American Mineralogist, Volume 58,pages 727-732, 1973

The Toughnessof Jade

Rrcnnno C. Bnlnr.
CeramicScienceSection,Moterial SciencesDepartment
RosEnr E. NrwNHnM, ANDJ. V. Blccens
Materials ResearchLaboratory
The PennsyluaniaState Uniuersity,UniuersityPark, Pennsyluania16802

Abstract

The mechanical properties related to the toughness of jade are measured for both jadeite
and nephrite. Fracture surface energies are an order of magnitude greater than most com-
mercial ceramics about 120,000 ergs/cm' for jadeite and 225,00O ergslcm' for nephrite.
Iadeite is the harder of the two minerals, but nephrite is the tougher and the stronger.
Scanning electron microscopy of the fracture surfaces indicates that the exceptional toughness
results from the fibrous texture of nephrite and extensive transgranular cleavage of the blocky
microstructure of jadeite.

Introduction surface energy, and the fracture toughness(Tetel-

Ornamental jades include two different minerals, man and McEvily, 1967). Fracture surface energy
jadeite and nephrite. Nephrite is an amphibole in is the amount of energy required to create a unit
the tremolite-actinoliteseries,Ca2(Mg,Fe)s(Si+Orr)z area of fracture surface. Fracture toughness,desig-
(OH)2, derived from alpine-typeperidotite-dunite nated K1" for the openingmode of fracture common
intrusives. The rarer jadeite is a pyroxene of com- to brittle materials.is a measureof the resistanceof
position NaAlSizOo,found in Burma as stream-worn the material to unstable crack propagationor frac-
boulders.Jadeiteis the harder of the two minerals, ture. Fracture toughnessis derived by analyzingthe
7 on Mohs' scalecomparedto 6Vz, aTthoughneph- stressdistribution at a crack's tip and is equal to the
rite, "the axe stone," is generallyconsideredto be square root of twice the product of the elastic
tougher and more resistantto fracture. modulus and the fracture surface energy of the
Beauty and durability are the essentialattributes material. Often, as is the casein this study, fracture
of a gemstone.Durability requires both hardness toughnessis reported as just K when the entire
and toughnessin order to withstand abrasionand fracture processmay not be an opening mode.
impact. Hardnessand toughnessare physicallyir- Among mineralogiststhere is no widely accepted
reversibleproperties,since their tests leave the ma- scale of toughness,although some minerals such as
terial in a pennanently altered condition. Although jade are regarded as much tougher than others.
scientists and engineers generally describe these Becauseof their exceptionaltoughness,jade bould-
propertiesin a rather qualitative fashion, there are, ers are often resistant to breakagewith a hammer
in fact, specific quantitativemethods of measure- and may be frequently found in the nearly pure
ment.To the mineralogist,hardnessmeansresistance state,sinceweatheringhas worn away the surround-
to scratchingand as suchmay be empirically defined ing minerals.Early man utilized jade extensivelyfor
by the Mohs' scale.Hardnessmay alsobe measured making tools, finding it almost ideal to shapewith-
by indentationusing the Vickers or Brinell tests. out fracture. This sentiment has been shared for
The three technqiuesusually agree on the relative centuriesby Chinesecraftsmenwho have given the
ranking of differentmaterials,althoughthe numerical world many exquisite jade carvings, shaped to ex-
scalesappearquite different (Taylor, 1,949). tremely delicateforms. It is the purposeof this study
Qualitatively, toughnessmeans the resistanceto to quantitativelyassess the toughness of severaljades
breakage.Quantitatively,it can be describedby two and to compare them with synthetic materials and
related parameters,the work of fracture or fracture with other minerals.
727
 R. C. BRADT, R. E. NEWNHAM, AND I. V. BIGGERS

Experimental indicatingthe presenceof large crystallites(Fig. 1).

