

SSPC-SP NACE Cleanliness Material Remaining on
Surface (pct)
5 1 White Metal 0
10 2 Near White 5
6 3 Commercial 33.3
7 4 Brush Blast na
(2) Immersed Zones. For immersed zones or areas of severe chemical

exposures, the surface preparation recommended is "white" metal (SSPC-SP-5;
NACE-1). Near white (SSPC-SP-l0; NACE-2) i3 sometimes specified for these
same applications
coating system willbutbe is not as
decreased.satisfactory and the life expectancy of the
The near-white surface preparation blast
334
• -I
clean is usually reserved for slightly less corrosive exposures such as
nonimmersion marine. Commercial blast-cleaning surface preparation (SSPC-
SP-6 or NACE-3) is utilized for still less corrosi, 'xposure4 such as mild
marine or industrial exposure. Table 46 sh ows recno0ndrcJ surface prepara-
tion for maximum results with specific generic cl:,sses of coating.
Table 46. Recommended surface preparation tor specified coatings.
Coating Type Surface Preparation
Alkyds Commercial Blast1 SSPC-SP-6 NACE 43

Acrylic Enamel Commercial Blast I SSPC.-SP-6 NACE 03
Acrylic Latex Commercial Blast 1 SSYC-SP-6 NACE #3
Chlorinated Rubber Commercial Blast 2 SSPC-SP-6 NACE #3
Coal-Tar Coatings Commercial Blast 2 SSPC-SP-; NA&E 13
Epoxies Near White Blast 3 SSPC-SP-10 NACE #2
Epoxy-Phenolics Commercial Blast 1 SSPC--SP-6 NACE 53
Phenolics Near-White Blast 3 SSPC-SP-10 NACE 42
Modified Phenolics Commercial Blast 1 SSPC-SP-6 NACE #3
* Polyurethane Commercial Blast 2 SSPC-SP-6 NACE #3
Vinyls Commercial Blast 2 SSPC-SP-6 NACE #3
Zinc (inorganic) White Metal BlastO SSPC-SP-S RACE #1
Zinc (organic) Near-White Blast 3 SSPC-SP-10 NACE #2
1
Where a compromise or alternate is necessary Brush Off Blast
(SSPC-SP-7) may be used.
* 2
Use Near-White Blast (SSPC-SP-10) for immersion or other severe exposure.
3
Use Commercial Blast (SSPC-SP-6) where exposure is not severe.
Near-White Blast (SSPC-SP-10) may be used where exposure is not severe.
(3) Abrasives. In addition to the degree of surface cleanliness

recommended in Table 45, it is necessary that close attention be given to
the surface roughness (profile), as illustrated in Figomre 95. If the
pattern of peaks and valleys is too shallow, proper ndhesion may not be
obtained and if the pattern is too deep and irregular, pinpoint rusting can
*0 occur because the prime or first coat may not cover the peaks. Generally,
it is believed that the anchor pattern should not exceed one-half of the
dry film thickness of the first coating applied (the prime coat). This,
however, is not always true for high build primers or mastics.
For surface preparation, the manufacturers' recommendations with

* respect to the degree of cleanliness and the depth of the anchor pattern
should always be carefully followed.
LI Table 47 indicates the average height of profile produced by different
abrasives. The profiles will vary to some extent, with the angle and
velocity of the abrasive particles and different hardnesses of the steel
* surfaces being blasted. Under most conditions, it iKspossiblc to protect
the surface with a coating system which provides " total dry film thickness
of 0.13 to 0.25 millimeter (S to 10 oils).
335
"SURFACE PROFILE
38 )1TT7
BASE METAL
DESIRED BLASTING PROFLE
SURFACE PROFILE
12.7,. Th
BASE METAL
K.
BLASTING PROFILE NOT DESIRED
Figure 95. Surface blasting profiles.
(I Table 47. Types, sizes and resulting profile of

abrasives used in airblast equipment.
Maximum
particle size
passing through Average height of profile
Abrasive ASTM mesh 1 (mils) Wm)
Sand, very fine 80 1.5 40
Sand, fine 30 2.0 so
Sand, medium 18 2.5 65
O Sand, large 12 2.8 70
Steel grit #G-80 40 1.3 to 3.0 30 to 75
Iron grit 3G-50 25 3.3 85
Iron grit #G-40 18 3.6 I 90
Iron grit #G-25 16 4.0 100
Iron Grit #G-16 12 8.0 200
Steel shot #5-170 20 1.8 to 2.8 45 to 70
Iron shot #S-230 18 3.0 75
O Iron shot #S-330 lo 3.3 85
Iron shot #S-390 14 3.b 90
336
In normal sandblasting, the anchor pattern ;hoAld run about 38 to 50
micrometers (1.5 to 2.0 mils) deep. Most manufacturers recommend at 16-to
30-(16/30) mesh silica sandblasted at the snrface at o90 kilopascals (10t)
pounds per square inch) to produce this profile pattern. An 8/30 mesh sand
may be needed to remove tightly adhering rust and Tpaint. Seldom are anchor
patterns of more than 75- to 100-micrometer (3 to 4 mils) depths rec'om-
mended, even for high build mastic coatings of up to 5-millimeter dry film.
This profile can usually be achieved by use of 8/30 mesh silica sand,
blasted at the surface with a nozzle pressure of 090 kilopascals.
Zinc-rich coatings on the other hand require a blast by 30/60 mesh sand
to produce a required profile of 25 to 40 micrometers (1 to 1.5 mils).
I
Other abrasives include garnet, flint, steel grit, steel shot, and
aluminium oxide. Costly abrasives, such as steel shot and steel grit, are
primarily used where they can be recovered and reused such as in cabinets
-i and blast rooms. Special equipment such as surface profile comparator
furnished by Zorelco and NACE TM-01-70 visual standard should be used to
verify the surface roughness (anchor pattern) produced by various abrasives.
(4) Sandblasting.
(a) Requirements. No coating system can perform better than

the surface to which it is applied. It must be able to reach and adhere to
that surface in order to perform its function. In general, as previously
stated, sandblasting steel for use in harbor facilities provides the best
and often the only suitable foundation for the majority of materials which
should be used in these environments. In addition to removing surface
contaminants, sandblasting produces surface roughness known as anchor
pattern which enhance coating adhesion. Sandblasting, therefore, is one of
the most important steps to consider in any protective coating program.
(b) Compressed Air Supply. This is perhaps the most critical

part of a sandblasting operation. Speed of work and results will be
accomplished only in direct proportion to the volume and pressure of air
passing through the nozzle. To achieve good economics and a good profile,
* sandblasting steel requires a high nozzle pressure of 620 to 690 kilopascals
(90 to 100 pounds per square inch) and high volumes :)f air at 2.5 to 10
cubic meters per minute (80 to 350 cubic feet ner minute). The larger the
nozzle, the faster the work will be completed, assuming proper air pressure.
* It is generally recommended that an additional 33 kilo, ascals (5 pounds

per square inch) compressor pressure should he used for each additional 15-
meter (50 foot) length of blast hose. When onlv low nozzle pressnre is
337
available (such as with long hose), the I,!anti, ,i, w.ii he slov. miln,
removal of mild scale, old rust, paint nr i r nc q wth
ji: v P. xp: -. ,r
incomplete.
The efficiency ot blasting at o55 kily, is, ;t :00

" t iiOU pi- W rL''
inch) is only 50 percent of tiat of 690 kkoi I iW) puundq ic sq ul;,
inch). Lower pressures also often result i. oh,.r problm., su,h :Ns lhe
need to compensate by using larger sized ah:asiv; ., ith thcir attenant
deep anchor pattern.
(c) Air Supply and Couplings. Vhcsw siold bu relatvd to the

size of the job but generally should be as 1:i,'c a possible in order to
supply a constant high volume of air at jurper" hoion Pressure. For
large jobs large air liies and couplings snolid b sed in order to miH l iz
friction loss through the hose. Universal type co ii]ngs are recohmnded
for use on air lines.
(d) The Sandblasting Machine or Pet. or successful low cost

blasting, the sand pot must also be given careful conideraticn. Fiere arc
several types available. All furnish a regulated amount of abrasive to a
high-pressure airstream for the blasting functiou. However, pots with only
one chamber are normally used for intermittent blasting, while a two-
chamber pot is better adapted to continuous work. Many sizes as well as
designs are available. Proper size is determined b the abrasive capacity
desired. All sand pots used for abrasive blasting should be equipped with
a separator to remove any moisture or oil contamination. The separatoi
trays must be emptied and maintained on a regular basis.
(e) Moisture Traps and Oil Separation. A moisture trap

prevents condensation from forming on the lines and flowing onto the work
surface. It should be placed as close as possible to the sandblast pot.
An oil separator should be placed on air lines between compressor and blast
machine to prevent oil contamination of the blasted surface. Although
these items are frequently disregarded, they are important in obtaining a
good coating job. If moisture or oil contamination are allowed to remain
in the compressed air, they will contaminate the surface and degrade the
quality of the coating job.
Water contamination will oxidize and corrode the -urface, resu ltIin in
reduced quality of the final coating system. Oil contamination will reduce
the adhesion properties of the final coating system and can cause delamina-
tion.
(f) Size of lose With External (opl ings. Sandblast hoses are
often too small. The inside diameter of the ho:;e s.houId be three to four
times the orifice size of the nozzle. Avoid any coupling or pipe-fitting
connection that fits internally into hose. This can reduce the inside
diameter enough to reduce the air-carrying capsicii more than 5:0 percent,
Use only externally fitted quick couplings.
, . (g) Size and lype of Nozzle to he lsed. brasivc coVt pt on

i nl-as
and the volume of ai r used are -irT- re-l 1- t--1he size noz: I-1 hveing
used. Most commonly used nozzle sizes are 6.1 and 19-mill im:.ter (114.
5/16, and 3/4 inch) inside diaieter. Thi it .,. :K, P-. :le the l.,rgucr the
338
area cleaned in a given time. l\ample: " . .t ; a 3-I iiliact U1
(3/8 inch) nozzle will clean 2.23 times the r.:te ,e 1 nF
1il II tcr 1/
inc~iJ nozzle.
r (h) Sand and Abrasive Consu:mpt i I i - in! is hr :,,s
widely used abrasive and for this reason, v..ii b J , the basi- for
consumption rates presented. Other :,rasiv-,,,. i t .,
aluminum oxide, walnut shells, steel shot anr steel t Rates fur other
materials are related in genera I to sand consunpt jun rates. Spec ij.,
consumption rates for each material will depenld on the spe, i fic dell ity of
the abrasive and its velocity.
Upon impingement on a surface, the energy 'e 'i-
o by ;n abras iv
particle will be directly related to its clei iing riti?. That is, tie r'ore
energy released, the faster the cleaning rat. he l er.y of ;Iparticle
in motion is determined by it,, mass and its ,e it .:..o, ing to the
equation E = 1/2 IV2 , where E is the eiierg v or ; i\ g abrasive particle
(energy is released when particle strikes the sIc , the oass of
abrasive particle, and V the velocity. Thus, the Cl,.:1iiing rate iinreases
as the mass and velocity increase.
Sand consumption rates and airflow consumption are presented in ile

48. The increased sand and air consumption results in a greater i-i
heing cleaned per hour. The actual productiol )or hour i.;s aftfec te! *y!t
condition of the surface to be prepared for coating and the Len:
surface preparation to be achieved, as shown in Table 11,.
Table 48. Sand and airflow consumption.
Nozzle
Diameter
(aml) 344.7 413,7 482. 1
Nozzle Pressure (kPa)
551.6 620.5 o89.3
.32 37 .43 .48 52 57 \i" (m 3/min

298 342.5 491..I
449.2 -193.2 547.1 Sind (N/hr)
.74 .85 .93; 1.08 1.1o 1.27 \iir

667.2 760.6 871.8 960. 1)58.6 1174,.3 Sald
"11 I
1.33 1.53 !.73 1.92 2.09 2.29 air

1192 1387.8 1574.6 1814.8 2197.3 Sand
7.9 2.18 I .
2.52i 2.8b 3.2 3.-< 3.88 Air
2081.7 237).2 2686. 6 2989 3Ls15 3o11.8 'Sand
9.5 3.06 3.57 1.()5 4.56 -1.9 5.55 Air

751 4 .I s n
2971.3 3398.3 3843.1 4270.1 h7't. 3 5134.1 SanI
4.16 .1.81 5.49 6.141 C),79 7.19 Air

398 .1 4590.3 523.8 5335.8 101. " 7,4 . aIrd
5,52 G.5-I -15 7.92 ,. 19.5 Air

5159.7 5912.5 . ,-L _ -- _)M)
o S , I
339
6
Ii) Sandblast ing Techniques. ag'i or r:ll ;m

ilst 'audh n Ilu Ij
be carried OLIt to follow particLIlar proceduMres:
(1) Strict adherence to the intnugictur"r operati.

instruct ions;
(2) careful following of all s:afet v reguI :tions ml,

proper use of safety equipment;
(3) holding nozzle at proper aititidc and anule for

surface area being cleaned;
(4) removing any and all dust after blast ing tith
vacuum or brush (the latter is very important to avoid >:ting
adhesion problems); and
(5) particular attention to inside cornets, pits, edges

bolt threads, nuts and bolts, welds and overblasting; the latter
ready coated and allowing the
means blastin, near an area alI
abrasive to hit the coated areas.
Table 49. Approximate sand usage and labor rates on saindhlat i ng.
Surface Wreparation to be Achieved
Condi tion of SSPC-SP-S SSP c-SI,- 1o StPtI-SP-6 SSI'C-SP-7

Surface to Wh i te Near White Comnerc ia 1 Brush
be Prepared
S 2
jI. S 1
S1 I S
(N) (im (N) (Rin ) (N) (min) (N) (mn ')
Loose ,1i 11 478 11. 6h 383 1 .4 192 23.2 )o 37 .2

Fine Powder Rusting
Tight Mill Scale and 575 8.4 4-,9 10.7 287 18.0 9(o 33.4
9 Little Rust
FExisting Coting 9)3 A .5 700 8.4 383 13 29.

Wh ich is Fai I ing
Badly Iitted Steel 1197 -1.6 938 .3 ! 5773 9.3 I 27.9
4
S denotes abrasive Lisage per square met er.
L denotes labor production per hour.
"ote: These ti i-utres ;ire ;i:imro\i :ate and rti ut ork on iige : itJ
sI'Ich as t inks or Ir, a e "r " lC:1Ill.
340
e. Coat ins Applicat ion.
(1) Introduction. The qo'i of coat r :)l . ti.:n is ti,p, ,

continuous, uni form coating of suftticicunt ticies that I-; sc.curol x
bonded to the substrate. Coating application is initiated after sqLrfacc
preparation has been s;tisfactorily completed a nd inspec ted. Then rime
coat should be applied prompt.y after the sirtace is cleaned, as cleained
steel is easily rusted if it is not protected. Coating appli atin :must he
made under good dry conditions. If temperature is low enough that orpns
can occur and cause condensation on the surface, coating application shounld
not be undertaken.
Coating specifications usually designate that coating work not be

undertaken unless the temperature is 30 to 60 Celsius above the dewpoint
(the temperature at which condensation will occur at a given pressure and
relative humidity). Coating application can be by brush, roller, spray, or
U dip.
(2) Brush. Application of coatings by brush is one of the oldest

and most widely used procedures for coating application. Maintenance and
repair work are frequently done by brush, particularly if the size of the
jel is small. Most alkyds and a limited number of other products with good
* wetting properties can be applied by brush. Some manufacturers recommend
that the prime coat be brushed on to ensure that it has been worked well
into the surface. This is a desirable procedure when the surface is rough
or when the surface preparation is poor.
Pflow-out
When brushing
on is called for,
the substrate. thesurface
If the primer isisrough
often orthinned
pitted,to brushing
improve
will help work the coating into the roughened surface. The ability of a
primer to protect will be directly related to surface wetting. If areas of
the surface are not wetted by the primer they will be subject to corrosion.
When conditions dictate that a brush be used for touchup work, tacky
materials should be applied by liberally filling the brush and quickly
applying it to the surface with a minimum amount of brush out. One advantage
to application by brush is that there is only 4 to 8 percent loss of
material (as opposed to 2) to 40 percent by conventional spray.)
Brushes must be of best quality and appropriate style. Brushing

should be done in such a manner that a smooth coat as nearly uniform as
• possible be formed. It must be worked well into all crevices and corners
and be appl ied w ithout runs or sags, and with a minimum of brush marks.
In short, brushing is used by professionaIls only when it is specifiLed

or recommended by the coating manifactirer, where siurfEace preparation is
relatively poor, and for touichup work where spraying is unsuitable because
o of plant or area regulations.
(3) Roller. This method of application, like hrushirg, is fine

for some materials and p,,r iir others. Roller coat ing is generally used
for Applyi ,ialkvls And ,itr-ha sijd ,latex) matpir0ia over large arucs such
as tanks aid bnildins h,',' tolq i'' ;ts'" c lled into Klay hcc'Cale of
regulation-a gao;inst any spri;v . Fast
I dry 1aqner-tvpc product will dr
on the r()l e'r anid do i t disql i i ippin Othcr s *i,'( show poor
i' Iow,-
341
I.
out properties. Pickup of the undercoat 1S J ,li'. r l hiI .nIh hi'.t h.
considered as a possibility with rolling.
Ro I Iin, is a faster method o f pp I i cat i :1.1,IH I IL.r

i-hII,'.
a
coating his the swiie r'elitiv l ' Ic i t er ii'
lo" I 'i q 1S 'OliI ISt d n' i tI
COIX.ent i o/.11 spray. Part icu lIa ca re mo1st be cxe. ,i -;t.dwhen thi;i ri g A 'oI I c
on rough spots, pits, rivet headls, edges, coro, s, Lis :Iii he I ik , t,
make certain they are properly covered. ini hIsci.'r, fiW brush
RN ,lIIr ",,it
alppI i cat ion . is espec ia ly usefu I ,herc spryv , aujii
t l-tu:,-d ))eC;,25t' Of
spray fog and possible tlammah ilitv of solvent.
W- Spray.
(a) Introduction. Proat ective c'oatings, inclM in nwny ieIn-

t i e ly small jobs, are applied by cit her couvnti.aa I " ;iri'.ss spray in
almost all industrial work. WistAQm ot f materials is higher b,.ciuse of the
fine atomization of the coating, Ihe adxlvantagecs of spray ipl iction are
its coverage speed and applicition uniwormity. .evr spra;y mcthods inclu de
hot airless spraying, electrostatic spraying, and colmbine speed with low
material loss. lot airless, as the namei mplies, is simply a heated airless
spray application. Electrostatic te'chniques invol e putting a charge on th
spray particulate and the opposite charge on the work piece being coated so
that the coating is electrstaticNI ly attracted to the part. Spray coating
has the obvious advantage too of tl Xtivelv easy application in corners,
cracks and crevices. The ne,'r spray methods also practically eliminate
overspray and spray fog.
(h) (onventional Air Spraying . Ihe spra.y gun in simple terms

is a tool using compressed a r--toa to--e--potuc ts and apply them to a
substrate. Air and coating enter the gun through separate passages which
brings the two together and mixes them at the air clp. lost spray guns
have two adjustments. One regulates the amoint or fluid which passes
through the gun when the trigger is pulled. The other controls the amount
of air passing through the gun. This controls the tan spray width . The
internal mix gun mixes air and material inside the cap before expelling
them. This gun is generallv used where only low air pressure is available
or where slow-drying prodricts which do rot contain abrasive particles are
to be applied.
The external mix gun mixes and atomized material and air outside the
air cap. This type is more commonlv preferred. Other types include
automatic, extension and special spray guns.
ic) Airless Spray, This method of applying coatings uses no

air for atom i zat ion. lydraulic pressure is used to atomize the fluid by
pumping it at high pressures through an accirately de.signed small orifice
in the spray nozzle which controls the t'luid flow ard spray pattern. The
air-operited hydraulic fluid pump multipl ies m,.ny timcc the air inpul
pressure to deliver material at desired spraying, Vciriorrs size
caps are required since coatings do not itotli it th i diltl('e to vlriations
in coating pi gment grind, viscosity And t icr t',Iaulliuolr feattres.
Not all coating materials can h- A'rppliedi 1, a I'lI,,m spr.rv. 1aIn

heavy, pigmented, and tih r-fiIlcd iihrd'sive liltCrli:l:, L-lst' S011e problems
342
i,
antd a re d ifficu lt to spi ,,. I ",,,
,,..I, tf,'
h L ,,1 Wt ',i[c A !v:Ant,
.:L-,on .- - to)
the Lise of Ai CLs
les spray. m I A cv
Iir "r i- !,hi I l"s t Il
, 1lutl ai, cll "
ot over'praiV. rheris ls- t ii rci \ ftll 1 I II tI IUt)Lliii
t "+ lecii.-,\
pro,+v id in'g a ir"ct.', wl
le+.-ss H ,~H
,i k ,l
jp:ii ,-.tj t+ I- t V' . It I du, I Itkl
Is ir e flit ks
areas such ,as t ,ar, ,Ad
" 1 -, .> li dl i, aLl a- ct JIIi . (,
c-overaige is re'quired.
I[he manenxeralCrb ilitv a . '.. at t j 1l plttlent cspolc all t'hll

,orking in confined ir,.eas.,i- ri i pJ Is, he-re h?,:lvy C,)lt rig thi iness
is needed, airless is the d -i ! - . TI, 50 i, co llii;ihI> LC INrCrial
Chips
loIsses for various appli ati Ii n ,: ,V,, .
Table 50. Estrimated lo>s o,f ,-it g lti rials during application.
Method loss
(pct)
Conventional Ail 20 to 40
Hot air sp~ray 15 to 30

Airless sprLy 5 to 20
Electrostitic spray 5 to 15
Bru slh and roller 4 to 8
(5) Dip. Coat i rig wok .ia he k:ccoiip i shed by dipp ig. ost
;Nl ani-in., is by dippinig. artts h ch have N hi gh surtace area to weight
ratio aind w,hich ire relat i V --M, ll can hc dip coated in coating baths.
'
lhis would include rim suci 4tituings, l;ii.tcrs, and fence. The quality
q-
oF" a dip coat i ng depends on Ih o r face prep:irat ion and the application.
he surface of the part hei 14 ciiitcd must be clean, free of contamination,
rnd have the right piorLle roy tK coating hi ng applied. Most coating
systemrs can he applied hv dip.
.- 1lics, include alkyds, coating systems which
cuLre evaorpation c . , vinyi-;s and icr',i ca) and coating systems which
cui re by reac tiorn (c g , and itr<,.h;irims
B\s statud above, tiy ai I o dlip cr it iniis depends not only on the
r tire prcpa ration, hut As-, o>,ithe alilicatirn. The dip bath must he
properly and cuntinUni -11I 1 d a.nd ag iite , so that the pigments aind
otha" coati ru comporerts arm I ol -rml'vI .i-tursrd in the bath. The tempei-a-
tare of the part and o ir HWin: tihi O'uontrolled to lie within the
ringe recolmendiln d Ky th CO. I IiNA, n t A _.
r Coat ings which cure by
• i'naction have a linitcdI dppl icm ' ii I it. This life is dependent upon the
tiapu ra t ire. rhe hiqhp tii- itI ii,,: .:r, the short er the life. Care must
he- excis.ed enot to ipplV cAt in- "hi , have o.ceuded their effective
appl icat i o i i tW
• :~LiCremust also be ic i -.
- in the Applicatiun of coa tinrgs which cur e
h>y ivaiporat ion Soi-cnt llsit h, dl fri
trAd t ime to t ime to make tip for the
-oic t INst to the at. ,- i c ,' pv r'.
it ion. D ipp it) work should i"e
-tonpped dlruring, thle ajipi .I At , it 1 cLt-, t and it -,bouIld riot be colliiinceil
A I I11 I!t lt i I t he, adhdl ,,l1 .(1)t -, t ! Ii i n it,'ril\I d isperse d . Pa rt s
'A1 1ih ir dA i tel Ii'.'- I I i - t'i
ii'' -i-' in orde r to \ i d ,Irips
* Indi I ll )i' "I I'it -. k i 1,- , , h, ' t Liy he
I lea l Anlrd i lllo eilllti
II-,,. t o inI. [," k' t ;;t' , ; it 1~11t)
l l
1l~ ttt < tllt. c
[- lI' .
34-5
(b) co'! tin tJ .,... . , . . . liter (one gallon)
container of paint is - r,)3 s .t inehes) , according to
il) i:
the U.S. Bureau of St aill-lC..11t.i i . :-W pvrcent solvent which
volatili :es... as the coatil:, -; - ,. ri',-,ining paint for surface
coverage (paint 'i'm i , .ii,- meter (1!5.5 cubic
inches). Some pairot :r,, , percent
p solvent, others
contain less, an Ithe lit- . v .t. sIolvent; i.e., they are
essentially () .. '- ' 1, m ter of nonvolatile
material is spre, .. . . 2.. 1Iamicrometers (1 nil)
thick, it wull .: ., q i re feet).
If the ,oait I r .. i. -., solvent (by volume), its

surface-coveri i . . .A. t ! )lpeceCnt. At a 25.4-micrometer
dry fi lm coat ing ; ,. i qtvire meters (802 square
feet). The o'ltr1 , ,: , -,' containing 50 percent solvent
kby volume . It , ' . ::e ,t -r 2 in i I s) thick. As the solvent
evaporates its G: . ,s.
1 t. Vhere ill the solvent has volatilized
(vaporized) the _irv:, :. . 1I he _.1 micrometers. As mentioned
earlier, coating tii-kie-.- I I _ r t ,v S t, -0 micrometers for alkyds and
up to 250 to -bO
4 il rll r,
e)iie '1r Lc:ivv coal-tar coatings or mastics.
f. Inspection. ,t .. . wrl starts with the surface

, ii,>.'t
preparation. Details re'I.at n'. t h degree of ,irface cleanliness to the
surface preparation speci ,i ,itc found in the Steel Structures Painting
and will not be diisl-sed crc.
,7oaiiing ip liation must be in strict
accordance with the c t, rer-, recommendations.
ttfnn mt. Inspection of
coating application, incl.idinr r u,h,, rr.ri, and maintenance work, will
be centered around compl i , ih these -clmme dat ions.
Inspection will includie itcvi, nh t miking sure that coatings with

dense pigments (such as :inkr,.. . t:',; and red lead primers) are
continuously stirred duri,. .1-, 1- A , ea ,,ring and recording both the
air and the surface temperlitii, :il.! the huimi:ity, determining the shelf
life of the coating, and using ,W it'iTn it. shelf life, and becoming
thoroughly familiar with ti.r ko it iin jprodicts being used and the manu-
facturers application procediaic.
g. Coating Repair and k.aintenance. luring construction there will be

damage to the coating system. Also, after erection, welding areas (weld
lanes) will require surface preparation and coating. This section will
consider touchup and repair of these areas before going into maintenance
coating work. Priming is frequently done before erection. After erection
A the weld lanes are cleaned and primed and the coated areas damaged during
erection are repaired.
Inorganic zinc is also frequently used as a preconstruction primer

because of its toughness (resistance to damage) and its excellent corrosion
resistance. Organic zinc-rich primers (such as epoxy zinc riches) are
often used for weld lanes and repair work after erection. The organic
zinc-rich coatings have better adhesion qualities and are "more tolerant"
of imperfect surface preparation than the inorganic zinc coatings. Other
primers utilized for weld lane touchup work include primers from all the
generic coating classes, including alkyds, vinyls, epoxies, universal (a
primer which can be topcoated with any topcoat without lifting, usually
containing a phenolic resin).
344
F inal topcoat inrg aitor er''tct ion is co's idltr'd ,,0 s placI ic'. IoJp C tti Ii'.
ietor c'erection is i t'eqi' int CtC''LISt' Of t l 'prlhrC'l' dui ng ci
eriliect iol.i
liariaged coatings should be removed. rh'i'. riiTng or w ii'c, brish pro-
cll'' res be used for
iayX" Covl. r'ho vdge'. of thc adjtilceslt ioldamai;rgl 'I
coated aCor s should het ftithe'lt'd l.! 0 l iht ly rVtghcllel .d (oI' g1o01 hI 'l'It'Ik
a F the repair coating) The repai i r coa ting system should he applied anlld
qhonlId overlap the previous co.it I ;lni tlt oil inch or two.
louchup and repaiir topc'oats arc usual ly so i glos,,. Mtls i ih,'i a

c'otl g systemns utilize a seigii loss topcoat raither than i high gloss topicoit.
gomioss. colors are much easier to match (in texture and color). Iigh
1O,.-s products tend to show up any slight variiitions of color or textore.
Q inteni nce
a coi t in .vstel
1o is essont i;il for long I ife and mi illiiruii
Os;< Iii all
.Toncraic riticil
l, Arroas including splash zones andi the like
-on1id i insecite l lieast onic'C a yeari,- Protective coa tings, reg irdless
ot type ;ijd ser'\ice', will _voelitiru lIv wear'Ci"or ode iWaIV. They reqlli re
pceriodic ton. himp iiid restorition. 'lhe effective service life of a coating
-. \sttvq "if! vaiy widely v ith tie service condition, as well as coating
type, urfc' tieiparition and appl ication. For good coating life, no fixed
I lint aier program
T II can he dex eoped, unlIes s ac'curateC periodic inspection
'c-orKC Alr kept. The mo;t effective time for mainteiance work will reqiire
* 'reft!l alllyi VSis of the periodicC C
exam iInatioii records.
1he .\pcl-se of corr'ctive mlaintenance work ciii he greatly reduced hry
prope'r tiring, as
el l is the choice of the proper repair materials. A
.od lmltillit'rogramili ilclii
li11 initiate repair work before coating failiure.
It i-, simple Aind inexpen ive to Apply a fresh topcoat. It is costly and
timc coisuminig to reTlmove a fiiled c'oating, clean the surface and reapply a
coating systeml (primer aid topcoat). In choosing a repair topcoat t is
importint to select a prodli t wihich ,ill dhero to the old coating and t111
htich is compitiblc. It that pIrOdtct suppliers
is recomlllmlerndedl he corsiilted
in such choices. When the coatinog faillure is greater than 10 percent or
there is widesprid delamintio, c'racking or incipient surface rusting, it
is host to r'elmtve the old coating completely and recoat. 'The best ma intenalnco
pr1"ogram is N good inspect ioni prog.r:m copldcC with the application of a
fresh topco:it before excessivo fli lure initiates. A good weathering
toapcoa t, such is in acrylic, can add ma ny yecars of life to a coating sys tem
' ;at minimum cost,
h. Specifications. A satisfactory coating system and protective

coating progrim hegins with the specific;ations. Yet, many coating specifica-
tions ari'e vague and wordy. All too trequetIntly, the importance o" dcveloping
a structure is givn so lich time1 alnd preoc'cupation that the architect-
Cn, Iincer indereiphasizes the necessity for clear-.cut coating specific ations
to protect the structure.
Writing ippi'opi'aite coritiing speciftications will do more than a lmost Auy

other one phrase of Coatirg work to aIc'hieve longii life economiclI prot''tion
in any' harbor Facilitv. T hese SPeCCifiCaTiOn pI iv a co nspiciots role in
terms oF both initial cost atnd a .o, t per stlrii'o
su tr
eter' pe yol o -orvice
se
I I '.
Many' sp'citicati nq8, primaril ' I' hoc is' o" eft'orts to ,t 'eall Iii ut' tsriam
a1spec't of tie job or to plac tIlt n i ii tit' cat't'(IT' of "'rout ine work," open
345
6I
0
loopholes for Colnt rictot rs r'siI tiny ini pHOoiCr .'bs do Ic t ( 't iC ti ol
irntkrprutut ion. Turs the coat ing~ specithat ion. ,-lI'ld he ai Ii i c tf:
possihle without forfciting any ol the pti r, N ,IT cclives, 10 ; -h,, ld ie
aritten in such a manner that the coltractc r ciT )t.spiit hi- bidi.i I,',
ftficiently .Aid colpetit ivelv, and sclh that cwi
e2 ii . ji ,Il:,plip 'd in
stri ct accorance with all rqtii reme,( ts.
\ g(-ood c,,iting sp ci Fi ca t iu shoi I d .'", a iit t he t o I ) M.11'
A)Scope of work a ge'nera I dc,-ri pt iii of the job, is

location, and work to be done)
12) a deta Ivd I st i I, of t he product s , pret crab Iy by bra nd

n;iie (including those that aINyh;ve been evaIurited or A Iitary
(MllI) speci ficat ions where requi red;
(3) a full description of the methods and equipment r'equi red

to do aIll phases of tihe work ( suir;ice ireparat ion, applic ation
aid inspect ion).
(1) identification of the material supplier's responsibi ity

to supp' qua I i ty coat ings t h t meet spec i fi c performance requ i re-
* lments oT are anufactiured to meet spe i fi c formu Iat ion requi reients
15) safety re'quir'emients to ensure proper procedures in sand-

h Iasti ,,, : nd a pp I i cit ion work;
W) the qial ity of workmanship requirements spelled out to

include cleanup work, work logs expected, inspection acceptance,
and prevent ion of contaminat ion of nearby struttres;
(7) a "coating schedule" that shows exactly what is to he

applicd, where, when, and how; and
IQ1
) inspection requirements to show what inspection measure-
ment s and reports are requ i red.
i. Safety. The coiobustile and toxic nature of protective coatings

most he consi-dered drring application and during the cure period. Speci a I
precautions are required when coditings are applied in confined or enclosed
..* areas. (ontainers should al ways be opened in a well-ventilated area and
kept away from open flawcs or sparks. Proper ventilation must he provided
to preent possible buildiup of uxploive or toxic mateials. Inhalation of
toxic fumes and dusts whether inside or outside, must he avoided. SuitAly
designed air masks should he woirn while spraying in these locations. The
ilanfactuirers ' safety reqi i remehits must
i he szudlied and followed.
3. C-a;thodi c Protect ion.
a. Iyps and App I i cat i o.n !lcet ho.ls of .athil i c Protect ion.
" ) Sacrificial TimlTel t w;iy to make the sibsiirtice

\rides. FIh,
" t rcst tirt ";i II
c t bode-'-is to - int a I I ,ii I ani k- or "sar' i fi c i a I" anodes in1
the elect ro Ivte and elect ricA I Iy co irict t lthim I oT t he stihst ructtre. The
346
I!
anodes ma be made of magnes iun a I y (usti I lv uSd if) so i I), a I I i m iII
Jlloy I Isua lLI' used in seawater I, or zinc a oy used in ei ther so i or
water). Alloys are used because in the cases of the three metals ment i oned
certain allovs of each result in greater effi ci en:v (i.e. , one or more (,
higher output current, higher outpTut voltage, 0!' longer lifc) than is
possibIC when using tile pure unll loved nietal.
Aluminum or zinc anodes are used in seawater or freshwater. lagnesiurm
ma- also be used, hut its cost is higher and its life per newton is shorter.
-irc and ma-gesium amode for use in soil are installed with a chemical
backFfill completely surroundino the anode. The backfill material should be
uniform to provide current efficiency. (With a nonuniform backfill, the
anode will supply increased currents where the backfill has low resistivity,
thus wastino the anode more rapidly in these areas.) A uniform backfill
k..ill also aid in keeping the anode continuously moist and will prevent
anode contact with adverse materials that may be in the soil. Low back-
fill resistivity has the same effect as increasing anode size, thereby
decreasing effective anode resistance to earth.
Magnesium anodes in prepackaged backfill are available in many sizes.

The anode with surrounding backfill is contained in a cloth sack or porous
tube. Backfill commonly supplied with prepackaged magnesium anodes is 75
percent gypsum, 20 percent bentonite alloy, and 5 percent sodium sulfate,
but other mixtures usually are available on request. Magnesium anodes are
normally furnished with a 3-meter (10 foot) No. 10 or No. 12 AWG copper
lead wire with Type 'W insulation.
Zinc anodes are normally not sold in prepackaged backfill or with leads
attached due to difficulty in handling the much heavier anodes. If not
proxided with prepackaged backfill, galvanic anodes in soil should be
installed completely- surrounded by well-tamped chemical backfill material
to ensure best utilization of anode material. Chemical backfill material
for either magnesium or zinc anodes is shown in Table 51. No backfill of
any kind is used with anodes in water.
i -ic
and aluminum anodes. thithout backfill, are particularly useful in
,eaw:ter where the low resistivit- electrolyte permits good current output
in .spite of the relatively lo , anode driving potential. Magnesium is not
suiltable for seawater use hec,uJ;e of the low efficiency caused by the
tendency of nagnesi LIn to "sClf-c:o:rode" in the low resistivity electrolyte.
W'hether or not a gailvaic JTnodl sstem Will work depends on the electrical
cir,',uit resi stance and on the tirrent requitred for protection. The circuit
rcsSt)nice i- determined almost .ntirely by the resistivity of the electrolyte
unvironment . Galvanic aoodes work best In lo. resistivity electrolytes such
a < s-iter with a resistivity of lo to 20 ohm-centimeters. Good performance
usnaI lv is obtained through 1 0O0 ohm-centimeters. They have been m.adc to
work in resistivities as high as 2 (0(0( ohm-centimeters when conditions permit
ruse of the limited output cuirreat The output current is necessarily
limited by the relatively low driving potentials of all types of galvanic
rtv)d(s. '[lb lc .52 shows ;opproxi matC d;ata for sonie 'OIioll anode mater Is.
(irren t requ ir'd Cot'r protectioni is hased on current icns it y rql I e-
* aunt
C , nsu:l Illy stated in milliamperes per unit of rea. Ba re Steel III
347
Table 31. khemicai backfill for galvanic anodes in soil.
Back- GYPsum CaSO ) Bentonite Sodium Approx.

fill !Hydrated I olding Plaster Clay Sulfate Resistivity,
Mix (pct) iplaster of paris) (pct) (pt) Ohm-cm
!-m 1 pct.
25 1 75 250
2 50 50 250
.3 _ 5 - 250
75 20 so
lUseful in low soil moisture areas. Utilizes moisture-holding

2
characteristic of bentonite clay.
Usually used with zinc anodes.
3
Useful with zinc or magnesium in wet or marshy soils. Prevents
rapid migration of backfill from anode surface.
"Low resistivity; useful in high soil resistivity to reduce anode resist-
ance to earth. Type usually furnished with prepackaged magnesium anodes.
I
Table 52. Approximate data for common galvanic
annode alloys.
Zinc alloy Magnesium Alloys Aluminum

1
in soil in Soil Alloy
or seawater Standard High in seawater
iil Spec. (H-I Alloy) potential (Galvalum
U A-18001) ii(alvalum Alloy)
I Alloy Al
Specific Gravity 7.l4 1.94 1 1.94 2.77
Kilonewtcns per
Cubic Meter o9.1 19.0 119.0
Theoretical Ampere
Hours per Newton 8-1 225 225 302
Current Efficiency
pc t) 932 3 3)3 952
Ac tua I Ampere
Hours per Newton '9- 112 ill2 2882
Actual Newtons per

Ampere-Year 111 63 7C 31
Solution Potential
(volts) 1 .i -l.S3 -1,81' -1.15
Iriving Potential,
"volts) -o.25 -0.o0 -0.S3 -0.256
'Anodes in sui-able chemical backfill.

2
Current efficiency of -inc and aluminum reisonably constant
over wide range of output.
3
Current efficiency of magnesium caries with current density.
Figures given are for apprc ximately 300 mill)ar.eres per square
meter of anode surface.
'To CuSO. reference cell :n neutral soil.
S"ToCuSO 4 reference cell i:tseawater.
"Soiution notentiail, the equilibrium potential of a oetal exposed
in a g~ven solutionl, minus nbe ',clarized potential, the potential
)f a metal iter te !ow of sutficient .t,rent to come to
equilibrium -0.55 kolts to ,uSO, reference clectrode).
Solution potent: i,minus pclrzeP potentiii .f pro)tected structure
Tnus approximary u. '0ol. for inode polarization in serv:ce.
348
IJ
average soil or quiescent seawater usually is considered to be about 10
milliamperes per square meter(l milliampere per square foot). Any coating
present, regardless of quality, can produce a drastic reduction in the
current density requirement. Actual current required for "igiven sub-
structure, of course, depends on the subsurface area exposed to the con-
tacting soil or water. In the case of bare steel, 93 square meters (1 000
square feet) probably would require at least 1 ampere for protection.
With wrap-coated steel pipe, approximate current density requirements may
be estimated by reference to Table 53. These values are for guidance
estimates only and may vary widely depending oi. specific conditions such as
moving seawater.
Table 53. Current requirements for coated steel

or wrapped pipe.
Age of Wrap or Coating Approx. Current Density

Required (mA/m2 )
1930 to 1950 1.1

1950 to 1960 0.54
1960 to 1970 0.32
1970 to Present 0.11
The actual current requirement requires that a calculation of the total

area involved, in square feet, be made. Based on the current requirement,
a decision can be made whether a galvanic system or impressed current sys-
tem should be used.
(2) Impressed Current (Inert) Anodes. Driving potential of galvanic

anodes may not be high enough to provide sufficient current for effective
cathodic protection. This is particularly true when the subsurface structure
to be protected is surrounded by an electrolyte of high resistivity such as
is frequently encountered with steel in freshwater or soil. Also there are
applications requiring higher current density than can be delivered econom-
ically by galvanic anodes. Examples of this would be protection of the
external bottom surface of a large oil storage tank or either soil or water
sides of a steel sheet-pile bulkhead. To be free from the limitations of
galvanic anodes, an external power source may be used to provide "impressed"
current for protection. Here, the required direct current driving voltage
and current are limited only by the external source power availability.
Various power sources may be used; the most common is commercial alternating
current power connected to a low voltage transformer-rectifier combination
(usually called simply a rectifier) to provide the required direct current
with easily adjustable output voltage. This provides the means to counteract
the flow of corrosion current to make the substructure "all cathode." A
simplified diagram as applied to a pipeline is shown in Figure 96.
349
~CATHODIC PROTECTION
CURRENT
RECTIFIER
PIPE ANODE
Figure 96. Diagram of simple impressed current cathodic protection.
350
I
Impressed current anodes differ from galvanic anodes in two important

aspects: (1) the galvanic potential difference between anode and protected
substructures is of no importance, and (2) the impressed current anode
should be as inert as possible, i.e., have a very low consumption rate for
long life. Consumption rates for various metals including those commonly
used for impressed current anodes are shown in Table 40. Carbon or
graphite, high silicon cast iron, magnetite, lead-silver, and platinum all
have critical current densities above which rapid consumption may occur.
The consumption rates listed for these materials assume operation below
critical current densities.
As with galvanic anodes in soil, impressed current anodes in soil

should be installed completely surrounded by backfill material. Impressed
current anodes in water do not require backfill. Impressed current anodes
in soil require a carbonaceous backfill, well-tamped to eliminate air
pockets and to provide the best possible electrical contact, both with the
anode and with the soil. Two functions are thereby served:
(a) The very low resistivity of the backfill material has
the effect of increasing the anode size with a consequent
reduction in resistance to surrounding soil; and
(b) most of the current flows to the backfill from the

anode by direct electrical contact so that most of the electro-
lytic consumption is at the soil contact with the outer surface
of the backfill column.
Resistivity of carbonaceous backfill should not exceed 50 ohm-centimeters.

There are at least three materials in present use: coal coke breeze,
calcined petroleum coke breeze, and manmade or natural graphite flakes or
particles. All of these are basically carbon in low resistivity form. The
term "breeze" is loosely defined as being a finely divided material. For
backfill use, specific sizes are obtainable. Coke breeze should be procured
by specification with particle size and resistivity being most important.
Particle size should not exceed 9.5 millimeters (0.375 inch) and not more
than 10 percent dust should be included. Petroleum coke breeze must be
calcined to produce resistivity of 50 ohm-centimeters or less. Graphite
flakes should not be used because of possible gas blockage problems (accumu-
lation of gas around the cathode from the cathode reaction).
* (3) Comparison of Anode Types. Cathodic protection for a given
subsurface structure may he provided by either galvanic anodes or by impressed
current anodes as long as respective limitations are recognized. Some of
the more important characteristics of each method are listed in Table 54.
(4) Connections Between Anodes and Structures. In the case of

* galvanic anodes, the connecting wire from the anode is part of the cathode
and bare areas resulting from cut or broken wire insulation or poorly
insulated splices will be part of thc protected structure and suffer no
electrolytic damage. The opposite is true of impressed current anode
systems. If any of the insulation is less than perfect, current discharge
into the surrounding electrolyte (soil or water) will occur and the wire
* will corrode too quickly, p-oducing failure of part or all of the system.
This means that top-quality insulation must be used for all buried or
351
i°
0
Table 54. Comparison of galvanic and impressed current
protection systems.
Galvanic impressed Current
No external power External power

required source required
Relatively low installa- Higher installation

tion and mainzenance costs and maintenance
costs
Frequently requires no Applied voltage and

additional right of way current may easily
be varied
* Adjusts current output as Protects larger and more

structure potential varies extensive structures
(especially zinc anodes)
Severely limited current Suitable for high

output resistivity electrolytes
Useful primarily in low Monthly power bill

resistivity electrolytes
Interference with foreign Can cause interference

structures usually non- problems with foreign
existent. structures.
immersed anode leads and header cables. Insulation should be 600-volt type
and be suitable for direct burial service. High molecular weight, high
density polyethylene has a good record for satisfactory use. Insulation
quality of all subsurface electrical connections is equally important for
the same reasons. Satisfactory electrical connection methods for copper
wire include soft soldering, powder welding (such as Cadweld), silver
soldering, phoscopper brazing, crimp-type couplings, and split-bolt couplings.
The first four, if done properly, will provide metallurgical joining and
will be permanently of low resistance. Mechanical methods such as the last
two mentioned, again if done properly, will be satisfactory also. Joint
insulation should be of such quality as to at least equal the electrical
insulating qualities of the wire insualtion. Acceptable insulation methods
include cast epoxy as well as various tapes. There are several manufacturers
of cast joint insulation. Details of joining and insulating may be obtained
* from cathodic protection material supply house catalogs. In all cases,
satisfactory performance life depends on the proficiency of the people
doing the work. Ct:ireful inspection of all phases of impressed current
anode installation i mandatory.
b. Criteria for Cathodic Protection. Earlier it was stated that if

electric current is caused to flow from an external source through a common
352
I
e.iu* 'r,:vte,
into a subsurface structure, corrosion current
_-,h)lson
1t will be stopped if the external current flow counter-
.ivln .io surrent at all parts of the substructure surface. In
.. e s.structure becomes all cathode and is protected against
,, , ....
., 11 areas on a corroding substructure are polarized (or
.. l in the, same cunn circuit potential, corrosion will be impossible
. ,i be no otential diOference between anode and cathode
n , ,,rrsion current c-an flow. In practice, the potential applied
- ii- djpciavization potential, must equal or exceed the
-l<. e atenttal o: tQie most anodic a-ea in order to stop all corrosion.
i, ,ta-n.o w.hen or H this condition exists, there must be some way