The nephrite jades studied in this investigation The individual crystallitesize is much larger than
were obtained from several American dealers and the nephrite fibers, generallywithin the 50 to 100p.m
are thought to originate from Russia and Alaska, range.The grains exhibit a blocky morphologywhen
while the jadeite specimenswere obtained from compared to the nephrite fibers. Jadeite densities
streetshopsin Hong Kong, and are probably Bur- are about 10 percentgreaterthan nephrite,generally
mese in origin. The nephrites are a translucent about 3.33 gms/cm3.The X-ray diffractionpatterns
mottledgreenwith a specificgravity of 3.01, indicat- are identical with those reported for NaAlSi2O6
(Yoder, 1950).
ing appreciableiron content. X-ray diftraction pat-
terns are in good agreementwith the tremolite To comparetoughnesson a quantitativebasis,it
pattern (Stempleand Brindley, 1960). The texture is necessaryto measurecertain mechanicalprop-
(Fig. 1) of the matted fibers is characteristicof erties such as elastic modulus and fracture surface
'1.f8"
nephrite. The fibers vary widely in thickness and energy. Strengths are measured by breaking
length,but are generallylessthan 10pmin diameter, square bars in three point flexure over a 0.4 inch
with length-to-diameter aspectratios from 10 to 50. span with an Instron testing machine operated at
In some regions,the fibers show a strong preferred 0.02 inchesper minute cross-headspeed.Fracture
orientation, being grouped into orderly bundles, strength, o1, is calculated from the standard engi-
while other regions exhibit a whirlpool-like appear- neering-mechanics formula:
anceof a more random nature.
The jadeites vary in color from a pale green to
icy white, with numerous glints of reflected light "':*k' (r)
where P is the breaking load, and L, b, and h are
the specimen'slength, breadth, and height dimen-
sions (Marin, 1962).
The elastc moduli are measured by a flexural
resonancetechniqueon /q" squareby 3" long bars
employing a Nametre Model XII B acoustic spec-
trometer. This involves vibrating the sample in a
flexural mode with an oscillator and observing the
natural resonanceof the specimen.The resonant
frequenciesdepend on the sample dimensionsand
elasticmodulus (Spinnerand Teft, 1961), and are
usually in the audio-frequencyrange. Damping ca-
pacities of the jades are determinedfrom the reso-
nance peaks by the bandwidthmethod (Kennedy,
t963).
Fracture surface energies are evaluated by the
work of fracturetechnique(Nakayama,1965). The
work required to propagate a stable crack over a
specific area is measured using rectangular bars
similar to thoseused in the strengthmeasurements.
The bars are notched at the midsection with a
0.010' diamond blade, leaving a triangular cross
section for the fracture area. After fracturing the
bars in a non-catastrophic,stable fashion on the
testingmachineat a crosshead speedof 0.002 inches
per minute, the work, or energy, of fracture is de-
Fto. l. Photomicrographsof nephrite (top) and jadeite. termined by integration of the force-displacement
Note the matted fibrous texture of the nephrite, and com- curve. Surfacefracture energy is then calculatedby
pare it with the blocky grain texture of the jadeite. dividing the work by twice the triangular cross-
 TOUGHNESS OF ]ADE 729

section area, since two surfacesare formed during Tesr.s l. Mechanical Properties of Jades
the fracture process.A comparisonof this technique
with other methodshas been given (Coppola and J a d e1 t e

Bradt, 1972). The fracture surface energy and the Efastic Mqdulus,
(dynes,/cn')
E t.3 x 1012 2,0 x Lo12

strengthresults are reported as the averageswith the Danplng

-?
1 x 10 -
-?
1.5 x 10 -
95 percentconfidencelimits as describedby the "t" qtrength, or, z.tz+0.55 x :ro9 1.02+0.21x109
Fracture
distribution. Thin-sections of jadeite and nephrite (dynes,/cm')