, 'P'.r n- poentiu
t," existing between the protected substructure and
, e.trvte environment. Based on this concept, potentials
Kn.1 be measured directlv across the interface between the substructure
.. , -Unr .ort is is relatively simple with marine substructures
5,:t . j, ,m feasible when working with substructures in soil
.r ,t-..es o r Wuried cylindrical storage tanks. Common practice
Kilt a d sunstr ,ctures is to measure the potential between the substructure
and, "-soil thev surface directly above the substructure. The measured
at
:,tjia:l includes polarization potential plus a potential, usually called
P d rop, caused by current flowing through a part of the resistance
l ,.-c. the structure and the external anode installation.
(I) Potential Measurement Apparatus. As potential measurement is a

tsc
ii t pproach to determining if corrosion is present or absent, potential
YehscTrement methods should be considered. The connection to the substruc-
tui, iisually is easily made by direct contact or by a suitable test wire
,ncv ticn. The actual measured potential will vary (sometimes drastically)
1c method used to contact the environment. To get reproducible
vesu'ts this contact must be made through some stable and reliable reference.
ho -,; common use for measurements of substructures in soil (and
lx in water) environments is by means of a copper-copper-sulfate
.
.:i i,!l cteren.e electrode contacting the electrolyte. It may be referred
. ::, "Coppe: sulfate electrode," "copper sulfate reference,"
h: f'cell,. 'CuSO,
. electrode, or "CSE." The working parts
" Vf:lto
, electrode are shown in Figure 97, along with an equiva-
: . . i llustrate the half-cell concept.
• ,- r chlorid, electrode is similar. Silver metal is in

n .w,: A
ii normal solution of silver chloride with a porous plug
. K,.
I, cie. trolyte.
A 5 to he observed when using any reference

'h.,c.:.utio:),s
i(:': -ii he t;ken to prevent contamination of the fluid in the
". , 'til is to remain constant. Such contamination is
.,, masurements in a fluid electrolyte such as
mtial
41t o electrode, the observed potential will vary
... I-, a positive gradient of 0.9 millivolt ger
,it pp A Fahrrnheit) up to about 50 Celsius (120
l pper sulfate begins to change structure. One
• f iW
t C all :per sulfate electrode potential
l t- hrelcit'). Such precision usually is not
.i , -oo.l pr:tct ice, before measuring a
353
iV VOLTMETER (SEE TEXT)
IV
PURE COPPER ROD
TO PROTECTED INSULATING SEAL
SUBSTRUCTURE
CONTAINER OF INSULATING ...... SATURATED SOLUTION

MATERIAL OF COPPER SULFATE
SURPLUS CRYSTALS
OF COPPER SULFATE
POROUS PLUG L SOIL SURFACE
CROSS SECTION
-- VOLTMETER INDICATES FULLCELL

POTENTIAL BETWEEN ELECTRODE
SAND STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE IN ELECTRODE
*- + EARTH PATH+
HA -CELLPOTENTIAL HALF-CELL POTENTIAL
BETWEEN STRUCTURE BETWEEN COPPER ROD
AND EARTH (VARIABLE) AND EARTH (CONSTANT)
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Figure 97. Copper sulfate electrode test circuit.
354
SO
F
kI potential, however, to invert the electrode two or three times to equalize

internal temperature.
All reference electrodes are subject to polarization to some degree

when placed in an electrical circuit with current flowing. This means that
any appreciable current drawn by the potential measuring circuit (voltmeter)
would result in lower potential readings. In general, the accuracy of
potential measurements will increase as the measuring circuit current
approaches zero. The most accurate voltmeter suitable for field or labora-
tory use is the standard-cell potentiometer with a suspension-type galvano-
meter. When balanced for reading of potential, the reference cell current
is zero. The most easily handled and easily operated instrument for general
field use, ashore or afloat, is the electronic type, preferably with an
input resistance (sensitivity) of 10 megaohms or more. This ensures a
reference cell current of a fraction of a microampere. Conventional volt-
meters of 1 000 or 5 000 ohms per volt are not suitable for these measure-
ments.
When a suitable voltmeter is connected between the substructure and the

reference electrode, the measured potential is a combination of the poten-
tial between the reference electrode and electrolyte (soil or water), and
the potential between the substructure and electrolyte. The substructure-
to-earth half-cell potential is the variable of interest. The reference
_4 half-cell potential is considered constant for practical engineering
purposes. The copper sulfate electrode has been found to be practical for
field use as its half-cell potential is reasonably constant over a wide
range of conditions. The actual value of its half-cell potential is not
important. The total cell potential, as measured, is the one used in
engineering practice. This is the structure-to-electrolyte potential.
Several discussions of the copper sulfate electrode covering its theory,
history, and development are available in the literature (NACE, 1979).
It has been established that the most anodic areas to be expected on a

freely corroding steel structure in moist soils and waters will show a
potential of about -0.8 volt measured to a copper sulfate electrode con-
tacting the electrolyte as close as possible '. the anodic area. Allowing
for some variation in potential of the most anoaic areas, the value of
-0.85 volt to a copper sulfate electrode contacting the electrolyte has been
adopted as a practical indication of satisfactory protection. Wide and
varied experience in many environments has indicated the accuracy of this
criterion for practical field use.
While the copper sulfate electrode is by far the most common, other
electrodes are in use. These include calomel (usually the saturated type),
silver-silver chloride, and occasionally pure zinc. Other common metals
are not sufficiently stable for reference electrode use. The calomel
electrode, while very stable, is more adapted to laboratory work than field
use because of its largely glass construction. The silver-silver chloride
electrode also is quite stable and may be encountered frequently in marine
operations. Pure zinc (Special High Grade, 99.99 percent pure) is occasion-
ally used as a reference electrode but is subject to variations of as much as
50 millivolts, making it suitable only for approximate values. Table 55 shows
the potential readings for these common reference electrodes compared to the
reading for copper sulfate electrodes at 25° Celsius (770 Fahrenheit):
355
Table 55. Potential readings for varioiz.
reference electrodes
Type of Reference ]Structure-to-Electrode To Correct Structure-to-

2Electrode Reading Equivalent to Electrodo Lceading to
1 -0.85 Volt to Copper Equivalent Reading to
Sulfate Electrodes Copper Sulfate Electrodes
__(Volts) (Volts).
C 1omel
(Saturated) -0.778 Add -0.072
!Silver-Silver
Chloride -0.840 Add -0.010
(0.1 N Kel solution)
Pure Zinc (Special

'High Grade, 99.99 + 0.251 Ad! - 1.101
pct pure)
'Based on zinc open circuit potential of -1.10 volts to copper

-. sulfate electrode.
(2) Measurement Techniques. NACE Standard RP-01-69 (1976 Revi-

sion), "Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic
Piiping Systems," applies equally to any buried or immersed structure. The
following information and criteria for cathodic protection are quoted 1from
te- above publication:
"6.2.3 The criteria in Section 6.3 have been de-elop:-d through

1i'Doratory experiment or empirically determined by eviluating data
obtained from quccessfully operated cathodic protection systems. It
is not intended that the corrosion engineer be limited to these
criteria if it can be demonstrated by other means thai the control of
corrosion has been achieved.
6.2.4 Voltage measurements on pipelines are to be made

with the reference electrode located on the surface as
* close as practicable to the pipeline. Such measurements
on all other structures are to be made with the reference
electrode positioned as close as feasible to the structure
surface being investigated. The corrosion engineer shall
consider voltage (IR) drops other than those across the
structure-electrolyte boundary, the presence of dissimilar
* metals, and the influence of other structures for valid
interpretation of his voltage measurements.
"6.2.5 No one criterion for evaluating the effectiven,_ss

of cathodic protection has proven to be satisfactory For
all conditions. Often a combination of criteria is n cded
* for a single structure.
356
S- - H
"6.3.1.1 A negative (cathodic) voltage of at least 0.85
volt as measured between the structure and a saturated
-cpper-copper sulfate reference electrode contacting the
relectrolyte. Determination of this voltage is to be made
with the protective current applied.
"(.3.1.2 A minimum negative (cathodic) voltage shift of 300

millivolts, produced by the application of protective
current. The voltage shift is measured between the
structure surface and a stable reference electrode
contacting the electrolyte. This criterion of voltage
shift applies to structures not in contact with dissimilar
metals.
"6.3.1.3 A minimum negative (cathodic) voltage shift of

100 millivolts measured between the structure surface and
a stable reference electrode contacting the electrolyte.
This polarization voltage shift is to be determined by
interrupting the protective current and measuring the
polarization decay. When the current is initially interrupted,
an immediate voltage shift will occur. The voltage reading
after the immediate shift, shall be used as the base
reading from which to measure polarization decay."
Paragraphs 6.3.1.4 and 6.3.1.5 are not quoted as they apply only to
specific situations not generally encountered.
The U.S. Department of Transportation has issued "Regulations for the

Transmission of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline, Part 192, Title 49,"
provisions of which are now in effect. Subpart I contains requirements for
corrosion control. Criteria for protection are, in effect, identical with
those in the NACE publication quoted above.
(a) Components of Potential Measurement. The voltage drop

between two points in a medium is equal to the current flowing between the
points, I, multiplied by the resistance of the medium R. For this reason,
voltage or potential drops caused by current flowing through resistive
electrolytes are called IR drops.
A The NACE Standard RP-01-69, 1976 Revision, quoted above states, in

paragraph 6.2.4, that IR drops are to be "considered." Unfortunately, there
are still many workers in the field who ignore the IR drop contribution to
potential measurements and continue to record structure-to-electrolyte
potentials with no consideration of IR drop. In such cases the recorded
potential will always be higher (more negative) than it actually is. If a
* reading of -0.85 volt was recorded, indicating protection according to the
criterion given in Paragraph 6.3.1.1, the true potential, after deducting IR
drop, may well be substantially below protective levels. The amount of
error will depend primarily on electrolyte resistivity. Examples are shown
in Tabic 5o.
*As -11nhe seen in Table 56, the only time that IR drop can be ignored
safel?" ,-when potentials are measured in seawater or similar electrolyte
i
with ; resistivity less than S0 ohm centimeters. In seawater the IR drop is
357
6 . -d n . . .. .
Table 56. Electrolyte IR drop in millivolts 1.5 meters
from bare pipe.
Electrolyte Pipe IR Drop

Resistivity Diameter (mV)
(Ohm-cm) (in) (nominal)
50 1 0
50 5 1
so is 2
so 30 3
5 000 1 33
5 000 5 110
5 000 1s 225
55000 30 331
50 000 1 328
50 000 5 1 100
50 000 is 2 250
50 000 30 3 309
Resistivity of seawater is generally about 20 ohm-cm

Current density = 10 milliamperes per square meter
usually negligible if the reference cell is within 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) of
the substructure.
If the cathodic protection current ceases (turned off or otherwise

interrupted), the IR drop ceases instantly. The potential of the protected
structure (polarization potential) decays at a relatively slow rate compared
to the IR drop, depending on several factors, and, of course, is free
from IR drop. If this potential can be measured while the current is
momentarily interrupted, it will be close enough to the true polarization
potential for normal engineering purposes. This potential is usually known
as the "OFF" or "INSTANT OFF" potential (as contrasted with the "ON"
.A potential, read while protection current is flowing).
The relationship between the various potentials involved is shown in

Figure 98. Prior to time of current OFF the only potential measurable is
the ON potential which includes the IR drop. After that point it is that
of the rapidly decaying polarization potential. The meter response curve
shown is typical of a conventional high resistance voltmeter.
(b) Measurement of the Critical Component. In view of the

preceding background on criteria, the criterion of -0.85 volt (-850 milli-
volts) with the current momentarily interrupted is recommended. With this
criterion in use, the NACE criterion in paragraph 6.3.1.1 will be met. The
criterion in paragraph 6.3.1.3 usually will be met also.
358
There are a few considera-
tions. There should be provi-
sions for reading the potential N POTENTIAL
as soon as possible after
interruption of the current,
and, to minimize loss of polar-
ization, for keeping the inter-
ruption period as short as
possible. A simple way to do
this is by means of the circuit POTENTIAL)
shown in Figure 99. A single-
pole double-throw microswitch METER RESPONSE
is used to interrupt the cathod- (NIGHRESISTACE VOT.TM
ic protection current and at
the same time connect the
potentiometer voltmeter and
reference electrode to the
structure under protection.
The voltmeter is adjusted to X
some expected value and the
switch cycled as rapidly as
possible. This will interrupt
the current for about a tenth
of a second. The indicating
meter needle will kick up or / WfoCO PTENTA
down scale depending on the TIME FROM CURRENT OFF
potentiometer setting. The
voltmeter is adjusted in the
direction of needle kick and Figure 98. Potentials related to
the switch again cycled, time on interruption of
This is continued until a cathodic protection current.
narrow band, probably about
5 millivolts wide, is found
where no needle movement is observed. The center of this band is very close
to the true OFF potential. Care should be taken that the added resistance
of the microswitch circuit does not appreciably reduce the rectifier output
current. If necessary, the microswitch circuit may be used to drive a low
resistance relay switching circuit. This system is not feasible for general
pipeline use because of length -of required leads and switching of one or
more distant rectifiers. The system works well where the protected structure
is relatively compact such as subsurface tanks, exterior tank bottoms,
interiors of water tanks, oil or water well casings, short pipeline sections,
and most marine installations.
As mentioned before, the time between interruption of current and

measurement of potential should be as short as possible. Actual time before
significant loss of polarization can vary from fractions of a second to
hours. Any factor that quickly removes products of the cathodic reaction
will accelerate depolarization. All things considered, current interruption,
if done properly, gives the simplest and most reasonably accurate correction
for IR drop. At least one supplier provides an electronic system for current
* interruption using a very short interruption time interval.
359
For general pipeline use where two of more rectifiers are used, synchro-
nous interrupters are required. Usually two such interrupters for adjacent
rectifiers will provide sufficiently accurate OFF potential data. Inter-
rupters using quartz timing are available, providing for accurate synchro-
nization. A timing interval of 25 seconds ON and 5 seconds OFF usually
will be satisfactory for pipeline work.
A possible source of error when NORMALLY CLOSED
'neasuring substructure potentials TOREcFER OTPUT

could be IR drops caused by presence
of stray currents of unknown magnitude TOPTECTESUBSTRUCUE
in the contacting electrolyte. The MICROSWITCH
best protection against such error is I1%
to place the reference electrode as
clo-e as possible to the structure .
under test. NORMALLY OPEN
To summarize briefly, a
cathodically protected substructure
potential to copper sulfate electrode POTENTIOMETER
of -0.85 volt or more indicates that VOLTMETER
* protection exists under the following
conditions:
(1) If substructure is REFERENCE

immersed in seawater or similar ELECTROD
electrolyte, with rectifier on

and reference electrode contact- Figure 99. Circuit for off potential
ing electrolyte within 1.5 measurement.
meters of substructure; or
(2) if substructure is buried in soil with rectifier output

mnomentarily interrupted and reference electrode contacting soil
above or immediately adjacent to substructure.
c. [Ik'si g,.
(1) General. Ideally, design for cathodic protection should be a

part of the original design of the substructure. Placing an existing
* substructure under cathodic protection, if installed without cathodic
protection considerations, can be expensive. Some measures to ensure low
cathodic protection current requirements that should be included at the
design stage of subsurface structures are:
(a) If coating is feasible, use a high quality coating and
• ~ apply properly with minimum bare areas or discontinuities (holidays);
(b) provide electrical isolation for large bare metal areas,

if not to be protected, such as steel bulkheads, tank bottoms,
electrical grounding systems, and local utility piping; and
(c) be sure that there are no metallic contacts with other

* suhsurface structures such as pipelines, pipeline casings, or
Cal)les.
360
A very important part of cathodic protection design is to check care-
fully for presence of other subsurface structures in the area that are not
to be protected or are owned by others. These are usually known as "foreign"
substructures and they may suffer from a side effect of cathodic protection
Iknown as interference. The point to emphasize here is that a proposed
anode installation should not be placed closer than 90 meters from an
existing foreign substructure, either in soil or in water. This applies
particularly to a proposed impressed current anode installation. Also
check carefully for location of other cathodic protection systems in the
area, especially locations of anode beds.
(.2) Anode Choice. Whether to use galvanic anodes or impressed
current anodes to protect a given substructure normally will depend on
three factors, singly or in combination:
(a) Amount of protective current required,

(b) resistivity of the contacting electrolyte (soil or
water); and
(c) electrical power availability.
Current requirement can be calculated or, preferably, determined by

actual test. If calculated, the total exposed area in square meters must
be determined. If the substructure is bare steel in normal soil or normal
quiescent fresh or brackish water, a current density requirement of 10
milliamperes per square meter may be assumed. Total current required in
amperes would equal total exposed area in square meters multiplied by 0.01.
If all or part of the exposed steel is coated, an assumption of coating
quality must be made. For good quality, relatively undamaged coating, it
is customary to assume that the substructure is 1 percent bare for the
coated part and figure the total current requirement accordingly. Thus, a
coated substructure will require far less current for protection. The main
difficulty with calculating current requirements is that the 10 milliamperes
per square meter figure for bare steel may vary over a wide range, especially
in moving water where it is almost always higher, sometimes by orders of
magnitude. This is why an actual test for current requirement is preferable
to reliance on calculated values.
Resistivity of the electrolyte (soil or water), in olim-centimeters,

should be determined by measurement using the Wenner four-point method.
Resistivity is a measure of electrolyte resistance to current flow. The
higher the resistivity, the lower the output will be from a galvanic anode,
and the higher will be the voltage required to produce necessary current
from an impressed current anode. Reported resistivity of an area should be
an average of a number of measurements made at various locations in the
area. Measurements should be made by a person qualified by experience in
resistivity measurement for cathodic protection work. TFable 56 shows
electrolyte resistivity and IR drop for bare pipe.
Electrical power may be provided from several sources. Commercial

alternating clrrent power is the most widely used and has the lowest cost.
Other sources are solar power (increasing in use as costs come down),
thermoelectric, engine-driven generator, and windpower. Power availability
361
may be the deciding factor (along with resistivity) in an anode-type
choice.
As discussed in an earlier section, galvanic anodes installed in soil

P environment should normally be completely surrounded by chemical backfill.
This is to provide uniform low resistance to the soil. Galvanic anodes
installed in water do not require any backfill as the water will provide
uniform contact with the anode. Impressed current anodes in soil also
require backfill but for different reasons. Here the backfill material is
carbonaceous in nature. The anode makes electrical contact with the back-
fill. Ion transfer, with resulting loss of material, occurs at the backfill
interface with the soil. This results in longer anode life and lower
contact resistance as the backfill is of low resistivity and much greater
surface contact area with the soil than would be possible with the anode
alone. As with galvanic anodes in water, impressed current anodes in water
do not use backfill.
(3) Calculating the Resistance of a Single Anode. Anode installa-
tion design requires that the effective resistance of the anode (or anode
bed) to its environment be known or be calculated. Dwight's equation is
generally used for single galvanic or impressed current anode resistance
determinations in either water or soil. The equation is
R = 2,rL {(log e a4L) -1} (1)
where
R = resistance of vertical anode or backfill to ground
or water in ohms
L = length of anode in centimeters
a = radius of anode in centimeters
p = electrolyte resistivity in ohm-centimeters
This can be simplified to:

0.0120 35.3L.
Rv .2 log (3--3L) (2)
where
Rv = resistance of vertical anode or backfill column

to ground (soil or water) in ohms
L = length of anode or backfill column in feet
* D = diameter of anode or backfill columns in inches
o = electrolyte resistivity (backfill, soil, or water)

in ohm-centimeters
(a) Anode Installed in Backfill Soil. If a single anode is to

* be used, in soil, the internal resistance (anode to backfill) should be
considered. Internal resistance is not a factor when the anode is 'installed
362
16
without backfill, such as in seawater. This will depend on the type of
backfill used which will, in turn, depend on whether the anode is to be of
galvanic or impressed current type. For an impressed current anode with
carbonaceous backfill, a backfill resistivity of 50 ohm-centimeters may be
used. Assume a graphite anode 7.6 centimeters (3 inches) in diameter and 1.5
meters (5 feet) in length is to be centered in a vertical backfill column
20.3 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter and 2.1 meters (7 feet) in length (see
Fig. 100). Resistances are calculated for the anode and for the backfill
column using equation (2) with p = 50 ohm-centimeters. The difference between
the two values represents the internal resistance of the anode (0.213 - 0.128
= 0.085 ohm). For most conventional impressed current anodes used singly, a
figure of 0.1 ohm may be safely used. Where more than one anode is to be
connected in parallel, the internal anode resistance for the group becomes
the single anode internal resistance divided by the number of anodes in the
group. If the number of anodes to be parallel connected is more than three or
four, the internal resistance becomes negligible. The same method is used to
calculate the internal resistance of a single galvanic anode (see Fig. 101).
Here the backfill resistivity will be higher, with a resulting higher internal
resistance.
(b) Anode Installed in Water. For suspended vertical anode

installations in water, the anode should be installed so that the top of the
I anode is never less than 1.5 meter (5 feet) below the water surface. Refer
to tide data. The bottom of the anode should be 1.5 meters above the channel
or marine bottom. Header cables should be far enough above the water surface
to ensure no water contact. In protected areas this would be a minimum of 3
meters (10 feet). Header cables would have to be at much greater height for
open-sea areas. This will require anodes with leads large enough to permit
connection to the header cable with no underwater splicer required. In some
cases anodes may require installation in perforated nonmetallic pipe to
prevent damage by water movement.
(4) Calculating the Resistance of Anode Groups. Usually anodes

will be used in groups, installed in a line, connected in parallel to a
header cable which in turn is connected to the substructure to be protected
(galvanic anodes) or to the positive output of the power source (impressed
current anodes). A calculation of the overall resistance of the parallel-
connected group (usually termed "anode bed" or "ground bed") will be required.
The effective resistance of the group, differing from normal parallel elec-
trical circuits, will not be equal to the resistance of one anode divided
AD by the number of anodes in the group. This applies to marine installation
also. Due to mutual interference between anodes the resistance of the
group will always be higher than that determined by parallel electrical
circuit calculations, varying with the number of anodes, anode spacing, and
electrolyte resistivity. Several methods have been used for the calculation
of parallel anode resistance. One method utilizes the following equation:
0
0.001566p log 2.94 L
Rv NL 1(2.303 l )
+ (- 2.303 log C )56 N)l (3)
where
Rv = resistance to electrolyte (soil or water) in ohms of
the vertical anodes in parallel
363
INSULATED HEADER CABLE TO INSULATED CONNECTION FILL CABLE TRENCH AND TOP OF
POWER SOURCE AND TO BETWEEN HEADER CABLE ANODE AUGER HOLE WITH TAMPED
OTHER ANODES IN GROUND BED ANDANOIDE PIGTAIL WIRE EARTH AFTER COMPLETING
INSULATED CONNECTOR WIRE
FURNISHED WITH ANODE

-11 .o05 X,.5 MOR .08 X,1.5,,,
HIGH SILICON CAST IRON
OR GRAPHITE
I ovi -
-- CARBONACEOUS BACKFILL
MATERIAL; WELL TAMPED
AUGERED HOLE FOR ANODE

AND BACKFILL
Figure 100. Anode in carbonaceous backfill.
T'"PIIPEUINE :' "* - ti:'""" '"""To

."-' PIP E:E
17 POUND PACKAGED
MAGNESIUM ANODE 15MTRLN
BACKFILL, PACKAGED, ANODE OF ZINC OR
SUPPLIED WITH ANODEMANSU
AUGER HOLE
".. CLAY-GYPSUM
BACKFILL MIXTURE
Figure 101. Anodes in other backfill materials.
364
I
p = resistivity of electrolyte in ohm-centimeters
N = number of anodes in parallel
L = length of anode (or backfill column) in meters
D = diameter of anode (or backfill column) in

meters
S = anode spacing in meters
The resistance of the anode group is the sum of Rv and the internal re-
sistance of the group, that is, the internal resistance of a single anode
divided by the number of anodes in the group.
Equation (3) may be used to construct a chart for use with the anode
size and backfill size to be used for a particular project. Such a chart,
* based on impressed current anodes 0.05 meter (.2inches) in diameter and 1.5
meters long in 0.2-meter (8 inch) by 2.1-meter (7 foot) backfill columns of
50 ohm-centimeters resistivity, is shown in Figure 102. A similar typical
design chart for galvanic anodes is shown in Figure 103. Note that both
charts are based on electrolyte resistivity of 1 000 ohm-centimeters. Anode
(or backfill column) resistance to electrolyte is directly proportional to
* electrolyte resistivity. For example, consider 15 anodes in parallel at 7.6
meters (25 feet) spacing in 2 200 ohm-centimeter soil. Anode (in backfill)
resistance in 1 000 ohm-centimeter soil, shown on the chart in Figure 103,
is 0.233 ohm. Resistance in 2 200 ohm-centimeter soil = 0.233 x 2 200/1 000
- 0.513 ohm. To this add the internal resistance of the group. From use of
equation (2) the internal resistance of one electrode is 0.106 ohm, making
the internal resistance of the group (0.106/15) = 0.007 ohm, a negligible
amount. The total resistance is 0.520 ohm, but 0.513 ohm could be used
safely.
(5) Calculating Resistance in Cables. Cathodic protection design

also requires a knowledge of the resistance of various sizes of copper wire
or cable most often used in anode installations. Resistance data and common
use of some of the most commonly used sizes are shown in Table 57.
(6) Calculating Anode Lifespan. If current output of a galvanic

anode of any given weight is known, its approximate useful life can be
calculated. The calculation is based on the theoretical ampere hours per
newton of the anode material, and its current efficiency (see Table 52).
-O Also involved is a utilization factor, which may be taken as 85 percent.
This means that when the anode is 85 percent consumed it will requi "
replacement. This is because there is insufficient anode material remaining
to maintain a reasonable percentage of its original current output.
Expressions for determining individual anode life for different materials