were also examined optically on a standard petro- Fracture surlace Energy, 226,000+155,000 121'000+32,000
1r, (er|s/cmz )
graphic microscopeand the fracture surfacesphoto- R
Fracture Tqughness, K^' 7.7 x 108 7.1 x 10-
graphed with a scanning electron microscope after ( d y n e s , zc m - J / 2 )
coating the samples with a thin layer of vapor-
depositedgold to promote conductivity.
Scanningelectronmicrographsof the fracture sur-
Results and Discussion faceof jadeite (Fig. 2) reveala very high percentage
of transgranularcleavagefractures.That is, when a
The mechanicalpropertiesof jadeiteand nephrite
crackpropagatesthroughjadeite,it doesnot proceed
are listed in Table 1. Although jadeite has the
in an intergranularfashion following the boundaries
higher elastic modulus, nephrite is superior in
between the grains, rather it proceeds directly
strength,o1,fracture surfaceenergy,7r, ond fracture
through the grains in a transgranularfracture mode.
toughness,IQ, substantiating the general opinion
Cleavagestep patternsare especiallyobviousat the
that nephrite is tougher than jadeite. The confidence
higher magnification,indicatingthat the fracture is
limits for the fracture surface energies and the
almost wholly restricted to certain crystallographic
toughnessesare comparable to that observed for planes.The elongatednature of someof thesecleav-
most brittle materials, with the exception of the
age stepsstrongly suggeststhat the fracture is pref-
fracture surface energiesof the nephrite. A wide
erentially occurring parallel to the pyroxene chains,
range of scatter was observedon these specimens, probably {110} planes. It is this extensivetrans-
with occasionalvaluesnear 400,000ergs/cm'; how- granular cleavagefracture mode that imparts high
ever, no obvious correlationswith place of origin or
toughnessto jadeite.
structural featureswere apparent.The jade fracture
Nephrite has a vastly different appearingfracture
surfaceenergiesand calculatedfracture toughnesses
topography (Fig. 3). Fibers and bundlesof fibers
are compared with other polycrystalline and single
can be seen protruding from the surface,even at
crystal mineralsin Table 2. It is apparentthat jade
low magnification.The random orientation of in-
is deservingof its reputation as a very tough ma-
terial. Comparing these results with the fracture
Tesr-e 2. Comparison of Toughness
surface energiesof other materials (Duga, 1969)
indicatesthat jade is about an order of magnitude
tougherthan most ceramicmaterials. FractureSurface
Energyr y.
Fracture
Toughnessr (^
Jade mineralsare chain silicates,and the differ-
ence in their averagefracture surface energiessug-
Jade 1te 121,000 7f x 107
geststhat perhapsa network silicate, such as quartz
Nephrlt e 226,0OO 77 x Io7
or glass,might be even tougher.This conceptproves
Quart z i te 4,32A 7 xto7
quite erroneous,for the reported fracture surface ( l , l l e d e r h o r n , 1 9 6 9 b )
energiesof quartzite(seeTable 2) and glass(Wie- Alunlna 15,000-50,ooo 35-64 x :'O7
(Gutshal1 & Gross, 1969)
derhorn, I969c) are only about 5,000 ergs/cm2,or
Maqnesla 20,000 35 x Io7
less. On the same scale of fracture toughnessas ( C l a r k e e t a 1 . , 1 9 6 6 )
Table 2, both glassand quartz are only about 7 x tr x to7
Mlca ( 001)
10'dyne cm-3/2. Thesecomparisonssuggestthat the ( B r y a n t e t a l . , 1 9 6 3 )
high fracture surface energy and fracture toughness Q u a r t z ( l o T o ) r,030 5xto7
(Brace and Walsh, 1962)
of jade to
are not directly related the atomic bond-
corundum (lofl) 600 7xIa7
ing per se, but are apparentlyrelated to texture and ( t / 1 e d e r h o r n , 1 9 6 9 a )
the restrictionswhich it imposeson crack propaga- P e r l c l a s e ( 1 0 0 ) L,2oo 9 x 107
(westwood and Go1dhelm, 1963)
tion.
730 R. C, BRADT, R. E. NEWNHAM, AND I. V. BIGGERS

tions; however,a correlation of thesetextural param-

eterswith toughnessundoubtedlyexists,and is prob-
ably the main criterion by which jade carvers are
able to select particularly "tough" jade specimens.
While the exact contribution of a fibrous texture to
increasedtoughnessis not well understood,it has

*4

FIc. 2. Scanning electron micrographs of the fracture

surfaces of jadeite. Note the extensive transgranular cleav-
age characteristics of the crack propagation.