* are presented below with efficiency and utilization factors expressed as
decimals:
(a) For magnesium:
anodc weight
Life in Years 0.026 in newtons • efficiency utilization factor
anode current in amperes
365
°_
o 3.0-
( C.n
S0
51
0
o01.0-
o , ,0
0 ANODE SPACING
9 0.6- .
U) 0.5- 4 m
x 0.4- 6
!E 0-3
w
0
Z 02-
.-
NO. OF ANODES
Figure 102. Chart of anode spacing (impressed current method).
7.0-
6.0
5.0- APPROX. INTERNAL ANODE
RESISTANCE IN 300 OHM/CM
S4.0- BACKFILL
0 17 LB MAG ANODE: 0.96 OHM
3 3.0- ISM LONG ANODE:0.60 OHM
022.0-
0 0 -17 LB PACKAGED
0 MAGNESIUM ANODES
2
1.0- AT 4.6 M SPACING
Z 09-
0.6-
0
Q5-
- 0.4-
SQ3-
-1.5M LONG ZINC OR
6 0.2- MAGNESIUM ANODES AT
4.6 M SPACING
QI
(3.1r ,
0 5 10 15 20
NO. OF ANODES
Figure 103. Chart of anode spacing (galvanic anode method).
366
Table 57. Copper wire resistance.
Resistance of standard copper wires

in milliohms (ohm* times 103) per
meter at 250C (77u F)
Common Use Wire Size (AWG)
Impressed Current 4/0 0.167

Anode Installations 3/0 0.211
2/0 0.266
1/0 0.335
1 0.423
2 0.531
4 0.850
6 1.35
Galvanic Anode Installation 8 2.15

10 3.41
Substructure Test Stations 12 5.41

14 8.60
Instrument Test Leads 16 13.7

18 21.9
20 34.8
22 55.8
Temperature Correction Factors
Temperature
C F Multiply Resistance at 25 0 C by:
0 32 0.901
10 50 0.941
20 68 0.980
25 77 1.000
30 86 1.020
40 104 1.059
(b) for zinc:
anode weight
Life in Years 0.009 5 • in newtons efficiency - utilization factor
* anode current in amperes
(c) for aluminum (Galvalum II alloy) in seawater:
anode weight
0.035 • in newtons • efficiency utilizati-n factor
*
Life in Years anode current in amperes
36?
Using the values from Table 52 for theoretic,;' o.ts per newton
and current efficiency, alcng with an 85 percent .t . ;.ifctor for the
three anode materials, the above expressions maY * J tio:
; t:
Magnesium L = i.105 W 10- 2 11
Zinc I W
L = 0.767 1o- 2 %I
l)
Aluminum I W
L = 2.826 10- 2
where L is the anode life in years, W the anuie wc g,t in iiewt,,ns, and
I the anode current in amperes.
As may be noted, Equations (4), (5), and (6) may also be used for
calculating anode bed life where L is the anode bed life in years, W the
total anode weight in newtons (all anodes), and I the anode bed current in
amperes.
(7) Deep-Well Anode Beds. Some mention should be made regarding

deep-well anode beds, as in recent years they have attracted much interest
for impressed current systems, primarily on pipelines. Such installations
can be very useful if conditions permit. In the case of pipelines the well
may be in the pipeline right of way, avoiding the requirement for additional
right of wa," for conventional surface type anode beds. A deep-well anode
bed, usually 60 to 120 meters (200 to 400 feet) in depth, can be described
as one in which the anodes are placed in remote earth by drilling straight
down or by using an existing hole such as an abandoned water well. For
pipelines this accomplishes the same general result obtained 1y locating a
conventional surface type anode bed laterally several hundred feet from the
pipeline. Advantages of a deep-well anode bed include small surface space
ner ed (little or no additional right of way), probably less interference
problems, and frequently lower anode-to-soil resistance than with conven-
tional anodes. Disadvantages include great difficulty or impossibility of
repair, necessity to prevent contamination of underground potable water
sources, difficulty in determining soil resistivity at depths of several
hundred feet, and expense of installation.
(8) Application of Calculation Methods. With the preceding back-
ground on design considerations, some examples follow to show how designs
may be worked out for several types of subsurface structures. Professional
consultation is advisable before finalizing plans for any cathodic pro-
tection installation. Each location has specific problems which must be
recognized and considered if the installation is to be effective and
reasonably trouble free.
c. Ixample Project. A part of the waterfront: facility consists of a

steel sheet-pile bulkhead (see Fig. 104 for crosb section). It shows a
typical seawater cross section, illustrating the various zones of exposure.
* The waterside of the bulkhead should be provided with cathodic protection
as soon as possible to prevent further loss of -eel caused by the corrosive
action of the contacting seawater. Average wat, , resistivity is 20 ohm-
centimeters. The soil side of the bulkhead i also to be p:c ,ded with
cathodic protection at an early date. Average soil resisti -v is 500 ohm-
centimeters. A minimum of 20 years life for the si ' "cil1 y is
* anticipated.
368
6
WHARF ANODE HEADER CABLE
RECTIFIER* HIGH WATER LINE

TOAM'OOK
RECIER LOW WATER LINE

,HEET STEEL
PILE BPLKHEAD WHARF WHARF WHARF
PILE PILE PILE

DURICHLOR 51
TYPE E ANODE
CHANNEL
BOTTOM
Figure 104. Cross section of wharf used in example.
(1) Conditions. The steel sheet-pile bulkhead is 300 meters (980

feet) in length. There are approximately 9 meters (30 feet) of water-
exposed steel or 2 700 square meters (29 000 square feet) including a two-
foot splash zone and about 3 000 square meters (32 300 square feet) embedded
in the sandy clay soil. The steel surface contacting the water is expected
*to require about 55 milliamperes per square meter (5.1 milliamperes per
square foot) for protection. The embedded part, 3 000 square meters is
expected to require about 22 milliampere per square meter (2.0 milliamperes
per square foot) for protection.
(2) Calculations. Current requirement:
2 700 square meters @ 55 milliamps pe" square meter = 149 amperes.

3 000 square meters @ 22 milliamps per square meter = 66 amperes.
Total current required = 215 amperes.
(3) Resistance. Anodes used will be Durichlor 51 Type E, 7.6

centimeters (3 inches) in diameter, 1.5 meters (60 inches) long, to be
suspended in the water under the wharf using polypropylene rope. These
anodes are rated at 4 amperes per anode for long service life.
215 (amperes required) = 54 anodes

4 (amperes per anode)
369
For safety margin use 60 anodes, spaced evenly under the wharf, aboit
5 meters (16 feet) apart. Using equation (3) the anode resistance of each
component of the example project is calculated to determine the total anode
resistence:
60 anodes, averaging 20 ohm-centimeters resistivity = 2 milliohms.
Rectifier positive to center of header cable under wharf:

30 meters No. 4/0 copper cable in conduit = 5 milliohms
Rectifier negative to bulkhead:

30 meters No. 4/0 copper cable in conduit = S milliorns
Header cable under wharf, center connection,

effective length, 155 meters No. 1/0 = 51 milliohms
Bulkhead resistance is negligible.

I
Total resistance = 63 milliohms
(4) Voltage Requirement. Required rectifier voltage is obtained

using Ohm's Law: E = IR or required voltage is equal to total current
multiplied by total circuit resistance or E = 215 x 63 = 13 500 millivolts
(13.5 volts). For best results, a current and voltage requirement test
should be made after the anode installation is complete, including the
cables to the rectifier location. A direct current welding generator
capable of furnishing the above current and voltage should be used. For
test purposes, complete polorization is not required. However, current
should be applied for several days, with potential measurements made from
bulkhead to a reference electrode in the water within 1.5 meters of the
bulkhead (to minimize IR drop in the readings) at several locations and at
several depths, from surface to bottom. Readings of -0.85 volt to a copper
sulphate reference electrode or -0.84 volt to silver-silver chloride
reference electrode indicate adequate protection.
(5) General. Some comments should be made regarding the example. A

continuous 25-millimeter-diameter steel rod should be welded in place in two
locations to each sheet pile for the full length of the bulkhead. This con-
nection rod should be well above the splash zone and should be well coated to
ensure permanent connections. Woven grounding straps bolted to the sheet pile
may also be used, if they are protected against the environment. The point
4 must be made that the connections must be flexible. A sheet-pile bulkhead may
deflect enough to break welds to a rigid 25-millimeter (1 inch) steel rod.
Electrical continuity to each and every sheet pile is essential for the success
of the cathodic protection system.
Care should be taken to ensure that the steel bulkhead is electrically

4 isolated (insulated) from all other structures or piping. Again, this is
essential if the protected installation is to remain reasonably trouble
free.
4. Cathodic Protection and Coatings in Combination.
A combination of cathodic protection and coatings provides the advantages
of both. Protective coatings are known to be the primary considerations
370
I
for protecting steel. Cathodic protection is needed as backup in areas
where the continuity of the coating is affected, due to damage or applica-
tion problems. If no coatings were used, the cost of cathodic protection
would be greatly increased, both in terms of rl) equipment needed and (2)
current required for protection of a bare (noncoated) structure. Examples
of structures where cathodic protection is used in conjunction with coatings
include: sheet piling, production platforms, piles, docks, and similar
structures continuously immersed in water.
LIn these instances, the protective coating must possess:
(a) Good dielectric strength,
(b) good alkali resistance,
(c) good adhesion characteristic,
(d) low inoisture absorbtion and transfer rates,
(e) good coaLiag thickness, and
* (f) rusitance to the passage of ions.
Carefully conducted tests and field use show that most coatings designed
for immersion in seawater which have the properties described above will
perform satisfactory at steel potentials ranging from -0.8 to -1.3 volts
with respect to a copper/copper sulfate reference cell. Above the 1.3-volt
potential many coatings will show degradation such as cathodic disbondment.
If a good coating can be applied to both sides of the bulkhead pile

sheets before installation, cathodic protection current requirements would
be decreased drastically. The coating, if applied, should be as good as
the state of the art permits, such as white metal sandblast, inorganic zinc
primer, followed by two coats of coal-tar epoxy, for a dry film thickness
of at least 0.41 millimeter (16 mils). In any event, the piling, after
installation, should receive such a coating from the low water line upward
through the splash zone to the top of the bulkhead. Any cathodic protection
is marginal above the low water line and nonexistent in and above the high
water line.
5. Marine Exposure.
The characteristics of coating systems and structure material to be

protected, as well as the specific marine exposure, will determine which
coating systems can be effectively used. The specific marine exposures
* must be carefully considered when selecting a coating system to achieve
good structure protection. Marine exposures are generally considered to be
marine atmosphere, splash and spray zone and submerged zone. More than one
of these exposures may occur on any single structure.
For example, a marine atmosphere is one which carries airborne salt.

* Since only pure water evaporates from a body of saltwater, this physical
process does not put salt into the air. Instead, salt becomes airborne
only under conditions in which finely divided saltwater droplets (spray and
371
S
mists) are projected into the air by wind and wave action. These fine
droplets may remain as such for some time, or the water may evaporate,
leaving a tiny, solid particle of salt. Wind may carry the droplets or the
(salt particles some distance from the point of origin, It will be seen,
therefore, that the term marine atmosphere is not a precisely definable
exposure condition. The term might be applied to any situation where the
salt content of the air is great enough to exercise some effect on corro-
sivity and on protective coating performance. The produced effects may
range from very intense to near zero. The concentration of airborne salt,
both close to the shoreline and at increasing distances from it, is difficult
to even generally predict, since shoreline topography, wave heights, pre-
vailing wind direction and velocity, and inland physical features are all
important factors. However, the intensity of the corrosive effect declines
rapidly as the distance from the shore is increased and in most cases,
supposed acceleration of corrosion many miles inland is largely imaginary.
It has been reported that the effect of marine spray is negligible at
distances 3 kilometers (2 miles) inland and that analysis of iron corrosion
products at seaside towns usually shows more sulfur (from industrial
contamination) than chloride (from salt spray).
7here is no doubt, however, that steel surfaces subject to atmospheric

expyl4vu :s thz't are intensely marine in character present protection problems
,h&ich lre not solved by surface preparation and paint coatings customarily
used fcr inland structures. The effects introduced by the salt are manifold
and varied. An obvious effect is that the corrosion-accelerating influence
of the salt causes even the smallest discontinuity and thin spot in the
coating to become a focal point for lusting which rapidly enlarges the
original corrosion site. This effect is heightened by the fact that the.
cnrrosion products (rust) formed in salt-bearing atmospheres do not exert a
protcctive influence against further corrosion to the degree that they do',
in inland locations; i.e., corrosion continues at a high level in marine
atmospheres, whereas the rate usually drops off considerably in most
inland atmospheres. The electrochemical reactions involved in the salt-
accelerated corrosion processes result in alkalies and other products which
may be both harmful to the paint film itself and to adhesion of the coating
to the metal.
The net effect of the presence of even small amounts of deposited salt
is to increase the need for more care in surface preparation and paint
application; in more severe cases, it brings about a need for a more re-
sistant coating system than is customarily used on inland, weather-exposed
steel. The need for thoroughness in surface preparation and paint applica-
tion cannot be overemphasized. This need is increased by the fact that
crevices, joints, junctions of joining members, interior angles, pockets,
undersides of horizontal and inclined members, and similar surfaces tending
to be protected from the direct action of rain which would wash away the
salt, are the places of greatest corrosion and are also the places which
tend to receive the poorest paint job.
Structures exposed to moderate and moderately severe marine atmospheres
should receive a more advanced paint system. Thorough inspection is
probably at least as important as the proper choice of coating.
6. Uses in Coastal Structures.
Generally the generic coating systems discussed in this section have

found satisfactory use in the exposures shown in Table 58.
372
Table 58. Typical uses of coatings.
( Ger'iieric Type Use

Alkyds On metals in mild marine atmos-
phere.
Silicone Alkyds On metals in mild marine atmosphere.
Acrylic (Solvent based) On metals in moderately severe marine

atmosphere.
Acrylic (Water Reducables) On masonry, concrete and wood in

moderately severe marine atmosphere.
Chlorinated Rubber On metals in splash and submerged
zones.
Coal Tar
a. Mastics and Coal-Tar Splash and submerged zones.

Cutbacks
b. Modified Coal Tar Splash and submerged zone.
Epoxies (Catalyzed) Splash and submerged zone; has ex-

cellent toughness.
Epoxies - Phenolic Splash and submerged zone but is

brittle.
Phenolics Heat cured; high corrosion resis-

tance but brittle; used for tank
linings.
Polyurethanes (or Urethanes) Usually heat cured; splash and

submerged zone; tough with high
abrasion resistance.
Vinyls Marine atmosphere, splash and sub-

merged zones; poor solvent resistance.
Zinc (Inorganic) Splash and submerged zone; used as

single or multiple coat system.
Zinc (Organic) Splash and submerged zone; generally

the higher the zinc content the
better the coating.
Underwater Coatings and Good for in place structures in sub-

* Mastics merged structure.
6 373
6
X I1. SUMARY
1. General.
This section summarizes the principal properties and uses of materials in
coastl structures, beach protection devices, and erosion control. Generally
more L.in one material is used in a single coastal structure and compat-
ibility and effectiveness of the materials working together must be con-
sidered in each case. The selection of materials for a specific coastal
u! structure may require consideration of the cost of labor and availability in
addition to the physical properties of the materials. Such considerations
influence the design of structures when more than one material can be em-
ployed to perform the same job. By considering the properties of materials
and their past performance experience, the coastal engineer may select the
proper material to achieve his design objective. Material uses are generally
considered first for their structural properties and then their durability in
coastal structures. In addition to the detailed information given in the
preceding sections, the general summary that follows may assist in the
selection of materials.
Most, if not all, of the common construction materials have been used
separately or in combinations of two or more in the creation of coastal
structures. For example, breakwaters, both detached and shore-connected, are
commonly constructed of earth and stone and in many instances capped with
concrete armor units. To the commonly used earth and stone, steel and
concrete sheet piles have been added from time to time for special functions.
Also, asphalt has been used many times as an earth and rock binder for
capping such structures and holding the basic materials in place. Bulkheads
and retaining walls have been constructed of stone, sheet piles made of
concrete or steel, mass concrete, and wood. Groins and jetties have been
built of these materials as well.
Marine and harbor structures of more complex design usually require the
use of a variety of materials in construction, the selection based not only
on their physical properties but their availability at the site and ease of
installation as well as economy of construction. When temporary structures
are called for, recycled materials such as broken or crushed concrete,
crushed asphalt concrete, blocks and salvaged or scrap metals (such as ships,
barges, and railroad cars) have been used. The recent development of a large
variety of synthetic materials has resulted in the production of improved
6I coating systems and synthetic films for filter cloths as well as foams for
improved buoyancy. The synthetic rubbers are used as energy absorbers in
fender piles, bumpers and other protective devices.
Many materials, when used in coastal structures, require special treat-
ment. Wood, for example, will have a substantially improved service life
when properly pretreated with creosote and other preservatives. Metals, and
more specifically steel, will require protective coatings or cathodic protec-
tion (usually both) to be durable in the coastal environment.
2. Materials.
a. Stone.
(1) Properties. Stone refers to individual blocks, masses, or
fragments that have been broken or quarried from bedrock exposures,' or are
374
II
6
obtained from houlders and cobbles in alluvium. Crush - c,or broken stone
includes all stone in which the shape is not specified. Stone for coastal
structures should he fre. from laminations, weak clcava- 3 and be of such 3
Pcharacter that it will not disintegrate from the action of air, seawater,or
handling and placing. A stone of high specific gravity is desirable because
it increases the resistance to movement by the action of waves or currents.
Durability of stone can be affected by its mineral composition, texture,
structure, hardness, toughness and resistance to the effects of wetting and
drying and freezing and thawing. Stone is generally classified as granite,
basalt and related rocks, limestone and marble, sandstone and miscellaneous
stone.
While no standard testing procedure has yet been developed for the
determination of the quality of stone, other than past experience with
specific quarries, there are testing programs that are used. With any
testing program for the determination of the quality of rock, judgment is
necessary in applying and interpretating test results. This requires a great
deal of experience and should be left to geotechnical experts. Any test
program should include petrographic examination, determination of absorption
and bulk specific gravity (ASTM Standard C97-47 or C127-77), a soundness test
(AASHTO T-104-46 or ASTM C88-76) and an abrasion test (Los Angeles rattler,
* Wetshot rattler or ASTM 535-69 {75}). Other tests may prove useful depending
on specific project requirements. Properties contributing to durability of
stone may be both physical and chemical and chemical changes can best be
evaluated by experts.
(2) Stone Size and Shape. Stone size is importan + in coastal

structures. Bedding layer material, core rock or quarry-run material is
usually 15 to 20 centimeters (6 to 8 inches) or less. Underlayer stone may
range from a few kilonewtons to about 30 kilonewtons. Armor stone is the
largest size and ranges up to 220 kilonewtons. Stones larger than about 220
kilonewtons are generally not easily handled. While the three ranges of
stone sizes are required for the different parts of a rubble-mound structure,
an adequate number of classes within each range is also necessary. In
fitting stones into a structure, the shape as well as the size is important.
Design requirements usually specify that the greatest dimension of an indi-
vidual stone be no more than three times its least dimension.
In addition to the physical properties of stone, the method of quarrying

will also determine the size, range and classes within a size range that are
produced. Depending on the area topography, a quarry will generally be
developed as either a side hill or a pit-type operation. The size of quarry
face developed in any given operation is usually determined by the thickness
of the formation. The method of blasting and the type of explosive, as well
as the geological and physical characteristics of the material, will determine
the degree of fragmentation that will result from the quarry operation.
Generally a high powder factor (quantity of explosive per unit volume of
rock) will produce a greater degree of fragmentation than will a lower powder
factor. Also, greater fragmentation will be achieved in a massive rock by
using a large number of small diameter holes at close spacing than by using
* large diameter holes at greater spacing. It also appears that best fragmenta-
tion is achieved when holes are detonated individually rather than simulta-
neously.
.375
(3) Use in Coastal Structures. Stone has many uses in coasta.
structures, including offshore structures, shore-connected structures, and
anchors. Breakwater, jetty and groin design often include several sizes of
stone for use in the core and underlayers and for use in the covering or
armor layer. Seawalls and revetments may also be constructed from stone.
For protection of pier foundations a quarrystone blanket may be laid under
the pier in the scour area.
b. Earth.
(1) Properties. Earth or soil i. a large assortment of materials of
various origins. For engineering purposes soils are generally classified as
gravel, sand, silt, clay,and organic material; however, most soils are
composed of a mixture of two or more of these materials. Although there are
several soil classification systems, the most widely used in engineering is
* the Unified Soils Classification System (USCS). Gravel is usually considered
to range in size from the No. 4 Sieve to 76.2 millimeters (3 inches). Gravels
are cohesionless materials. Sand is defined as a grain size between 4.76
millimeters and 0.075 millimeter (No. 4 and 200 sieves, respectively) and
sands may be further classified as coarse, medium, or fine. Sands are
normally cohesionless materials; however, they present an apparent cohesion
* when damp or moist due to the surface tension effects of pore fluids. Silts
and clays are known as fine-grain materials. Silts may also have an apparent
cohesion but have relatively poor strength characteristics, limiting their
use to certain cases. Clay materials are largely cohesive, have strength
characteristics dependent on past stress history, and may be difficult to
compact at high moisture contents. Minerals included in the clay composition
influence the properties of the soil. Organic materials, formed by the decay
of vegetable matter can be entrained in soils and usually have a spongy
nature and a fibrous texture. Usually organic soils have high moisture and
gas contents and a relatively low specific gravity.
The major significant engineering properties of soil are shear strength,
compressibility, and permeability. The types of problems encountered in the
design of coastal structures which utilize these characteristics are slope
stability, bearing capacity, settlement,and erosion. Other useful properties
of soils in the design of structures include dry density, water content,
specific gravity, resistivity and corrosion potential, grain-size distribu-
tion, plasticity characteristics, chemical properties, and durability.
* (2) Soil Placement Methods. Soil placement methods are usually
determined by the fill location, underwater or above water, and the need for
some degree of compaction. Earthfills made from land are usually truck-
dumped and bulldozed into place while waterside delivery may be by barge or
hydraulic pumping. Fill compaction above the water can be accomplished using
mechanical equipment. A fill placed under water will usually require some
* form of superimposed loading for a period of time to compact it. This
loading time depends upon the depth of fill and amount of loading. It
usually varies from 0.5 to 2 years. The compactibility of the soil will also
impact the loading time.
(3) Use in Coastal Structures. Earth is commonly used in virtually
S any port or harbor development, land reclamation, or coastal protection
structure. In addition to fill of all kinds, earth is used in making soil-
cement as well as fill material for plastic bags and other containing units.
376
6
c. Portland Cement Concrete.
(1) General. Concrete is used as unreinforced or mass concrete, as

steel reinforced concrete or as prestressed or posttensioned concrete. The
latter types are usually made in the form of precast structural elements.
Specific properties of concrete may be modified and improved by the addition
of admixtures for special purposes and to accommodate placing and installa-
tion requirements. The specific use of concrete in any structure will
determine the mix design and curing process necessary to obtain a satis-
factory result. Experience or consultation with experienced designers of
concrete structures is necessary to ensure a durable concrete appropriate to
the needs of the structure.
Durability is generally a requirement in coastal structures and the

designer and constructor share the responsibility for creating structures
which will function as designed over the anticipated life of the structure.
U Such structures have a high resistance to the disruptive attack of most
environments including saltwater, alkalis, most acids, corrosive atmospheres,
freeze-thaw cycles, and marine flora and fauna. Good concrete is also
highly resistant to abrasion.
Failures of concrete structures have been studied and some of the more
* common causes of failure and methods of prevention are discussed in Section
V. Determination of the cause of structural failure requires a careful
analysis of the site conditions, the concrete ingredients, and the original
design criteria by experienced professional engineers. Concrete failures
usually are the result of the selection of the wrong type of cement, unsound
aggregate, contaminated mixing water, improper admixtures or an inadequate
curing process. With all these possibilities for creating poor concrete
the design engineer must also have experience and good judgment in preparing
plans and specifications to ensure that concrete is used within its physical
capabilities.
(2) Uses in Coastal Structures. Thousands of marine structures have

been satisfactorily designed and constructed of concrete with a long history
of excellent performance. Because the resources required to make good con-
crete are generally available in all regions of the world, concrete has wide
application for use in coastal and waterfront structures. Its successful use
in seawalls, bulkheads, revetments, groins, jetties, breakwaters, and a
variety of other structures over many years is evidence of its excellent
*0 properties for coastal engineering use.
d. Other Types of Concrete and Grout.
(1) Asphalt.
* Q(a) General. Asphalt is a residue product from the refining of

petroleum. It can be used alone as a membrane or coating or it can be mixed
with other materials as a binder to produce mixes for a variety of purposes.
Asphalt can be combined with sand and graded aggregate to form a voidless and
impermeable asphalt concrete or with an open-graded aggregate to form a
stable porous mixture. A composite asphalt structure can easily be con-
* structed of different asphalt mixes with each layer performing a particular
function. An example of this ase might be an impermeable asphalt layer
377
So
supported by an open-graded asphalt drainage layer with an asphalt mastic
placed with a screed over the compacted subsurface. The drainage layer
serves to prevent damage to the watertight outer layer by draining away any
seepage through the outer layer or any ground water intrusion.
The physical properties of asphalt alone are considered in its use in

coastal structures in addition to its adhesive properties as a binder and its
viscous properties under service conditions. The manner of asphalt placement
as well as the service conditions will require certain minimum and maximum
viscosities.
(b) Use in Coastal Structures. Engineers have made consider-

able use of asphaltic materials in the construction of many structures for
coastal protection. Asphalt concrete is used to pave or revet the slopes and
tops of earth or sand seawalls. It may also be used to pave, or cap, the top
surfaces of quarrystone jetties, breakwaters, groins, and cellular steel
breakwaters. Asphalt mastic mixtures are also used for grouting to fill-in
the voids of quarry stone jetties and groins, and of the riprap facings of
seawalls and revetted slopes. In foreign countries special equipment has
been designed to place a sand-asphalt mastic under water in a continuous
operation. The blanket is designed to prevent scour of large areas of the
seabed. As more and more emphasis is placed on pollution control, engineers
"I are finding that asphalt offers an economical and effective means of lining
dredge disposal sites and waste storage areas that are sometimes necessary in
the construction of coastal structures. Asphalt has an excellent history of
performance in its use in coastal structures when properly designed and used
in accordance with its physical properties and capabilities.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate and Grout. Portland cement grout poured in

the voids of preplaced aggregate is a specialized construction method. It
generally uses large stone with the voids filled with grout. It is a type of
mass concrete used as a seawall or bulkhead. The physical properties as to
durability, reslstence to abrasion etc. are much the same as those of the
stone and concrete components. One difference is in the cement grout mix
design. Pozzolons and fluidizers are added to improve handling during
placement and bonding to rock or old concrete.
(3) Portland Cement Grout. Portland cement grout will have the same
physical properties as Portland cement concrete of similar mix design.
Grout, however, is usually modified in its mix design because of its intended
*g use and placement methods. This results usually in a grout mix of cement and
water with sand. Very small gravel and clay, used as inert fillers, or even
bentonite used as a stabilizer, may be added when it is placed under water.
Grout is easily placed by pouring, pumping or injecting into place. In
filling joints or narrow cracks it can usually be poured into place. In
filling large voids or holes, pumping is a common procedure. When stabilizing
* ground beds for foundations or the area behind bulkheads to prevent leaching
of the soil it may be injected into the ground or structure. This injection
procedure may be the same as pumping but at relatively high pressure.
(4) Soil Cement. Soil cement is a mixture of pulverized soil and

measured amounts of Portland cement and water compacted to a high density.
6 The physical properties oF soil cement are its high density as compared to
uncemented soil and its rigidity, resulting in a structural slablike material
378
LV
with the use of small quantities of cement. In good soils, 7-day compressive
strengths of 2 070 kilopascals (300 pounds per square inch) are obtainable.
Soil cement is used primarily as a base course for stabilizing and compacting
soils for foundations, bank protection, and subbase -onstriction. It has
been used for earth dam cores, reservoir linings, anu slope protection.
V (5) Sulfur Cement. Sulfur cement concrete and grouts are a rela-
tively recent development and as such do not have a long history of use in
coastal structures. Recently, the availability of large qua.ntities of sulfur
has resulted in its increased use in construction projects as a binder or
admixture of aggregates. Molten sulfur mixed with sand and aggregates pro-
duces a sulfur concrete of excellent strength.
Sulfur-asphalt binder materials have higher densities than normal asphalt

as sulfur is about twice as heavy as asphalt. The sulfur-asphalt binder
*usually results in a lower void percentage than the asphalt cement without
the sulfur addition. Sulfur does increase resistance to gasoline, diesel
fuel, and similar solvents. It also improves stress fatigue characteristics.
The finely dispersed sulfur particles add strength to impregnated fabrics.
Whereas sulfur cement materials reach their full strength quickly upon
cooling, the inherent flammability and low melting point of sulfur impose
some limitations on the use of sulfur cement. However, because of its
quick-set characteristics, it may find many uses in emergency repairs that
could havc considerable longevity. With more experience and additional
development, sulfur-cement products will probably find increased use in
coastal construction.
e. Structural and Sheet Metals.
(1) Steel. Steel is the most utilized of all metals in marine

service and for coastal structures. Carbon steel is an alloy of iron and
carbon in which the carbon content is less than 2 percent. Structural steel
limits the carbon content to less than 0.35 percent. Adding small amounts of
alloying elements during the steelmaking process can improve the mechanical
properties of steel as well as its corrosion resistance. Small additions of
copper, nickel, chromium, silicon,and phosphorus have been effective in
improving the corrosion resistance of steel.
In addition to its strength, the mechanical properties of steel of most

interest in the design of steel structures are: ductility, brittleness,
malleability, flexibility, hardness, resilience and toughness. Ductility is
defined as the ability of a material to be drawn out without change in
volume. Brittleness defines its lack of ability to be deformed without
0 rupture. Malleability is the opposite of brittleness and refers to its
ability to be forged or rolled into thin sheets. Flexibility describes its
ability to bend under stress and return to its original shape when the load
is removed. Hardness is a measure of its ability to resist indentation when
subjected to impact. Resilience is its ability to absorb energy due to
applied loads without breaking. Toughness indicates its ability to absorb
large amounts of energy without rupture, Structural steel has a high degree
of all these properties.
379
It is relatively easy to alloy other metals with iron in making steel.
Low alloy steels contain up to 1.5 percent of elements such as manganese and
silicon. Medium alloy steels contain 1.5 to 11 percent of alloy elements and
-. high alloy steels, including both ferritic and austentic stainless steels,
contain more than 11 percent of alloy elements.
Most coastal structures using steel as a principal construction material

use certain steel shapes in the following manner:
(a) sheet piles for caisson walls, cutoff walls, bulkheads, and
groins;
(b) "H" sections for bearing piles and beams;
(c) pipe or tubing for bearing piles, conduits and handrails;

U (d) solid rods for tiebacks or tension members; and
(e) reinforcing bars for concrete.
(2) Aluminum. Aluminum, being a light metal in its high purity

form, is soft and ductile but does not possess sufficient strength for
structural applications. The addition of alloying elements imparts strength
to the metal. Elements used as alloys in aluminum are copper, magnesium,
zinc, silicon and small amounts of other elements such as chromium, usually
with copper to obtain high strength structural shapes.
(3) Copper. Copper has several unique properties that make it a

very useful materi In addition to its high thermal and electrical con-
ductivity it has h_ 6a corrosion resistance and can improve other elements by
being readily alloyable. The most corrosion resistant of the copper alloys
to seawater are aluminum brass, inhibited admiralty brass, and the copper-
nickel alloys.
(4) Use in Coastal Structures. Steel is used as structural shapes

in most types of coastal structure. It is used as well in composite struc-
tures, for example as rebar in concrete construction. Steel alloys have
found many uses as bar stock, wire and wire fabric. Many alloys of aluminum,
due to their high corrosion resistance as well as strength-to-weight ratios
A have also found many applications in marine structures. Copper, in addition
to uses as pipe and sheathing, has a high alloying capability in bronze and
brass that makes it a very useful element in the marine environment.
In the use of steel, alloys and other metals in the coastal environment,
care must be taken to avoid direct contact of dissimilar metals that can form
* a galvanic couple. When dissimilar metals are in electrical contact with
each other and immersed in an electrolyte, a potential difference is estab-
lished; an electric current will flow and rapid corrosion will take place.
If two dissimilar metals must be joined, then several precautions must be
taken such as insulating the metals, avoiding unfavorable effects by keeping
the cathode area small, placing a more anodic third metal in contact with the
* other two to provide sacrificial protection and investigating other possible
solutions to protect the structure.
380
6
f. Wood.
(1) General. As a construction material, wood is available almost

everywhere and at reasonable cost. It is a cellular organic material made up
principally of cellulose, which comprises the structural units, and lignin,
which cements the structural units together. A tree has distinct zones:
bark, sapwood, heartwood, and the pith at the center. There is no consistent
difference between the weight and strength properties of heartwood and sap-
wood. Because wood is produced by nature under various uncontrolled environ-
mental conditions, such as geographical location, precipitation, exposure,
and elevation, the product is highly variable. Also, trees are alive,
producing wood of different properties at different ages. For a given
characteristic or property of wood, such as its bending strength, both the
mean value and its variation encountered about the mean should be considered.
Lumber grading rules are, in effect, specifications of quality. The size

and number of knots, slope of grain and other strength reducing character-
q istics are judged and graded according to uniform standards so that working
stresses can be assigned to specified quality.
Common construction species generally available in the United States are
Douglas fir, southern pine, spruce, hemlock, redwood, cedar and other pine
species such as lodgepole, ponderosa and white.
A
(2) Properties. The major mechanical properties of wood as they
affect engineering design are:
(a) Tension Parallel to Grain. Tension parallel to grain
creates a tendency to elongate wood fibers and cause them to slip
by each other. Resistance to tension applied strictly parallel to
the grain is wood's highest strength property, but if tension is
applied at an angle to the grain or the cross section of the piece
is reduced by knots or holes this strength may be materially reduced.
(b) Tension Perpendicular to Grain. Tension perpendicular

to grain tends to s,-)arate the wood fibers along the grain and is
the direction in which wood has the least strength.
(c) Compression Parallel to Grain. Compression parallel
to grain creates a tendency to shorten the ..
ood fibers in the
lengthwise direction. Resistance of wood to this force is good but
is affected by the angle of the load to grain and by the presence
* of knots and holes.
(d) Compression Perpendicular to Grain. Compiession
perpendicular to grain, such as the bearing under the ends of a beam
or under a column, tends to compress taie wood fibers together. The
wood becomes more dense and the action may cause slight displacement
at the bearing face.
(e) Shear Parallel to the Grain. The largest stress

usually occurs along the neutral axis of a beam. During the drying
of lumber, checks and splits may occur reducing the area in the plane
of maximum shear; therefore the shear strength for design is reduced
*1 to accommodate this probability.
381
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. (.f) Shear Perpendicular to Grain. Shear perpc ad ciilar to

grain is not a design factor as effective control is ,ipplied through
limits on design stress for shear parallel to orain.
(g) Fiber Stress in Bending. Fiber stress in bending

creates compression i tfibers on one side and tension in fibers on
the other side of a beam. The higher stresses occur in the fibers
most distant from the center. Deviations in the slope of grain and
the presence of knots and holes in these outside faces reduces the
resistance in the extreme fibers.
(3) Preservative Treatment. In order to extend the useful life of

wood long enough to make it an economical and practical material for use in
the coastal zone or other marine environments, it must be protected from its
natural enemies, fungi, bacteria, insects and marine organisms. The most
-i effective method of treating wood with preservatives is the pressure-treating
process. The pressure-treating process requires placing the wood in an air-
tight chamber in which either a vacuum or a pressure can be created while the
preservative is introduced into the chamber. The preservative generally will
penetrate the wood surface from 1.5 to 4 centimeters (0.5 to 1.5 inches) and
coat the walls of the wood cells in this area. Penetration to 10 centimeters
* (4 inches) is required in .-
ome cases. Although two processes, the empty-cell
and the full-cell process, have had success in preserving wood structures in
marine environment, the full-cell process is most commonly accepted as the
preferred treatment for coastal zone use.
Wood preservatives commonly used are grouped into two broad classes,
preservative oils and waterborne preservatives. The preservative oils are
considered the best wood protection in a marine environment and include
byproducts of petroleum such as creosotes, coal-tar creosotes, and mixtures
of these with other oils. They may include solutions of toxic chemicals such
as pentachlorophenol or copper naphthenate. Waterborne preservatives include
solutions of chromated zinc chloride, fluor-chrome-arsenate-phenol, chromated
copper arsenate, and other toxic chemicals.
(4) Other Protective Methods. In a marine environment wood struc-

tures can be protected by other materials which are not strictly preserva-
tives. Such protection is in the form of sheet metal, concrete jackets and
flexible synthetic sheets such as vinyl and polyethelene films. Because
• virtually all organisms causing wood deterioration are aerobic, surrounding
a wood element such as a pile with a jacket that prevents seawater containing
free oxygen from coming in contact with the wood creates a hostile environ-
ment for the organisms.
(5) Durability. Wood, when properly treated with appropriate

preservatives has a good history of satisfactory service in marine and
coastal structures. Wood piles supporting piers and wharves, when not
subjected to abrasion, have lasted many years. Wood sheet piles in groins,
jetties, bulkheads and like structures will perform satisfactory. Care must
be used in installing wood members to ensure that construction joints and
connections do not damage the preservative protection or that field repairs
are carefully and adequately made.
382
0
g. Plastics.
(1) General. Chemically the term "plastics" is applied to a large

group of synthetic materials, including synthetic rubber, that are processed
*, by molding or forming into final shape. Plastics that are soft and pliable
at some stage in their production are formed into shade by the application of
heat and pressure. They are organic compounds that are transformed into
complex synthetic materials by chemical processes. They are high polymers in
that they consist of monomer atoms joined together into molecular aggrega-
tions called polymers.
Plastics in general may be classified into two distinct groups, thermo-

plastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics soften repeatedly when
heated and harden when cooled. Thermosetting plastics go through a soft
stage only once. When hardened, an irreversible change takes place and they
cannot be softened again. Plastics can also be combined for a particular end
use, drawing together the best attributes of the blended components by
copolymerziation. The products are called copolymers. During the production
of plastics, additives such as plasticizers, fillers, colorants, stabilizers
and impact modifiers can be added.
*0 In addition to structural qualities, plastics are easily formable,

corrosion resistant, lightweight, wear resistant, energy absorbant, impact
resistant, flexible and ductile. A necessary consideration in the use of
plastics is that plastics will burn, some easily, others slowly and others
with great difficulty.
(2) Geotextiles. Plastics in the form of geotextiles have an

important use in coastal structures, commonly functioning as filters in
drainage, shore and embankment protection structures. Geotextiles are a
relatively new material in the construction industry but have had a generally
successful experience record as filters in selected coastal structures over
the past 20 years. Substantial improvement in the design and materials
selection specifications has also occurred.
The primary function of geotextiles when used as filters is to retain the

protected soil (prevent piping) and remain permeable to water without sig-
nificant head loss or the development of excessive hydrostatic pressure. To
function satisfactorily, the geotextile filter must have physical durability
and filtering integrity throughout the design life of the structure. In the
selection of a geotextile for a filter, the chosen fabric, in addition to
having required physical and chemical properties, should be of a kind and
finished form consistent with the site-specific requirements.
Fabric construction is a predominant factor affecting performance. Woven

* fabrics are commonly manufactured by crossing the yarns at right angles,
overlapping one over the other, the yarns being monofilament, multifilament,
mono-multifament or slit-film. Nonwoven fabrics include all materials not
woven or knitted. They con-ist of discrete fibers, which may be random or
pattern oriented in the fabric. The bonding methods described are needle
punched, heat bonded, resin bonded, and combination bonded. Combination
* fabrics are produced by combining woven and nonwoven fabrics by one or more
bonding methods.
383
0
(3) Use in Coastal Structures. Because geotextiles are relatively
new as a construction material, there has not been sufficient time to develop
agreed upon standard testing techniques for the most important characteristics
a fabric should have for specific applications. However, they are finding
many uses in coastal structures. Different fabric specifications may be
required for specific uses, such as replacement of stone filters under riprap,
drainage control by silt retention fabrics, and road stabilization by road or
highway fabrics. Fabric users should seek the advice and recommendations of
knowledgeable sources with experience in the specific use being considered,
such as consultants and more than one manufacturer.
Many forms of plastics other than geotextiles are also used in coastal
structures. Flexible plastics are used as mold forms for concrete and for
wrapping timber pile to provide protection from marine animals and for wrap-
ping metal piles to prevent corrosion. Molded forms have applications as
rubbing strips, fenders and bumpers. Plastic extrusions in the form of pipe
U and culverts are in common use. Pipe may be reinforced or not depending on
the structural strength required.
h. Recycled and Other Materials. Generally recycled materials consist

of a variety of materials that may be available in a given location and are
normally used in emergency situations as temporary (occasionally as perma-
nent) protective devices against damaging waves or currents. Such materials
should have a specific gravity greater than 1.5 to be useful unless a float-
ing type of structure is needed.
Materials considered in this category are salvaged concrete, concrete

rubble, crushed concrete, recycled asphalt used either as rubble or crushed,
blocks and bricks, and salvaged steel structures. Normally, because of the
emergency type use of recycled materials, little consideration is given to
the properties of such materials other than their specific gravity. Also,
little concern is given to their environmental impacts; however, these im-
pacts would generally be different than for the materials before recycling or
reuse.
Recycled or salvaged materials have been used for many years for emergen-
-" cy repairs or to construct temporary structures. In many cases these tempo-
rary structures have remained in place for many years.
Salvaged concrete, either as rubble, crushed or unbroken has been used to

0 repair revetments, groins, jetties and breakw-iters. These materials may not
have a pleasing esthetic appearance, especially if they contain reinforcing
steel. If located in a recreation area, the reinforcing steel may create a
safety hazard. Of course, exposed reinforcing bars will corrode at a rapid
rate causing accelerated concrete spalling and deterioration. Generally
these materials are used as a substitute for stone in coastal structures.
0
Recycled asphalt can be used as an underlayer in coastal structures.
Although it is relatively hard and unflexible because of its age, it will
retain its broken shape for extended periods of time and further deteriora-
tion is not a problem. Recovered asphalt may be crushed and used as core or
bedding material in coastal structures, but unless well graded, it does not
* make a satisfactory filter material. Crushed asphalt is ;jlso finding greater
use as a base material for highways, roads, streets, and parking lots.
384
Bricks, hollow concrete blocks, and cinder blocks have been used as
temporary repair materials; however, they generally break down during han-
dling and are not of much long-term value. Also they have no value as an
underlayer or armor layer.
Salvaged ships and barges have been used as temporary breakwaters by

manuevering them into a selected location, sinking them and then filling them
with rock or gravel to provide stability. Removing these devices when a
permanent structure is desired or upon their disintegration, is usually a
difficult problem. Other salvaged materials such as railroad cars and auto-
mobile bodies have been used in bank or shore protection, however, they are
not satisfactory and are usually unsightly and hazardous if located where
people may visit. Used rubber tires have a variety of uses such as fenders
on barges, work boats and docks. They have also been successful as floating
breakwaters to protect basins against short-period waves. Several different
arrangements have been model tested. Flotation has been created by filling
tires with urethane foam. If anchored in place or on the bottom, tires have
served as a revetment and to slow the bed movement of littoral drift.
i. Protective Systems.
(1) General. Protective systems are applicable to steel and alloys;

wood, and concrete, usually for esthetic reasons or, in some few cases, to
decrease water penetration into relatively porous concrete. Protective
systems are classified in two categories; coating and cathodic protection.
Each of these systems may be used separately, but in many instances cathodic
protection can be successfully used to supplement coating systems.
(2) Coatings. Protective coatings range from mere decorative

paints to complex and multicoat systems requiring careful surface prepara-
tion, proper coating application techniques, and the careful selection of
coating systems. In the consideration of a coating requirement, the first
step is to consider the type and kind of surface to be protected, i.e.,
wood, concrete, steel or other metals and alloys. Next consider the environ-
ment the structure surface is exposed to, such as a marine atmosphere, a tide
or splash zone or a submerged zone in either fresh or salt water. With this
information and other specific data as set forth in Section XI, the coastal
engineer may then consider the generic category as well as the specific type
of coating within a category that is best suited for the protection of a
4 given structure.
The types of coatings and their generic classifications are discussed in

Section XI. To adequately evaluate a coating's protection performance it is
necessary to consider the properties of the coating material, the surface
preparation requirements, and the application procedure as well as the
drying or curing processes. To aid evaluation, Section XI discusses the
surface preparation processes including resulting metal surface anchor
patterns, the number of coats and thickness, and the drying or curing pro-
cesses necessary to obtain a good coating system that can be expected to
properly protect a structure. Coatings are applied by brush, roller, spray
(both air and airless), and dipping.
I
Coating repair is a common procedure; however, there are precautions that
must be taken to ensure successful repair. Coating compatibility is a must
F' 385
to provide good bonding of the repair coating or to prevent any of the
normal types of coating failures. Coating failures may be identified by the
presence of blistering, undercutting, surfacing cracking, delamination,
alligatoring, or chalking. Coating must have strength, adhesion, resistance
to the environment and, many times, a pleasing appearance to properly func-
tion.
(3) Cathodic Protection. Cathodic protection is an electrical

process to protect metal structures in an electrolyte. The electrolyte may
vary from seawater to freshwater, saturated soil and even relatively dry
soils. Disolved ions of acids or alkali salts tend to promote metal deterior-
ation which can occur in localized areas or over large general areas of a
metal surface. Metal corrosion is a natural process involving electrochemical
reactions with a resulting flow of direct current from the anodic areas (the
corroding areas) to the cathodic areas of the structure through the surround-
ing electrolyte due to the electrical potential difference between the two
types of areas. Cathodic protection is the process of inducing an outside
electric current in the opposite direction and in this manner stopping the
normal corrosion process.
The design and installation of a cathodic protection system is highly

qtechnical. To ensure design of an effectively operating system, field
conditions of the structure must be examined to determine the total amount of
electrical current required to cathodically protect the structure and to
ensure proper current distribution. It must also be determined that there
will be no interference with other structures in the vicinity and that
potential differences within either the protected structure or of adjacent
structures are not impacted to ensure that no cathodic protection inter-
ference conditions exist. Cathodic protection requires periodic maintenance
and inspection to keep it in good working order.
Generally good protective systems, both coatings and cathodic protection,

are economical, require maintenance, and will substantially extend the service
life of well-constructed structures.
3. Some Present Investigations of Coastal Construction Materials.
a. Stone. Stone is one of the most widely used materials in coastal

structures and shore protection works. There are two basic areas of research
on stone: the uses of stone in shore protection structures and the character-
istics of stone for use in coastal structures.
Stone is used in revetments, jetties, groins, bulkheads, seawalls, and

other miscellaneous types of structures. Studies are being done on new types
of shore protection structures such as semi submerged offshore structures, on
4 new structure configurations for jetties, on different distributions or
arrays of stone in armor units cr layers, on the reliability of breakwater
model tests, and on the effect of breakwaters on waves. Programs have been
initiated to monitor and evaluate the performance of existing coastal struc-
tures in terms of their effectiveness, maintenance cost ;ind life. This area
of research also deals with development of field techniques and criteria for
4 the functional and structural design of coastal structures. Work is also
continuing on the evaluation of parameters used for determining the effective
386
6
elevation of structures, the slopes of revetments to reduce runup, and the

size of armor stone to dissipate energy.
The use of stone in coastal structures is based primarily on experience.