dividual fibers and the wide distribution of fiber

sizesbecomesapparentat higher magnification.It is
these variations in fiber and fiber bundle sizes and
in orientationsthat are probably responsiblefor the
Frc. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of the fracture
variations in fracture energy reported in Table 1. surfaces of nephrite. Note the fibrous nature of the frac-
No attempt was made to characterizethe nephrites ture surface, the difference in fiber sizes, the occasional
on the basis of fiber or fiber bundle size distribu- bundles of fibers, and the regions of random orientation.
 TOUGHNESS OF JADL 73r

recently become a well documentedphenomenon, magnitude is still comparable to commercial ce-

having been reported in fiber composites (Lynch ramics and about twice that of common glass. It
and Kershaw, 1972), in solidified eutectic alloys appears(Fig. 1) that the jadeite-bearing rock has a
(Piekarski and Helmer, 1972), in silicon nitride secondaryphase between the jadeite grains, acting
(Lange, 1972) and in silicon carbide (Coppola and as a bond between crystallites; however, no sec-
Bradt, 1972\. ondary phaseswere identified in the X-ray patterns
There appearto be severalmechanismsby which or thin sections, and the relatively high modulus
transgranularcleavage,such as evidencedin the and low damping suggestthat any secondaryphase
jadeite, and the fibrous texture, such as that of the is a strong, coherentone. The relatively low damp-
nephrite, might increasefracture surfaceenergy and ing suggestsgood structural integrity in both jades,
enhance toughness.It almost seems contradictory with relatively little po'rosity.
to considercleavageas a tough process,particularly The strengthsof the two jades exceedmost com-
with referenceto mica. However, mica is a single merically available ceramics;however, they are not
crystalwhere the cleavageplanestraversethe entire comparableto the ultra high strength of hot'pressed
specimen,whereas the cleavageplanes in poly- oxidesand nitrides usedfor cutting tools and turbine
crystalline jadeite traverse only a single grain' A vanes.The Griffith relation, a, : k\/ Ett/c, offers
propagatingcrack in polycrystallinejadeite must an explanationof the strengths.This equationrelates
change direction to a differently oriented cleavage the fracture strength or, to the elastic modulus E,
plane each time it crossesa grain boundary. This the fracture surface energy 71, &[d the flaw sizn c,
directionalchangecan be up to 47o in jadeite and through a proportionality constant k. (Kingery,
very likely causes secondary cracks or fractures 1960).From the data in Table l, it is apparent that
which consumeadditional energy. (Ffiedman et a:1, nephrite has the higher fracture surfaceenergy and
1972) These directionalchangesalso result in a strength,eventhough the modulusis lower. However,
zig-zagfracture path that yields a roughenedfracture the quantity t/Ett in the Griffith equation accounts
surface, so that the real fracture surface area is for only about l0 percentof the observeddifferences
greater than the apparent fracture surface area. in the jade fracture strengths.The remainder may
(Hoagland et al, l97I) This increaseof surface be attributed to the smallerflaw sizein the nephrite.
area, probably only about 50 percent, does not Flaw size is generallyrelated to the size of micro-
appearto be as important as secondarycrackingor textural features,and in this casethe nephrite fiber
crack-branchingin jadeites. diameter is considerably smaller than the jadeite
Nephrite fractures in accordancewith its fibrous grain size.
texture, a structural feature that has already been Acknowledgment
cited to enhancetoughness.Severalfactorsmay be The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions
responsiblefor this high fracture surfaceenergy,one of G. Gardopee, T. Cline, R. Wolfe, and J' Lebiedzik of the
of which is undoubtedly the high ratio of real-to- Pennsylvania State University for assistance in the experi-
apparent fracture-surfacearea. This contribution is mental work, and Hok Shing Liu of Chung Hing Mining'
Hong Kong, and the Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Tai-
most certainly greater in nephrite than in jadeite.
wan, ROC, and N. Lambert for assistancein obtaining the
However,probably more important are the frictional jades.
effects when individual fibers or bundles of fibers
are extractedduring fracture.Furthermore,there is References
little doubt that the propagatingcracks in nephrite Bnlce, W. F., lNo J. B. Wlrsn (1962) Some direct mea-
are often forced to make drastic directional changes surements of the surface energy of quartz and orthoclase.
Amer. Mineral. 47' llll-1122'
to permit the fiber pullouts, so secondary crack BnveNr. P. J.. L. H. Tevron, lno P' L' Gurss.ru (1963)
branchingalmostcertainlyoccurs.Fresentlyit is not Cleavage studies of lamellar solids in various gaseous
possibleto define clearly which processcontributes environments. Trans. 10th Annu. Nat. Vacuum Sympo-
most to the jade'shigh fracturesurfaceenergies,but siuln, American Vacuum Society, pp. 2l-26'
it is clear that jade fully deservesits reputationas a Cllme, F, J. P., H. C. T.lrrrnsAlL, ANDG. TeppIN (1966)
Toughness of ceramics and their work of fracture, Proc.
very tough mineral. Brit. Ceram. Soc.6, 163-172'
In regard to the other mechanical properties of Conrolr, I. A., eNo R. C. Bneor (1972) Measurementof
jade, the lower elasticmodulusof nephriteis almost fracture surface energy of SiC. I. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 55'
certainly a result of its lower density;however,its 455-460.
732 R. C. BRADT, R. E. NEWNHAM, AND I. V. BIGGERS