Continued research is needed on the development of testing procedures,
criteria, and methods of quarrying to determine and produce rock character-
istics that are desirable and suitable for use in coastal structures.
Current research includes various tests for shrink and swell behavior,
wetting and drying effects, mineralogic composition, specific gravity, and
other physical and chemical properties.
b. Earth. Current investigations and studies relating to the use of

earth materials in the coastal and marine environment deal primarily with the
behavior of soils under various nearshore conditions and their use in connec-
tion with coastal structures. These investigations include numerous programs
that are in progress to develop field techniques and criteria for use in
design, construction, and maintenance of effective beach and dune protection.
The programs seek to describe and predict the interactions between the
materials that make up the coasts and the forces that act upon them. Studies
include the development of mathematical models that designers can use to
determine how much sandfill is required to adequately protect a segment of
* shore for a certain timespan and how often additional fill will be required.
Studies are in progress to determine the effective use of earth materials in
low-cost shore protection. New dredge disposal techniques are being studied
to aid in beach nourishment projects and sand bypassing across coastal
inlets. Several field research facilities and projects have been established
to study coastal processes and their long-term effects on the erosion of and
protection of the natural coastline materials.
Research is also continuing on the engineering properties of the various

soils. These studies include the determination of density and porosity of
sea floor sediments, the grain-size distribution of beach materials, and the
shear strength and consolidation characteristics of estuarine deposits.
c. Portland Cement Concrete. Concrete structures are being increasingly

utilized for a wide variety of applications in the marine environment.
Structures are becoming more sophisticated and are being located in areas of
more severe exposure (e.g., ice and open sea), and subjected to cyclic and
impact loads. Consequently, their performance requirements become increas-
0O ingly severe and critical. Investigations are being performed relating to
internal response of structural elements, environmental conditions in which
the structure must serve, new materials and configurations, construction
practices and repairs, and new uses in the ocean.
Existing problems relating to concrete design include cracking, spalling,

* and corrosion of reinforcing steel, as well as the purposeful overdesign and
over-reinforcement of structures in an effort to cover the range of uncer-
tainty. These problems indicate the need for additional investigation to
better understand the properties of concrete. Investigations include:
• (1) Corrosion of reinforcement in submerged structures with

varying widths of cracks. Also where cracks are repeatedly opened
and closed tinder a large number of cycles there appear to be an
387
I - "I0 i - m d d ... ..
I
accelerated degradation which may be due to hydraulic fracturing

of the concrete by entrapped water.
(2) Placement of mass underwater concrete is being tested.

Tremie concrete mixes and placement procedures are being investigated
at the University of California and mass concrete placement in the
deep ocean is being tested by U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
at Hueneme. Also, investigation of thixotropic admixtures to prevent
segregation of concrete when flowing through water is being con-
sidered.
(3) Failure of dolos units and other armor units indicates

the need for additional investigation to find more stable shapes,
or the possible need for reinforcement to tie the member internally
and improve its flexural strength. Repairs to precast concrete
units of this kind, as well as other concrete structures have been
carried out using epoxy injection. Continued tests on repaired units
are needed to determine fatigue and ultimate strength as well as
to gain a better understanding of the impact on other properties
of concrete.
d. Other Types of Concrete and Grout.
(1) Bituminous Concrete. Asphalt is made from crude oil and re-
fineries in recent years are using crude from many different sources, making
the characteristics of presently produced asphalts different from those
previously produced. This results in problems in the handling and placing of
asphalt cement and in its performance. Asphalt-related problems generally
divide into two categories: workability problems and performance problems.
Workability problems, which make asphalt more difficult to mix and place,
seem to be common. They result from mixing the different crude sources.
Some evidence indicates that equipment changes, such as using drum plant
mixing in which the aggregate and asphalt are added to a drum simultaneously,
can result in a softer asphalt with a higher moisture content. The intro-
duction of vibratory compactors, which densify by dynamic energy, requires a
different compaction process than steel tandem rollers.
• OThere are many variables that can affect an asphalt: cement, fines,
aggregate, temperature of mix and roll, etc. More research is needed to
identify and clarify the role of variables. More investigation of the
compaction process is necessary.
(2) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete and Portland Cement Grout. This is

* essentially a special application of Portland cement concrete; therefore, the
investigations relating to Portland cement can also result in better use of
this type of concrete. By invest gating the performance of past, present,
and future projects using preplaced aggregate and Portland cement grout,
improved techniques and other applications should be found.
(3) Soil Cement. Soil cement is also a special rise of Portland

cement and additional investigation can create an understanding of how to use
local soils, especially the very fine and clay type soils, successftilly.
388
julfci "t e. lAnd Grout. With the increased production
01:1 , As '
twl!r OF It
t, 11 A1 m1rCe Sour crude, larger quantities of
furhi~vie.v~I i ak sulfur cement concrete and grout more
I~l0!!Ii
':'1 >yksecial uses. Ongoing research and testing
A l~
Cin~fl ',c'vIit materials by developing additives to
* . ~thoDse that allow mixing at temperatures
olc1. C.') S i, :oocnviation. In sulfur concrete develop-
P'tth ,d <: n'~ i:r to improve its physical properties
its he& s !i important activity.
I i-tfort in the research and development of

lC i Ili, s" oC1pcJi - 1 construction is devoted to the metal-
.cvc Ii rki -tee
'evelop products that are more corrosion
r~~~~si~it
icl xonvironment. ctn Progress has been made
w~ith recent 1eVClorT;-1 (11*aJ_' A242 and A588, using small amounts of
x~iuidiv:.
zrconvI t itanium. These alloys exhibit improved
't.i .v 'id v the cost of these products is high and,
1 t it i mp Icc ptro available (both coatings and cathodic
tio)i itr I i ' t.e al loys is produced. Studies in the
-* W ', itil i.r. Ilikprotection are ongoing to improve the
rta i i4
t., h Y r(),, r nnt and s tre ss corro sion c rack ing of
itmi';>':Of
::.*tj~ ' structural steel in future coastal
*xccl7 1 ' : ' TI !e

li studies and investigations of aluminum
AS'vl It,are similar to those of steel. Much of
7- wi ia better understanding of the physical-
ti. )xi('e t i ale responsible for the passivity and
:orro~~~~-1uitt r w s.-ei~ncThese studies may lead to new alloys
-1resultln"t I] latr in iii~l that might improve corrosion re-
>i-tn S W5Ce ia 1 ; zrc pilvsical properties of the metals, in-
adj st1ni,
r hres idic ions.
IA. ~~' teis:-r

Oflirures, that it is difficult to estimate
t i :11m w:.nci r&i- , contribute to the improved use of metals
Qod. L0cC'I-iX W%' .ui by nature under various uncontrolled

~Ic~'in-'
-il-.'dit .'r.Iirtis highly variable. Also, the fact
"I ' t"'eu li\........ '.,oaod of different properties at different
~ ic~i's
ac n i~ ' pr;eriesof wood. Recent investigations
)n the -:'A gti) propw it, - !J:tmmne the material variability of clear
;:f." hi-:d tj tile - '!' :rohibility
!! of sampling.
0 1: 1.
;tic P~, 1
'resent design often involves curved
:11 ld th I'(-1- die i(, d istri butions . Therefore, recent
Ycndil'tt I~i- the determination of strength and elastic
'l of I, (t'-d 1 ti_ principal directions. Prediction equations
'1' _ )iiilluwthe estimation of all the elastic
* ''- iw of (1) -ii iCodman, 1973). Also, there is consider-
a ii '~epri i. V cld strength characteristics of wood
389
The determination of the elastic parameter values is based on the linear
part of the stress-strain curve. For ultimate stress design, the knowledge
of the nonlinear part of the stress-strain curve is very important. Investi-
gation is also being done on the stress interaction behavior of wood.
One of the problems associated with the theoretical prediction of the

strength of wood is the lack of understanding of its mechanism of failure.
Fracture mechanics of wood as well as the concept of energy of distortion
limitation, are also being investigated.
(2) Time-Dependent Characteristics. Because of the time-dependent

stress-strain behavior of wood a large amount of investigation has been
concerned with the rheological properties of this material. Nonlinear time-
dependent relationships, cyclic loads, and cyclic environmental factors all
complicate these relationships. Among the various rheological properties,
creep behavior appears to be the property most often needed in designing with
wood. The effect of duration of load on the strength properties also is
being investigated. Dynamic forces act for a very short duration and under
these conditions wood appears to be stronger and stiffer than under static
loading.
(3) Wood Composites. When compared to other construction materials,

wood is one of the most efficient materials available on a pound per pound
basis in stiffness and strength along the grain. However, its efficiency is
much lower if across-the-grain direction is considered. Thus for specific
engineering purposes it is necessary to rearrange the wood in relation to its
natural form. This necessitates the manufacture of composites such as
laminated beams, plywood, particleboard, hardboard, and fiberboard. Further
modifications can be made by high density overlays and impregnations and
preservatives.
Some investigation and testing of laminated wood utilizes a proof-loading

concept to establish the laminating combinations and their associated design
stress. The research is intended to determine what tensile proof load should
be used in order to justify strength levels and what percentage of the
tension zone laminations should be subject to the proof load level. In order
to utilize more flexibility in laminating combinations, a project is in
progress which will provide criteria for combining different species.
g. Plastics. The number of plastic materials and resins available today

iF so great and the variety of synthetics available in each family of
plastic resins is so large that it is virtually impossible to identify
significant investigation and research that is ongoing and of importance to
coastal engineering materials development. Investigations and development
occur in three general areas: processing and machinery, new resins, and resin
modifications by additives.
(1) Processing and Machinery. The development of new resins will

not le,-d to an improved product until the machinery for processing such
resins or modified resins can be developed. The new machinery will control
the plastic manufacturing in a manner to properly produce ;i given product
with the required physical properties.
390
4
'Molding machines have been iccloped to im,ld liquid polymers and tech-
nology is now being offered for injection molding of Lltrahigh molecular
weight polyethylenes. Systems for extruding polypropylene using water cool-
ing of the bubble to obtain guod toughness and high clarity are being de-
veloped. A new development in injection molding is making a solid skin of
one type of plastic and a foamed core of another. The manner in which
plastics are made impacts on the physical properties of a material such as
impact resistance, flexural strength, and heat distortion, permitting these
properties to be substantially improved with improved processing capability.
The improvement of physical properties will provide for a longer service life
of the present use of both rigid and flexible plastics. As flexural strength,
resistance to impact and heat distortion are increased, plastics may find an
increasing use as structural members.
(2) New Resins. Polyester resins form a large family of resins. In

I the manufacture of resins, three basic controls (i.e., density or degree of
crystallinity, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution), result in
a great variety of resins. The abundance of glycols and dibasic acids de-
veloped from petroleum intermediates provides a wide latitude in designing
polyester resins to meet specific requirements. Unsaturated polyesters can
compete with epoxies, phenolics, and other plastics in electrical, physical
.* and mechanical properties. These resins predominate in applications requir-
ing corrosion resistance. For example, nonair-inhibited types are used as a
material in boat hulls, bouys, and decks, and for coating wood, concrete,
metals, and other structures. High temperature resistant resins such as
linear aromatic polyesters represent another new development. This particular
* polymer also has a high resistance against most organic solvents.
Polyethylene has a very simple molecular structure, but it is capable of

almost infinite variation and modification. The most recent development has
been in the very high density polyethylene resins that result in a hard
crystalline character. These developments may result in improved properties
msuch as impact resistance, tensile strength, and abrasion resistance for use
in bouys, fenders and bumpers, and unreinforced pipe.
(3) Resin Modifications by Additives. Virtually all resins will

have different properties due to the incorporation of additives. Antioxi-
dants are used to prevent degradation of resins at high temperature. Ultra-
violet stabilizers prevent deterioration in atmospheric exposures. Fillers
are used for their reinforcing properties, such as the use of chopped glass
fibers to increase strength and stiffness. Air may be considered a filler
,. when injected into a resin during processing to produce a cellular or foamed
plastic.
* Dispersion resins are fine particle resins which can be dispersed in

plasticizers to produce liquid systems that are essentially 100 percent
solid:;. These systems are used in the manufacture of protective coating and
paint systems. Many of these systems are used to coat, impregnate or saturate
fabrics and yarns as well as to coat paper, and leather.
* New developments in the use of plastics in coastal structures will be

continuous for many years to come since a large variety of plastic resins are
available, their molecular structure can be rearranged to form new plastics,
39
lnd the physical properties of the new plastics can be changed and improved
through tile manufacturing process and the addition cf additives and plasti-
I, ,i -ers.
(4) Geotextile :ilters. The development, investigation and testing

017 fabrics is fragmented and there are many activities overlapping in effort.
The manufact ure of filter fabric is changing in some instances due to the
ongoing development of nonwoven fabrics with controllable thickness, elonga-
tion, and filtration capabilities. Methods are being investigated to char-
acteri:e fabric as to the size and shape of openings and the details of
:1 egg ing of the fabric. Tear propogation in fabrics is being studied.
I!echanical property analysis to indicate the amount of deformation that a
S,!ric will undergo is being performed. Information about anchoring to
indicate the required friction between the fabric and the soil is also wg
investigated. Filtration mechanisms (and particularly the soil structu'
arrangement resulting from the waterflew), flow rate, permeability, and
piping are being evaluated and laboratory test methods are being recomme
He results of these investigations and others that will come along in t
ftuture will provide data for expanded and better use of fabrics.
h. Protective Systems.
(1) Coatings. One of the principal means of preventing deteriora-

tion of structures is through the use of protective coatings. Coatings may
he specified on a formulation basis, on a performance basis, or by a combina-
tion of the two. The formulation-type specification does not take advantage
Iof the manufacturer's experience and formulating knowledge, the responsi-
bility for obtaining a suitable coating being the specification writer's and
his technical sources. The principal alleged merit of a performance-type
coating is that it does take advantage of the manufacturer's knowledge and
experience and may be a real advantage if the manufacturer is highly ex-
perienced in formulating coatings for the particular contemplated usage. A
principal difficulty with performance-type specifications is that acceptance
tests, which purport to show that a coating is satisfactory for a specific
e, ~must necessarily he finished in a short time and frequently have little
- ,grificancc in predicting actual performance. Performance tests include
fle:ribility, hiding power, immersion resistance, gloss, resistance to weather
or Ilt spray tests.
,.A
The development of improved coating systems involves three areas of

irvestigation and testing: surface preparation, coating application tech-
nioyes and improved materials. In many situations environmental constraints
tivi,,
required innovations and improvements in all three areas of coating
ystems development.
6
(a) Surface Preparation. Surface preparation is accomplished
in many ways: solvent cleaning, hand and power-tool cleaning (wire brushing),
I-kling, flame cleaning and blast cleaning (sandblasting).
Good coating performance reqnires good adhesion to the structure surface.

* Preparing the surface for coating application is critical. In solvent
leaning, mineral spirits are frcquently used but must be sufficiently
r-fined as to not leave oily resi dics upon evaporation. Solvents t hat leave
392
L
no residue on a surface to impede the bond of coating require additional
investigation. However, study in this area is limited as solvent cleaning is
usually used with other surface preparation processes.
Hand and power-tool cleaning of metal surfaces is widely used; however,

this process usually produces some areas of polished metal, which are not
conductible to good coating adhesion. Developmental studies are being done
in an effort to devise means of removing loose contaminating particles from a
structure surface by designing wire tips for brushes that will remove con-
taminants and improve brush wear.
in pickling, acids such as sulfuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric and nitric

are used. Inhibitors are added to minimize metal loss. However, acids leave
considerable residue on metal surfaces that can cause coating adhesion
problems. The elimination of residues by hot-water rinsing helps but rede-
posited salts or absorption of atomic hydrogen may cause metal embrittlement.
Means to prevent these possibilities must be considered.
Flame cleaning removes only loose rust particles and grease, therefore it
must be followed by wire brushing and coating application while the surface
is dry but cool. Because this process has a high cost, it is not used to a
* great extent and little improvement in its use is being studied.
Blast cleaning is the most effective method of cleaning metal surfaces.

The degree of blast cleaning can be determined by type of blasting material,
the pressure used in blasting,and the amount of time of blasting per unit
area. The metal surface anchor pattern developed as a result of blast
( cleaning can be controlled. Certain coating systems may require a deep
anchor pattern, others a shallow anchor pattern. Some blasting materials
produce a rounded anchor pattern while others a sharp pattern. Because
different t)-pes of coating primers require different adhesion conditions,
surface preparation must be considered as a part of the coating system.
(b) Coating Application Techniques. Coating application

techniques are an integral part of a protective coating system. As new and
better coating systems are developed,new application systems must also be
created. Application systems presently in use are brush, roller, various
spray methods, flow and electrostatic processes. The electrostatic processes
came about with the development of plastic resins which are applied in the
* dry powder form. This application system involves a specific surface prepa-
ration process. Still in the development and improvement stage is an im-
provement in the process that will produce a required thickness of a near
perfect coating, without pinholes or holidays, using a variety of plastic
resins. Present electrostatic applications are very good but the adaptability
of this procedure to a wider variety of resins or the development of a
* greater number of coating resins for use in this process must continue.
(c) Improved Coating Materials. Asphalt coatings consisting of

a dispersion of high molecular weight hydrocarbon compounds (asphaltenes) in
heavy residual oils are made into asphalt enamels, hot applied, solvent-reduced
asphalt coatings and emulsions. Because the asphalt residue, from which the
0 coatings are made, is used as a raw material for many other products, the cost
of such coatings is rising and there is relatively little asphalt coating
research and development activity.
393
Coal-tar pitch, the residue from distilled coal tar, is used to manu-
facture coal-tar coatings by cutting back the pitch with coal-tar solvents
and usually adding mineral filler (extender pigments) such as magnesium
-r silicate. Most recent developments of the use of coal tar in coating systems
is in the coal-tar epoxy systems. These systems contain epoxy resins,
pigments, solvents, curing agents, coal-tar pitch and gelling agents. The
broader use of coal-tar pitch with a greater variety of resins is continually
under development at present. The development of plastic resins for use in
new coating formulations is part of the research and development activities
discussed in Section IX, Plastics.
(2) Cathodic Protection. Maximizing the efficiency of corrosion

control requires a thorough understanding of the environment and its vari-
* ability to which structural materials are exposed. This is particularly true
of metals. However, environmental considerations are also important in con-
Sq sidering the durability of all construction materials.
(a) Environmental Variability. Optimizing cathodic protection

systems in the marine environment requires a detailed knowledge of the
seasonal variability of dissolved oxygen, temperature, and the saturation
rate of the water with respect to carbonates. Although complete protection
can and is being achieved on many structures without any prior knowledge of
these variables, the design of the most economical system utilizing a com-
bination of impressed current, sacrificial anodes, and coatings is not
possible without detailed knowledge of the environmental conditions.
The four variables important to corrosion for which there exists a large
enough data base to permit general surface water mapping of the oceans are
temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH. Other variables may also be
of importance but enough data are not yet available to significantly evaluate
their impact on a global scale.
Premature anode material failures as a result of variation in environ-

mental conditions are being examined in more detail. Attention is being
given to electrochemical reactions and conditions at the anode-environment
interface when chloride and sulfate ions are discharged in the anodic process,
affecting the anode material.
(b) Buried and Embedded Steel. Although some ten cathodic

protection criteria for buried steel structures have been used throughout the
world, a universally acceptable criterion is still not available. Frequently
different criteria give conflicting evaluations of the state of protection.
This situation has been due primarily to the lack of suitable electrochemical
procedures to monitor and evaluate the actual state of protection at the
structure-soil interface. A great deal of investigation of this problem,
both in the field and laboratory, is being done and reported regularly in the
literature.
Some studies indicate that the current density for cathodic protection of
embedded steel in concrete is controlled primarily by the rate of oxygen
diffusion through the concrete. Measurements indicate that the resistance to
oxygen diffusion may be ten times higher through the interface between
cement paste and steel than through the concrete cover.
394
Studies to provide a better understanding of the electrochemical and the
electrode kinetics reactions at the surface of the metal-environment inter-
face and to improve field measurement techniques are ongoing in many places
in the world. This information will provide engineers with a means of
( determining better and more efficient cathodic protection designs required in
any local conditions in the future.
I3
395
0
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atclauxr de Construc-
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FORBRICH, L.R., "The Effect of \.;r'ious A.oent on the fleat liberation Charac-
teristics of Portland Cement Vol. 37, No. 2,
Nov. 1940, pp. 161-185.
402
6
GIROUD, J.P., GIROUC, J.P. and BALLY, F., "Behavior of a Nonwoven Fabric in
an Earth Dam," University of Grenoble, Grenoble, France, Aug. 1977.
GUDAS, J.P., and HACK, H.P., "Sulfide Induced Corrosion of Copper Nickel
Alloys," Corrosion, Vol. 35, No. 2, Feb. 1979.
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, "Welding Data Book," WeZRnj ,c ign and Fabri-
cation Magazine, West Cleveland, Ohio, 1970/71.
INTERNATIONAL NICKEL COMPANY, INC., "Guidelines for Selection of Marine

Materials," Publication No. A-404, New York, 1975.
INTERNATIONAL NICKEL COMPANY, INC., "Mechanical and Physical Properties of

the Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels at Subzero Temperatures,"
Publication A-313, New York, Apr. 1975.
INTERNATIONAL NICKEL COMPANY, INC., GeneraZ Seawater Corrosion, Publication
No. A-1276, New York, Mar. 1978.
INTERNATIONAL NICKEL COMPANY, INC., Marine Biofouing, Publication No.