Duce, J. J. (1969) Surface energy of ceramic materials. SprNNen,S., lNo W. E. Terr (1951) A method for de-
Defense Ceram. Inform. Center Rep.69-2 (June). termining mechanical resonant frequencies and for calcu'
FnrroueN, M,, J. HeNpIN, ANDG. AL.lNl (1972) Fracture lating elastic moduli from these frequencies. Proc' Amer.
surface energy of rocks. lnt. l. Rock Mech. and Mineral. Soc. Testing Mat. 61, 122l-1238.
Sci.9,757-766. Srnurr-e, I. S., lNo G. W. BntNornv (1960) A structural
Gursrnrr-, P. L., eNo G. E. Gnoss. Observations and mech- study of talc and talc-tremolite relations. l, Amer. Ceram,
anisms of fracture of polycrystalline alumina. Eng. Fract. Soc. 43,3443.
Mech. 1,463471. Tlvron, E. W. (1949) Correlation of Mohs' scale of hard-
HorouNo, R. G., G. T. Heuvr, exo A, R. RoseNnErp ness with Vicker's hardness numbers. Mineral. Mag. 28,
(1971) Influence of microstructure on fracture propaga- 718-:121.
tion in rocks. Batelle Columbus, ARPA Contract Num- Terer.MrN, A. S,, eNo A, J. McEvrr.v (1967) Fracture ol
ber Ho 210006 Semimnual Res.Rep. Structural Mwerials. Iohn Wiley and Sons, New York.
KrNNeov, A. J, (1963) Processesol creep and fatigue in WEsrwooD, A. R. C., ,ryo D. L. Gor.pnurvr (1963) Cleav-
metals. J. Wiley and Sons, New York. age surface energy of (100) magnesium oxide. l. App.
KTNGERy, W. D. (1960) Intoduction to ceramics.Wiley. Phys. 34,3336-3339.
LeNce, F. F. (1972) Relationships between strength, frac- WrnonnnonN,S. M. (1969a) Fracture of sapphire'J. Amer.
ture energy, and microstructure in hot pressed silicon Ceram. Sac, 52,485491.
nitride. Ball. Amer. Ceram. Soc, 51r 429. (1969b) Fracture of ceramics. In, Mechanical ond
LyNcH, C. T., eNo J, P. Ksnsnew (1972) Metal matrix thermal properties of ceramics, N.B.S. Spec, Publ. 303,
cotnposites. CRC Press. 217-241.
MenrN, I. (19'62) Mechanical behauior ol engineering ma- (1969c) Fracture surface energy of glass.L Amer.
ter i aIs. Pr entice llall. Ceram. Soc. 52r 99-105.
Nereyeul, JUNN (1965) Direct measurementof fracture Yooen, H. S. (1950) The jadeite problem. Amer. l. Sci.
energies of brittle heterogeneous materials. I. Amer. 24E,225-248.
Ceram. ^Soc.4E, 583-87.
Prnxensru, K., eND M. HELMER (1972) Fracture energy of Manuscript receiued, October 2, 1972;
lamellar eutectic. Eng. Fract. Mech, 4, 129-131. accepted for publication, February 27, 1973.