A-1296, New York, Sept. 1979.
LAQUE, F.L., Marine Corrosion Causes and Prevention, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1975.
MOFFATT AND NICHOL, ENGINEERS, "Low Cost Shore Protection," Final Report On
Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstraticn Program (Section 54), U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Jan. 1981.
ROBSON, T.D., "Characteristics and Applications of Mixtures of Portland

Cement and High-Alumina Cements," Chemistry and Industry, Vol. 12, No. 12,
London 1961.
ROSS, R.W., and ANDERSON, D.B., "Protection of Steel Piling in Marine Splash
and Spray Zones - The Metallic Sheathing Concept," Fourth International
Congress on Marine Corrosion and Fouling, Juan les Pins-Antibes, June 1976.
TEIGE, N.G., and KANE, R.L., "Experience with Titanium Structures in Marine
* Service," Materials Perfo2--acre, Vol. 9, No. 8, Aug., 1970.
TERZAGHI, K., Theoreti:ia 'eo'o 7 *k anz , John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1943.
TITANIUM METALS CORPORATION OF AMERICA, ll li,,afions )f Titnizum

Ap
* and Its AZloys, Publication No. EP rl 8-69 3M, West Caldwell, N.J.,
Nov. 1968.
UNITED STATES STEEL CORPORATION, "Steel I-Piles," Publication No. ADUSS 25-2700,
Pittsburgh, Pa., Oct. 1967.
* UNITED STATES STEEL CORtORATION, "Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual," Publication
No. ADUSS 25-3848-03, Pittsburgh, Pa., Apr. 1972.
403
4
.\PPLND IX A\
SPECIFICA' 1).S ANID APPLICATIONS FOR STEEL

' SUIT 'i NIRRINE SERVICE.
:AB
FOR
ASTM Title
designation standaid Application
A36-77 Standard Specification Bridges, bulkheads,

for structural steel general structures
A131-78 Standard SpLc iCicat ion Ship construction,

for structural steel tanks (shapes, plates,
for ships rivets)
A242-79 Standard Specification

for high-strength, low-
alloy Str'UCt;ral steel
A252 Standard Specification Structures, form for

for welded and seamless cast in place concrete
steel pipe piles piles
A283-79 Standard Specification General structure,

for low and inter- tanks
mediate tensile strength
carbon steel plates,
shapes, and bars
A284-77 Standard Specification Machine parts,

for low and inter- general construction
mediate tensile
strength carbon-
silicon steelplates for
machine parts and gen-
eral construction
A328-7Sa Standard Specification Sheet piling, dock

for steel sheet piling walls, and cofferdams
A440-77 Standard Specification Bridges

'• for high strength,
structural steel
A441-79 Standard Specification Bridges, buildings;

for high-strength low- weight savings and
alloy structural added durability
* manganese vanadium
steel
A514-77 Standard Specification Welded bridges and

for hi h xi,,d- other structures
strength, 111, hed and
tempc d a 1 ,v steel
plate, 32 hI tu(jr
we Id i I-
6t 4 05
A529-75 Standard Specification Buildings
for 42,000 psi (290
MPa) minimum yield
point {l/2-in (12.7
nm) maximum thickness}
A572-79 Standard Specification Bridges, building

for high-strength low- structures
alloy columbium-
vanadium steels of
structural quality
A573 Standard Specification Steel plates and

for structural carbon sheet piling
steel plates of
improved toughness
A588-80a Standard Specification Bridges, buildings;

for high-strength low- weight savings and
alloy structural steel added durability
-q with 50,000 psi
minimum yield point to
4-in thickness
A633-79a Standard Specification Serves at -450 C

for normalized high- and higher
strength low-alloy
structural steel
A690-77 Standard Specification Dock walls, seawalls,

for high-strength, low- bulkheads; providing
alloy steel H-piles and 2 to 3 times greater
sheet piling for use in resistance to seawater
marine environments splash zone than
ordinary CS
A699-77 Standard Specification General application;

for low-carbon grades 3 and 4 suitable
manganese-molybdenum - for temperature down
columbium alloy steel to -450 C
plates, shapes, and
bars
A709-80 Standard Specification Carbon and high strength

for structural steel low alloy steel plates
for bridges and sheets
A710-79 Standard Specification Plates, shapes and

for low-carbon age- bars for general
hardening nickel - application
copper - chromium -
molyhdenurn-columbium
and nickel-copper-
collIunTJian a lloy steels
406
0I
APPENDIX B
_L,.CiHANlCAL PROPERTIES OF ROUND WOOD PILES
I'lFAThJ) .ITH PRESERVATIVES FOR USE IN SALTWATER
1. Source o: 101 ,rm:"t >u
The Civil En incrin.. Laboratory at the Naval Construction Battalion

Center, Port Hucne,, Cal ifornia, investigated the effects of various commer-
cial preservative treatments on the mechanical 'roperties of wood. The in-
vestigation and reults are described below in excerpts from Eaton, Drelicharz
and Roe (1978).
2. Preservative Treatments
"Thirty-five -teelod Douglas fir logs as nearly alike as feasible were

selected from on-hand supplies and cut into pieces approximately 30 feet long,
nominally 12 inches in diameter at the butt end and 7 inches in diameter at
the tip end. These were separated into seven lots of five piles each. The
seven different lt treatments were:
(a) Untrcat,d,
(b) standard creosote treatment,
(c) ACA, 2.5 lb/cu ft of sapwood,
(d) ACA, 1 lb/cu ft of sapwood, followed by kiln drying, followed

by standard creosote treatment,
(e) ACA, I lb'cu ft of sapwood, followed by air drying, followed

by standard creosote treatment,
(f) CCA, I lbcu ft of sapwood, followed by kiln drying, followed

by standard creosote treatment, and
(g) CCA, I Lb'cu ft of sapwood, followed by air drying, followed

by standard creosote treatment.
All preservative retentions met the minimum American Wood Preservers' Associ-
- ation requirements except for the dual-treated CCA + creosote, both air- and
kiln-dried (se'e T:i5l. 1)."
"Forty peeiotd iuthiern pine logs as nearly alike as feasible were selected
from on-hand s,,or i nd cut into forty pieces approximately 30 feet long, 12
inches in diam,.ter it th. butt ond, and 7 inches in diameter at the tip end.
* These were sep.,ratW, iute, eight lots of five piles each. Seven lots were
given the same l.v-,ls ot treatment as the seven lots of fir. An eighth treat-
ment - 2.5 lb ,t CC".'\,ini tt of sapwood - was used on the remaining eighth lot.
All preservative r,,teotins met the minimum American Wood Preservers' Associ-
ation requirew,. t .
* Note that tie r teutiens for some preservatives were well above the speci-
fied minimums
0 407
0
Table B-i. Preservative retention of marine

piles within a 1-inch depth.
Average Preservative Retention

of Five Piles Der Treatment
1
Pcf
Treatment ,2 Specific
Gravity Total
Creosote
ISalts
Metallic Chromium Copper Arsenic
Southern Pine
Untreated 0.54 0 0 0 0 0
Creosote 0.54 28.9 0 0 0 0
- 2.5 ACA 0.54 0 6.76 0 3.43 3.33
1.0 ACA, kiln, 0.53 29.8 2.04 0 1.05 0.99
creosote
1.0 ACA, air, 0.55 29.5 1.70 0 0.81 0.89
creosote
1.0 CCA, kiln, 0.54 27.6 1.58 0.68 0.23 0.67
-. creosote
1.0 CCA, air, 0.55 31.1 1.39 0.63 0.18 0.57
creosote
2.5 CCA 0.56 0 5.18 2.46 0.83 1.89
Douglas Fir
Untreated 0.47 0 0 0 0 0
Creosote 0.44 21.6 0 0 0 0
2.5 ACA 0.44 0 4.67 0 2.37 2.30
1.0 ACA, kiln, 0.46 30.6 1.12 0 0.53 0.59
creosote
1.0 ACA, air, 0.46 30.5 1.05 0 0.51 0.54
creosote
1.0 CCA, kiln, 0.44 18.7 0.79 0.36 0.12 0.31
creosote
1.0 CCA, air, 0.46 16.1 0.55 0.27 0.07 0.22
creosote
1
ACA - ammoni~cal copper arsenate
CCA - chroma,-d copper arsenate
2
Number represents pounds of chemical per cubic foot of sapwood.
3. Bending Testr of Full-Sized Piles
"The 75 piles were then destructively tested at the Forest Research Lab-
oratory, Corvallis, Ore., in a random chronological manner."
* "Piles were selected randomly for testing. They were loaded into a
600,000-lb capacity, universal testing machine from the Civil Engineering
Department of Oreton State university. If a pile was curved, it was rotated
408
before the loadinii pr,'edure until there was no horizontal curve. The load-
ing heads were loIded until they almost touched the pile, load and deflection
recording devices wero zeroed, and circumferences were measured at the tip,
middle, and butt ,f each pile. Moisture contents of untreated or creosote-
treated piles me-1,,red
0
Eor with a resistance-type moisture meter near a
loading head at deth of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5 inches."
"Data were recorded in two ways: (1) by means of a strip chart attached
to the universal testin.A machine and written data sheets, and (2) a magnetic
tape, digital recorder and microphone provided by CEL. The tape reel number,
tape footage, dat,, time and specimen numbers were recorded on the data
sheet, and the tape recorder was set for recording. The specimen number,
date, and weather report were spoken into the microphone, and some sounds were
recorded of the breaking piles. The loading rate was 0.53-in./min until fail-
ure when the head speed was increased until 10 inches of deflection occurred.
Maximum breaking load (Pmax) was recorded on the data sheets as were abnormal-
lities such as severe slope of grain or overabnudance of knots, and the type
of failure (i.e., compression, tension, or shear)."
"After these bending tests, a 4-ft-long butt specimen and a 3-in.-long

cross section near the failure were cut from each pile. The 4-ft-long speci-
mens were sent to CEL and the 3-in.-long sections were saved for preservative
analyses. Moisture content specimens were taken near the point of failure.
Salt-treated and untreated specimens were oven-dried. The Karl Fischer method
was used to uctervine oioqture contents of creosote and salt-treated speci-
mens. Sections of piles from the vicinity of failure points were cut and
saved."
4. Compression Tests on Piles Segments
"The 4-foot butt specimens obtained earlier were squared off with a table
chainsaw to a leng;th of 45 inches. The specimens were submerged in water in
a retort and 90 psi of pressure applied to bring the wood to its fiber satur-
ation point. This water-impregnation treatment required I day for pine and 1
week for Douglas fir. Moisture contents of creosoted specimens were recorded
with five readin_.s it 1/2-inch-depth increments up to a total depth of 2-1/2
. inches in the middle of a piece 2 feet from its end. fhe moisture' content of
dual-treated piles .,as assumied to be similar to creosote-treated material.
The moisture content of salt-treated piles was assumed to be similar to the
untreated specimens. The average moisture contents after pressure treatment
. with water were: 3W. tar southern pine and 28% for Douglas fir."
"The lenJti and , iur,:wtirence at butt and tip of each specimen was
measured. Latitn; to :iilure was at the rate of 200 kips/min. The location
* of each failu .. -. ,rcd,
5. Resu I t ,
"T.l)1L 2 1 i i altO ined from this program. Table values are

based (,n Ii> i.i ,1 r i piles, selected originally for high quality
appe.Ira1Tn 'I ''I I, 1 ,,,.: va riation from pile to pile. Thus, the table
values iv. , Vi I ill tiv ,aul b, If unselected run-of-the-mill piles
were used. . . ,, t hnr, wis a de fin i te decrease in the mechanical
propLrti .s ,I t, t; t In t ,,ln ts. s ,w Is 'igh as 55%."
* 409
lable B-2. Average mechanical properties of piles.
Flexural Properties
No. Average
Type of of Modulus Modulus of Absorbed Compressive
Treatment Test of Elasticity Energy Strength,
Piles Rupture in Flexure in Fc
MPa GPa Flexure MPa
kJ/m3
Fir
Untreated 5 57.87 13.25 43.70 23.07

Creosote 5 47.31 10.92 28.97 ---- 1
ACA dual 2 10 42.13 10.60 21.09 18.71
CCA dual 2 10 26.50 8.074 23.19 16.09
ACA 5 38.75 9.763 14.33 16.97
Pine
Untreated 5 55.21 13.39 36.13 -

Creosote 5 41.02 .... I -
ACA dual 2 10 32.58 10.81 19.51
CCA dual 2 10 28.73 9.935 16.64
ACA 5 38.16 10.60 -
CCA 5 37.30 --- -11
INo value is provided because of the large spread in measured

values for a qmall number of samples.
21ncludes both air-dried and kiln-dried specimens (5 each).
"Table 2 may be useful to the designer and planner. Data on strength

of piles found in handbooks usually refer to untreated piles. A designer
can obtain from Table 2 a rough estimate of the ratio of strength for his
choice of species and treatment compared to that of the stronger untreated
piles. Then the number of piles required for the job can be estimated."
6. Conclusions
"For Douglas fir piles, it is concluded that:
(a) Dual treatment (ACA and creosote or CCA and creosote) or

treatment with only ACA will reduce some mechanical properties of
a pile more than treatment with creosote. For specific numerical
reduction refer to Table 2.
(b) Of the two dual treatments, CCA and creosote reduces some
mechanical properties of a pile more than ACA and creosote (refer
to Table 2.
(c) In dual treatments, kiln drying is more deleterious than

air dryin .
410
"For southern pine piles, it is concluded that:
Dual treatment (ACA and creosote or CCA and creosote) or treat-

ment with ACA only are more deleterious to more mechanical proper-
ties than treatment with creosote (refer to Table 2)."
7. Recommendations
"It is recommended that:
(a) In areas where piles are destroyed mainly by mechanical

means, creosote-treated piles should be considered.
(b) In areas where piles are destroyed mainly by biological

attack and it is known that dual-treated piles will last suf-
ficiently longer than creosoted piles, the additional expense
I will be justified.
(c) Accurate records should be kept of randomly placed

pile treatments and of installation and removal dates so
that a better selection of treatments could be made."
411
- _| ,,A
6
APPENDIX C
GEOTEXTILE FILTER TESTS
P! 1. Tensile Strength and Elongation Test
Test five Stronger Principal Direction (SPD) and five Weaker Principal
Direction (WPDJ samples, unaged, in accordance with ASTM Standard D 1682-64
Brealing Load and Eliongation of Textile Fabric-Grab Test Method. The jaws
* shall be 2.54 centimeters (1 inch) square and the constant rate of travel
* 30.5 centimeters (12 inches) per minute. Care should be exercised to make
sure the fabric is properly alined to the jaws. If not properly alined,
the results will be inaccurate. Test should be conducted at 22.80 ±20
Celsius (730 ±30 Fahrenheit).
2. Seam Breaking Strength
Tes'-: five unaged samples in accordance with method ASTM Standard D

A-
1683-68, using 2.54-centimeter square jaws and 30.5 centimeters per minute
6 constant rate of travel.
3. Puncture Strength
Test five unaged samples using Standard ASTM D 751-73 and determine the
puncture strength using the Tension Testing Machine With Ring Clamp, except
that the steel ball should be replaced with a 5/16-inch diameter, solid
steel cylinder centered within the ring clamp.
6" 4. Burst Strength
Test five unaged samples in accordance with ASTM Standard D 751-73 and
* determine the bursting strength using the Diaphragm Test Method.
5. Abrasion Resistance
Test five SPD and five WPD unaged samples in accordance with ASTM
Standard D 3884-80 (formerly D 1175-71) using the "Rotary Platform, Double
Head" method. The abrasive wheels must be the rubber-base type equal to
the CS-17 "Calibrase" manufactured by Taber Instrument Company. The load
on each wheel must be 1 000 grams and the test must be continued for 1 000
revolutions. After abrasion determine the residual tensile strength by
the I-inch Ravelled Strip Method of ASTM D1682-64.
6. Freeze-Thaw Tlest
Subject five SPD and five WPD samples, 10.2 ±0.51 by 15.2 ±0.51 centi-
meters (4 ±0.2 by 6 +().2 inches), unaged, to 300 freeze-thaw cycles as des-
cribed in test method CRD-C 20. Each cycle should be a duration of 2 hours
* f±4minutes duration. Then test samples using ASTM Standard D 1682 Grab Test
Method as described in 1. above.
7. Hi h Temperature 'Test
Place five SP10 and tlive WPI) samples, 10.2 ±0.51 by 15.2 ±-0.51 centimeters,
*1 unaged, in a forced dr~aft oven at 82.20 ±20 Celsius (1800 ±3' Fahrenheit) for
48 ±t2 hiours. Thien Test cachi sample at the test temperature using ASTM
Standard D)I~2 ~~ '1lest Metlhod as described in 1. above.
412
6
8. Low Temperature Test
Place five SPP and five WPD samples, 10.2 ±0.51 by 15.2 ±0.51 centimeters,
unaged, in a refrigerator at -17.8 ° ±2 ° Celsius (00 ±3 Fahrenheit) for 48 ±2
hours, then test each sample at the test temperature using ASTM Standard D
1682 Grab Test Method as described in 1. above.
9. Acid Test
Submerge five SPD and five WPD samples, 10.2 ±0.51 by 15.2 ±0.51 centi-
meters, unaged, in a I-liter glass beaker filled to within 5.1 centimeters
(2 inches) of its top, with a solution of sufficient hydrochloric acid in
about a liter of distilled water to produce a DH of 2 ±0.1. Cover the
beaker with a watch glass and place in a constant temperature bath at 62.80
±20 Celsius (145 ±5 Fahrenheit). Using a 0.635-centimeter glass tube
inserted into the spouted beaker to within 1.27 centimeters of the beaker
bottom, air is bubbled gently through the solution at the rate of one
bubble per second continuously for 14 days. The solution should be changed
every 24 hours, with the new warmed to 65.60 ±.5° Celsius (150 ±1 Fahrenheit)
before replacing the old solution. Test each sample then for tensile
* strength and elongation using ASTM Standard D 1682 Grab Test Method as
described in 1. above.
10. Alkali Test
Submerge five SPD and five WPD samples, 10.2 ±0.51 by 15.2 ±0.51
centimeters, unaged, in a 1-liter glass beaker filled to within 5.1 centi-
meters of its top, with a solution of equal amounts of chemically pure
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide dissolved in about a liter of
distilled water to obtain a pH of 13 ±0.1. Cover the beaker with a watch
glass and place in a constant temperature bath at 62.80 ±20 Celsius. Using
a 0.635-centimeter glass tube inserted into the spouted beaker to within
1.27 centimeters of the beaker bottom, air is bubbled gently through the
solution at the rate of one bubble per second continuously for 14 days.
The solution should be changed every 24 hours, with the new solution warmed
to 65.60 ±0.50 Celsius before replacing the old solution. Test each sample
then for tensile strength and elongation using ASTM Standard D 1682 Grab
Test Method as described in 1. above.
11. JP-4 Fuel Test
Submerge ten SPID and ten WPD samples, 10.2 ±0.51 by 15.2 ±0.51 centi-
meters, unaged, in JP-4 fuel at room temperature for 7 days. Test each
* sample then for tensile strength using ASTM Standard D 1682 Grab Test
Method as described in 1. above.
12. Determination of Equivalent Opening Size (E.O.S.)
a. Calhoun eIethod, 1972. Based on the Calhoun (1972) method, five

* unaged samples shjll he tested. Obtain about 150 grams of each of the following
fractions of a sand composed of sound, rounded-to-subrounded particles:
413
07
U.S. Standard Sieve Number
Passing Retained On Passing Retained On Passing Retained On
10 20 30 40 50 70
20 30 40 50 70 100
100 120
The cloth shall be affixed to a standard sieve having openings larger than
the coarsest sand used, in such a manner that no sand can pass between the
cloth and the sieve wall. The sand shall be oven dried. Shaking shall be
accomplished as described in EM 1110-2-1906, Appendix V, paragraph 2d(l)(g),
except shaking shall be continued for 20 minutes. Determine by sieving
(using successively coarser fractions) that fraction of sand of which S
percent or less by weight passes the cloth; the equivalent opening size of
the cloth sample is the "retained on" U.S. Standard Sieve number of this
fraction.
b. Corps of Engineers 1977 Guide Specification Method. Five unaged

fabric samples shall be tested. Obtain 50 grams of each of the following
-* fractions of standard glass beads:
U.S. Standard Sieve Number
Designated Designated
EOS Passing Retained On EOS Passing Retained On
20 18 20 70 60 70
30 25 30 100 80 100
40 35 40 120 100 120
50 45 50
Suitable glass beads can be obtained from:
Cataphote Division
Ferro Corporation
P.O. Box 2369
0 Jackson, Mississippi 39205
Telephone: (601) 939-4631
Within each size range, 98 percent of the beads should be within the
specified range. The fabric shall be affixed to a standard sieve 8 inches
in diameter having openings larger than the largest beads to be used in the
* test. The fabric shall be attached to the sieve in such a manner that no
beads can pass between the fabric and the sieve wall. Shaking shall be
accomplished as described in paragraph 2d(l)(g), Appendix V, EM 1110-2-
1906, except the times for shaking shall be 20 minutes. Determine by
sieving (using successively coarser fractions) that size of beads of which
5 percent or less by weight passes through the fabric; the equivalent
* opening size, FOS of the fabric sample is the "retained on" U.S. Standard
Sieve number of this fraction.
414
13. Determination of Percent of Open Area (POA)
Each of fiVw unaged samples should be placed separately in a 2 by 2-

inch glass slide holder and the image projected with a slide projector on a
screen. Select a block of 25 openings near the center of the image and
measure to the nearest 25.4 micrometers (0.001 inch) the length and width
of each of the 25 openings and the widths of two fibers adjacent to each
opening. The percent open area is determined by dividing the sum of the
open areas of the 25 openings by the sum of the total area of the 25
openings and their adjacent fibers.
14. Determination of Gradient Ratio (GR)
A constant head permeability test shall be performed in a permeameter

cylinder on soil specimens representative in classification and density of
those materials to be protected, and in accordance with EM 1110-2-1906,
Appendix VII, with the following modifications:
(i) A piece of hardware cloth with 0.64-centimeter (0.25 inch) openings

shall be placed beneath the filter fabric specimen to support it. The
fabric and the hardware cloth shall be clamped between flanges so that no
soil or water can pass around the edges of the cloth.
(2) The soil specimen shall have a length of 10.16 centimeters (4

inches). Piezometer taps shall be placed 2.54 centimeters below the fabric,
and 2.54, 5.08, and 7.62 centimeters above the fabric.
( (3) Tapwater shall be permeated through the specimen under a constant

head loss for a continuous period of 24 hours. The tailwater level shall be
above the top of the soil specimen. The gradient ratio shall be determined
from the readings taken at the end of the 24-hour period.
(4) The gradient ratio is the ratio of the hydraulic gradient over the
fabric and the 1 inch of soil immediately next to the fabric (il), to the
hydraulic gradient over the 2 inches of soil between 1 and 3 inches above
the fabric (i?).
il
(;R =
415
I
APPENDIX D
INFOR1ATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Informational Sources
American Association of Port Authorities (AAPA)

1612 K Street, NW.
Washington, D.C. 20006
American Concrete Institute

Box 19150 Redford Station
Detroit, Michigan 48219
American Institute of Timber Construction

333 W. Hampden Rd.
Englewood, Co 80110
American Wood Preservers Institute

16S1 Old Meadow Road
McLean, Virginia 22101
National Association of Corrosion Engineers

P.O. Box 218346
Houston, Texas 77218
National Forest Products Association

1619 Massasschusetts Avenue, N.W.
Portland Cement Association

5420 Old Orchard Road
Skokie, Illinois 60077
The Asphalt Institute

Asphalt Institute Building
College Park, Maryland 20740
The Museum of Comparative Zoology

Harvard University
Cambridge, Mass. 02138
National Research Council

2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
'he Sulphur Institute

1725 K Street, N.W.
U.S. Nrmy Coastal Engineering Research Center

ri Kingman Building
Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service

Forest Products and Engineering Research
P.O. Box 2417
I.S. Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks
*6
416
J
APPENDIX E
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ABRADED STRENGTH - The result when tested in accordance with ASTM D1682,
"Breaking Load and Elongation of Textile Fabric, 1-Inch Ravelled Strip
Method". One-inch square jaws at a constant rate of traverse of 12 inches
per minute.
ABRASION RESISTANCE - The ability of a surface to resist wear by friction.
ALKALINE - The excess of hydroxyl ions over hydrogen ions. Seawater is

usually alkaline.
ALKALINITY - The capacity of a water to accept protons, i.e., hydrogen ions.
It is usually expressed as milliequivalents per liter.
ANAEROBIC - An oxygen-independent type of respiration.
ANNEAL - To subject to high heat, with subsequent cooling, so as to soften

thoroughly and render less brittle.
ANODE - The positive pole or electrode of an electrolytic cell.
AQUATIC - Growing or living in, or frequenting, water as opposed to ter-

restrial.
ARMOR - The outer or exposed layer of material(s) (stones, blocks, etc.) in
a protective structure subjected to attack by wave or scour forces.
AUSTENITIC - Having a solid solution of carbon or iron carbide in iron as a

constituent of steel under certain conditions.
BANK - (1) The rising ground bordering a lake, river, or sea; of a river or
channel, designated as right or left as it would appear facing downstream.
(2) An elevation of the sea floor of large area, located on a Continental
(or island) Shelf and over which the depth is relatively shallow but
sufficient for safe surface navigation; a group of shoals. (3) In its
secondary sense, a shallow area consisting of shifting forms of silt,
sand, mud, and gravel, but in this case it is only used with a qualifying
word such as "sandbank" or "gravelbank".
BASIN, BOAT - A naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed harbor

area for small craft.
BATHYMETRY - The measurement of depths of water in oceans, seas, and lakes;

also information derived from such measurements.
BAY - A recess in the shore or an inlet of a sea between two capes or head-
lands, not as large as a gulf but larger than a cove.
BEACH - The zone of unconsolidated material that extends landward from the
low water line to thc place where there is marked change in material or
* physiographic fnrm, or to the line of permanent vegetation (usually the
effective limit of storm woves). The seaward limit of a beach - unless
otherwise specified - is the mean low water line.
417
BEACH EROSION - The carrying away of beach materials by wave action, tidal
currents, littoral currents, or wind.
BENTHIC - Pertaining to the subaquatic bottom.
BENTHOS - A collective term describing: (l Bottom organisms attached or

resting on or in the bottom sediments. (2) Community of animals living
in or on the bottom.
BIOASSAY - The use of living organisms as an index to determine environ-

mental conditions.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) - The amount of oxygen required by the

biological population of a water sample to oxidize the organic matter in
that water. It is usually determined over a 5-day period under stan-
dardized laboratory conditions and hence may not represent actual field
conditions.
BIOLOGICAL RESISTANCE - Ability to resist degradation due to microorganisms.
BIOMASS - The amount of living material in a unit area for a unit time.
A Also standing crop, standing stock, live-weight.
BIOTA - The living part of a system (flora and fauna).
BOULDER - A rounded rock more than 10 inches in diameter; larger than a

cobblestone. See SOIL CLASSIFICATION.
BOTTOM - The ground or bed under any body of water; the bottom of the sea.
BREAKER - A wave breaking on a shore, over a reef, or other feature.
BREAKWATER - A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or

basin from waves.
BULKHEAD - A structure or partition to retain or prevent sliding of the

land. A secondary purpose is to protect the upland against damage from
wave action.
* BUOY - A float; especially a floating object moored to the bottom, to

mark a channel, anchor, shoal, rock, etc.
BUOYANCY - The resultant of upward forces, exerted by the water on a

submerged or floating body, equal to the weight of the water displaced
by this body.
I
BURST STRENGTH - The resistance of a fabric to rupture due to pressure
applied at right angles to the plane of the fabric under specified con-
ditions, usually expressed as the pressure causing failure. Burst is due
to tensile failure of the fabric.
CATHODE - The negative pole or electrode of an electrolytic cell.
CAUSEWAY - A raised road, across wet or marshy ground, or across water.
418
CHANNEL - (1) A nitUral or artificial waterway of perceptible extent which
either periodically or continuously contains moving water, or which
forms a connecting link between two bodies of water. (2) The part of a
body of water deep enough to be used for navigation through an area
otherwise too shallow for navigation. (3) A large strait, as the English
Channel. (4) The deepest part of a stream, bay, or strait through which
the main volume or current of water flows.
CLAY - A fine grained soil with cohesive strength inversely related to water
content. It is plastic when moist and hardens when baked or fired. See
SOIL CLASSIFICATION.
CLIFF - A high, steep face of rock; a precipice.
CLOGGING - The phenomena causing either a reduction in, or the elimination

of, the permeability of the filter.
COAST - A strip of land of indefinite width (may be several miles) that

extends from the shoreline inland to the first major change in terrain
features.
COASTAL AREA - The land and sea area bordering the shoreline.
COBBLE (COBBLESTONE) - A naturally rounded stone larger than a pebble,

especially one 6 inches to a foot in diameter.
COLLECTOR PIPE - A pipe capable of collecting and carrying water from the
soil.
COLONIZATION - A natural phenomenon where a species invades an area pre-

viously unoccupied by that species and becomes established. To be
successful the species must be able to reproduce in that area.
CONTOUR - A line on a map or chart representing points of equal elevation

with relation to a DATUM. It is called an ISOBATH when connecting points
of equal depth below a datum.
CORAL - (1) (Biology) Marine coelenterates (Madreporia), solitary or

colonial, which form a hard external covering ,of calcium compounds, or
other materials. The corals which form large reefs are limited to warm,
shallow waters, while those forming solitary, minute growths may be
found in colder waters to great depths. (2) (Geology) The concretion of
coral polyps, composed almost wholly of calcium carbonate, forming reefs,
and treelike and globular masses. May also include calcareous algae and
other organisms producing calcareous secretions, such as bryozoans and
hydrozoans.
CORE - A vertical cylindrical sample of the bottom sediments from which the
nature and stratification of the bottom may be determined. The interior
material of a breakwater or groin.
CREEP - To slip or become slightly displaced; specifically of metal to shift

longitudinally under weight.
419
CURL - To alter industrially, as to vulcanize (rubber) or to treat (synthetic
resins) with heat or chemicals to make infusible.
CURRIINT - A flow of water.
CURRENT, LITTORAL - Any current in the littoral zone caused primarily by

wave action, e.g., longshore current, rip current.
DAP - A notch cut in one timber to receive another, usually permitting the
two timbers to be flush.
DATUM, PLANE - The horizontal plane to which soundings, ground elevations,

or water surface elevations are referred. The plane is called a TIDAL
DATUM when defined by a certain phase of the tide. The following datums
are ordinarily used on hydrographic charts:
MEAN LOW WATER - Atlantic coast (U.S.), Argentina, Sweden, and Norway;
,MEAN LOWER LOW WATER - Pacific coast (U.S.);
MEAN LOW WATER SPRINGS - United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Brazil,
and Chile;
LOW WATER DATUM - Great Lakes (U.S. and Canada);
LOWEST LOW WATER SPRINGS - Portugal;
LOW WATER INDIAN SPRINGS - India and Japan;
LOWEST LOW WATER - France, Spain, and Greece.
A common datum used on topographic maps is based on MEAN SEA LEVEL.
DENIER - A unit expressing the fineness of silk, rayon, nylon or other

synthetic yarns in terms of weights in grams per 9 000 meters of length.
DEPTH - The vertical distance from a specified tidal datum to the sea floor.
DIKE (DYKE) - A wall or mound built around a low-lying area to prevent

flooding.
DOLPHIN - A cluster of piles.
DUNES - (1) Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand.

(2) BED FORMS smaller than bars but larger than ripples that are out of
phase with any water-surface gravity waves associated with them.
DURABILITY - A relative term for the resistance of a material to loss of

physical properties or appearance as a result of wear or dynamic operation.
ELONGATION AT FAILURE - The length of a fabric test specimen when it is

broken in a tensile test (ASTM D1682-64) compared to its original length,
expressed as a percent.
EMBANMENT - An artificial bank such as a mound or dike, generally built

to hold back water or to carry a roadway.
ENDEIIC - Native to a specific geographic area.
420
EQUIVALENT OPENING SIlE - E.O.S. - The number of a U.S. standard sieve
having openings closest in size to the diameter of uniform particles
which will have 95 percent by weight retained by the fabric when shaken
in a prescribed manner.
EROSION - The wearing away of land by the action of natural forces. On a

beach, the carrying away of beach material by wave action, tidal currents,
" littoral currents, or by deflation.
ESTUARY - (1) The part of a river that is affected by tides. (2) The
region near a river mouth in which the freshwater of the river mixes
with the saltwater of the sea.
FAUNA - Animal life as opposed to flora (plant life). Generally the entire
g group of animals found in an area.
FIBRILLATED YARN - Yarns formed of fibers from sheet plastic film.
FILAMENT - A single thread (yarn) of extreme length.
-* FILL - Fibers or yarns placed at right angles to the warp.
FILTER FABRIC - A permeable fabric of synthetic fibers whose function is

to retain soil and be permeable to water.
-a FLORA - Plant life as opposed to fauna (animal life). The entire group
of plants found in an area.
FORESHORE - The part of the shore lying between the crest of the seaward
berm (or upper limit of wave wash at high tide) and the ordinary low
water mark, that is ordinarily traversed by the uprush and backrush of
the waves as the tides rise and fall.
FOULING ORGANISM - An oi inism that attaches to the surface of submerged or

introduced objects regardless of whether the objects are natural or man-
made.
*0 GALVANIZE - To subject to the action of electric currents; to coat with zinc.
GEOTEXTILE - Any permeable textile used with foundations, soils, rock,

earth or any other geotechnical material as an integral part of a man
made project, structure or system.
* GEOTEXTILE FILTER - A permeable fabric of synthetic fibers whose function is

to retain soil and be permeable to water.
GRAVEL - A coarse grained, cohesionless material whose size ranges between

76.2 millimeters and the No. 4 sieve. See SOIL CLASSIFICATION.
* GROIN (British, GROYNE) - A shore protection structure built (usually

perpendicular to the shoreline) to trap littoral drift or.retard erosion
of the shore.
421
GROUND WATER - Subsurface water occupying the zone of saturation. In a
strict sense, the term is applied only to water below the WATER TABLE.
GULF - A large embamnent in a coast; the entrance is generally wider than
the length.
HABITAT - The place where an organism lives.
HARBOR (British, HARBOUR) --An protected water area affording a place of

safety for vessels.
HEAT BONDED - The fabric web is subjected to a relatively high temperature.

The filaments are welded together at the contact points.
HEAT OF HYDRATION - The heat evolved or absorbed when hydration occurs;

specifically, when water is added to a calcium aluminate powder to produce
q cement.
IMPERMEABLE GROIN - A groin through which sand cannot pass.
INTERLOCKING CONCRETE BLOCK - A cast oi machine produced concrete block

having interengaging or overlapping edges.
JETTY - (1) (U.S. usage) On open seacoasts, a structure extending into a

body of water, and designed to prevent shoaling of a channel by littoral
materials, and to direct and confine the stream or tidal flow. Jetties
are built at the mouth of a river or tidal inlet to help deepen and sta-
bilize a channel. (2) (British usage) Jetty is synonymous with "wharf"
or "pier".
LARVA - A sexually immature form of any animal unlike its adult form and
requiring changes before reaching the basic adult form.
LITTORAL - Of or pertaining to a shore, especially of the sea.
LITTORAL DRIFT - The sedimentary material moved in the littoral zone under
the influence of waves and currents.
LITTORAL TPANSPORT - The movement of littoral drift in the littoral zone by

waves and currents. Includes movement parallel (longshore transport) and
perpendicular (onshore-offshore transport) to the shore.
LONGSHIORE - Parallel to and near
the shoreline.
MONOFILAMENT - A single filament of a manmade fiber, usually of a DENIER

higher than 15.
4 MULTIFILAMENT - A yarn consisting of many continuous filaments or strands.
MUD - A fluid-to-plastic mixture of finely divided particles of solid

material and water.
NON,, ;N FABRIC - A textile structure produced by bonding or interlocking

of fibers, or both, accomplished by mechanical, chemical or solvent means
and combinations thereof excluding woven and knitted fabrics.
422
i,
NOURISHMENT - The process of replenishing of beach. It may be brought about
naturally, by longshore transport, or artificially by the deposition of
(dredged materials.
NYLON FIBER - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is

any long chain synthetic polyamide having recurring amide groups (-NH-CO-)
as an integral part of the polymer chain.
OFFSHORE - (1) In beach terminology, the comparatively flat zone of

variable width, extending from the breaker zone to the seaward edge
of the Continental Shelf. (2) A direction seaward from the shore.
ONSHORE - A direction landward from the sea.
ORGANISM - Any living individual whether plant or animal.
OUTFALL - A structure extending into a body of water for the purpose of

discharging sewage, storm runoff, or cooling water.
-q OVERTOPPING - Passing of water over the top of a structure as a result

of wave runup or surge action.
PERCENT OPENING AREA (POA) - The visible net area of a fabric that is
available for water to pass through the fabric, normally determinable
only for woven and nonwoven fabrics having distinct visible and measur-
able openings that continue directly through the fabric.
PERMEABLE GROIN - A groin with openings large enough to permit passage of

appreciable quantities of littoral drift.
PIER - A structure, usually of open construction, extending out into the

water from the shore, to serve as a landing place, a recreational
facility, etc., rather than to afford coastal protection. In the Great
Lakes, a term sometimes improperly applied to jetties.
PILE - A long, heavy timber or section of concrete or metal to be driven

or jetted into the earth or seabed to serve as a support or protection.
PILE, SHEET - A pile with a generally slender flat cross section to be

drivrn into the ground or seabed and meshed or interlocked with like
members to form a diaphragm, wall, or bulkhead.
PILING - A group of piles.
PIPING - The process by which soil particles are washed in or through

pore spaces in drains and filters.
PLASTIC FILTLR - See Filter Fabric.

I
PLASTIC FILITR FABRIC - See Filter t.abric.
423
POLYAkMIDE - See Nylon Fiber.
POLYETHYLENE FIBER - A manufactured fabric in which the fiber-forming

substance is an olefin made from polymers or copolymers of ethylene,
POLYMER - A high molecular chainlike structure from which manmade fibers

are derived; produced by linking together molecular units called monomers
- consisting predominantly of nonmetallic elements or compounds.
POLYPROPYLENE FIBER - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming sub-

stance is an olefin made from polymers or copolymers of propylene.
POLYESTER FIBER - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance

is any long chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85 percent by
*weight of an ester of dihydric alcohol and terephthalic acid (FTC).
POLYVINYLIDENE CHLORIDE FIBER - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-

forming substance is a thermoplastic derived by copolymerization of two
or more vinyl monomers.
PORT - A place where vessels may discharge or receive cargo; may be the
-. entire harbor including its approaches and anchorages, or may be the
commercial part of a harbor where the quays, wharves, facilities for
transfer of cargo, docks, and repair shops are situated.
POZZOLAN - A siliceous rock of volcanic origin, first found near Puteoli

(modern Pozzuoli), Italy, used in preparing a hydraulic cement.
PRECAST CELLULR BLOCK - A cast or machine produced concrete block having

continuous void(s) through the vertical plane. Normally with smooth
vertical or near vertical sides (not interlocking). Some are cabled
together horizontally to form a mat.
PUNCTURE RESISTANCE - Resistance to failure of a fabric due to a blunt

object applying a load over a relatively small area. Failure is due to
tensile failure of the fibers.
QUARRYSTONE ARMOR UNITS - Relatively large quarrystones that are selected

to fit specified geometric characteristics, including compact dimensional
0 proportions and a nearly uniform size, usually large enough to require
individual placement. In normal cases they are placed in a layer at
least two stones thick.
QUAY - (Pronounced KlY) - A stretch of paved bank, or a solid artificial

landing place parallel to the navigable waterway, for use in loading and
unloading vessels.
RESIN BONDED - The fabric web is impregnated with a resin which serves to
coat and cement the fibers together.
REVETIENT - \ tici, of stone, concrete, etc., built to protect a scarp,

0 embankments, or shore structure against erosion by wave action or currents.
RtIIOLOGY - Sc i Qcc dc ii ing with the deformation and flow of matter.
424
St
6
RIPRAP - A prorc,_ti o l~iyer or facing of quarrystone randomly placed to

prevent erostoo. >cour, or sloughing of an embankment or bluff toe, also
the stone so u_> ,uialv well graded within wide size limits. The
quarrystone is pl:,ccd in a layer at least twice the thickness of the 50-
percent size stone or 1.2 times the thickness of the largest size stone
in the si:e gidatioi.
RUBBLE - (1) I.oo-. ,,i-ular waterworn stones along a beach. (2) Rough,
irregular ... o o broken rock.
RUBBLE-MOUND S'IIJCTURI - A mound of random-shaped and random-placed stones

protected with a cover layer of selected stones or specially shaped
concrete armor units. (Armor units in primary cover layer may be placed
in orderly manner or dumped at random.)
RUNUP - The rush of tAater up a structure or beach on the breaking of a

wave. Also H1PBUSII. The amount of runup is the vertical height above
stillwater level tiat the rush of water reaches.
SAND - An earthy matrial whose grain size is between 4.76 and 0.075 milli-
meters. Within this classification sand may vary from coarse to fine.
Sand is cohesionless but exhibits appearance of cohesion when wet. See
SOIL CIA SS[FI(\TION.
SANDCORE JETTY - A jetty, groin or breakwater in which the core material

consists of sand rather than stone.
SARAN - See polyvinvlidene chloride fiber.
SCREED - A strike hoard used to level or strike off concrete pavement slabs
or cushion courses for block pavements.
SCOUR - Removal of und,Lrwater material by waves and currents, especially

at the base or toe of a shore structure.
SCOUR i'ROLCi l(:L -'lilt: protection at the base or toe of a structure to

prevent runolai ,)C indcrwater material by waves and currents.
SEAWALL. - \ t tU separating land and water areas, primarily designed

to prevent & :'O,,w :fll other damage due to wave action. See also BULK-
IWFAD.
SEICIIL - (1) ,' H: wavei oscillation of an enclosed water body that

continues, leahil f:uion, after the cessation of the originating
force, which n:iv ha e be-n either seismic or atmospheric. (2) An oscilla-
tion of a flt t 6,11\ ii response to a disturbing force havir .he same
frequoenc"2 5 h (t l,- frequency of the fluid system. Tides arc now
considered to h(.. ,' induced primarily by the periodic forces caused
by the sun and 5 In the Great Lakes area, any sudden rise in the
(,u
water of a har ,rr ; l:ike whther or not it is oscillatory. Although
inaccurate in . trt'lCt ;(cnc, this usage is well established in the Great
Lakes ar,.
425
SEISMIC SEA WAVE (TSUNAMI) - A long-period wave caused by an underwater
seismic disturbance or volcanic eruption. Commonly misnamed "tidal wave."
SHEAR FPUCTURE - An action or stress resulting from applied forces, which

causes or tends to cause two contiguous parts of a body to slide relatively
to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact.
SHEET PILE - See PILE, SHEET.
SHOAL (noun) - A detached elevation of the sea bottom, comprised of any

material except rock or coral, which may endanger surface navigation.
SHOAL (verb) - (1) To become shallow gradually. (2) To cause to become

shallow. (3) To proceed from a greater to a lesser depth of water.
SHORE - The narrow strip of land in immediate contact with the sea, in-
cluding the zone between high and low water lines. A shore of uncon-
solidated material is usually called a beach.
SHORELINE - The intersection of a specified plane of water with the shore

or beach. (e.g., the high water shoreline would be the intersection of
the plane of mean high water with the shore or beach.) The line delineat-
ing the shoreline on National Ocean Survey nautical charts and surveys
approximates the mean high water line.
SHOTCRETE - A pneumatically applied concrete or grout.
SILT - A fine grained soil of low plasticity which may exhibit an apparent
cohesion due to capillary forces. See SOIL CLASSIFICATION.
SLOPE - The degree of inclination to the horizontal. Usually expressed as

a ratio, such as 1:25 or I on 25, indicating 1 unit vertical rise in 25
units of horizontal distance; or in a decimal fraction (0.04); degrees
(20 18'); or percent (4%).
SLUMP - To fall or sink suddenly.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION (size) - An arbitrary division of a continuous scale

of grain sizes such that each scale unit or grade may serve as a convenient
.4 class interval for conducting the analysis or for expressing the results
of an analysis.
SPALL - To breakup or reduce by chipping with a hammer; to chip or crumble.
SPECIES - An aggregate of interbreeding populations that under natural

conditions is reproductively isolated.
SPLASH ZONE - The zone immediately landward of the mean higher high water
level affected by the wave spray.
STONE, DERRICK - Stone heavy enoiigh to require handling individual pieces

by mechanical means, geneirally I ton and up.
STRENGTH - Load capacity at failure. Depending on the usage, load may be

expressed in stress, fr-e pcr unit width, or force.
426
SURF ZONE - The area between the outermost breaker and the limit of wave
uprush.
TENSILE STRENGTH - The strength shown by a material subjected to tension as

distinct from torsion, compression or shear.
TERRESTRIAL - Of or relating to the earth and its inhabitants as opposed

to aquatic.
THIXOTROPIC - Becomes fluid when shaken, stirred, or otherwise disturbed and

sets again to a gel when allowed to stand.
TOE - The lower elevation terminus of a revetment or side slopes of a groin,

breakwater or jetty. The outer limit of a scour protection mound.
TREMIE - An apparatus for depositing and consolidating concrete under water

consisting essentially of a tube of wood or sheet metal with a top in the
form of a hopper.
TSUNAMI - A long-period wave caused by an underwater disturbance such as

a volcanic eruption or earthquake. Commonly miscalled "tidal wave."
TURBIDITY - A condition where transparency of water is reduced. It is an

optical phenomenon and does not necessarily have a direct linear relation-
ship to particulate concentration.
ULTRAVIOLET (UV) RESISTANCE - Ability to resist deterioration on exposure

to sunlight.
VERTICAL SEAWALL - See Bulkhead.
VISCOSITY - (or internal friction) - That molecular property of a fluid that

enables it to support tangential stresses for a finite time and thus to
resist deformation.
WARP - Fibers or yarns lengthwise in the fabric.
WEB - The sheet or mat of fibers or filaments before bonding or needle-

punching to form a nonwoven fabric.
IWIRF - A structure built on the shore of a harbor, river, or canal, so

that vessels may lie alongside to receive and discharge cargo and
passengers.
WOVFN FABRIC - A textile structure comprising two or more sets of filaments

or yarns interlaced in such a way that the elements pass each other
essentially at right angles and one set of elements is parallel to the
fabric axis. Usually has a uniform pattern with distinct and measurable
openings. Commonly referred to as cloth.
YARN - A generic term for a continuous strand of textile fibers, filaments

A or materials in a form suitable for weaving or otherwise intertwining to
form a textile fabric.
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427
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7AD-A129 MI CONSTRUCTION INC FOR

MATERIALS BEACH STRUCTURES(U)

MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART

SPECIAL REPORT NO. 10

Approved for public release; SLC

Reprint or republication of any of this material

U.S. Army Coasti Tgineering Research Center

Contents of this report are not to be used for

The findings in this report are not to be construed

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONS

Moffatt and Nichol, Engineers

16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Asphalts Geotextiles Riprap

20, AeTU ACT r(Cmi

DD IFOM 1473 EDITION OF I NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE

are emphasized by detailed coverage of their properties. Synthetic materials

This report is published to provide coastal engineers with specific

Technical Director of CERC was Dr. Robert W. Whalin, P.E.

Comments on this publication are invited.

Colonel, Corps of Engineers

II MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COASTAL STRUCTURES .......... 15

III STONE ................................................. 23

A V PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE .............................. 70

VI OTHER TYPES OF CONCRETE AND GROUT ..................... 166

2. Preplaced Aggregate Concrete ..................... 183

VII STRUCTURAL AND SHEET METALS ........................... 204

VIII WOOD .................................................. 231

IX PLASTICS .............................................. 282

* X RECYCLED AND OTHER MATERIALS .......................... 309

XI PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS FOR MATERIALS ...................... 318

XII SLM1MtARY .................................................... 374

LITERATURE CITED ........................................... 396

A P N I BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................... 402

A SPECIFICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS FOR STEEL SUITABLE

D INFORMATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ................................ 416

1. Classes of rock slope protection ............................... 32

19. Secant modulus at proportional limit ........................... 116

1. Coral riprap in Kosrae, Micronesia .............................. 27

44. Cross section, south jetty, Galveston, Texas .................... 179

89. Sea cushion with tire chain net ................................. 305

,U.S. customary units of measurement used in this report can be converted to

feet 30.48 centimeters

yards 0.9144 meters

O miles 1.6093 kilometers

knots 1.852 kilometers per hour

acres 0.4047 hectares

foot-pounds 1.3558 newton meters

millibars 1.0197 x 10- 3 kilograms per square centimeter

ounces 28.35 grams

pounds 453.6 grams

ton, long 1.0160 metric tons

degrees (angle) 0.01745 radians