Hobbes Exam Notes
Hobbes Exam Notes
The sovereign (artificial person)
Essence of the commonwealth bears the artificial person of the
commonwealth.
The sovereign is an artificial entity within the unity of a person.
Artificial entity has strength and means of all subjects these were
transferred when covenant was made.
If free workings of economic system threaten survival of subjects it is
the sovereign’s duty to intervene.
No force to sanction sovereign apart from perhaps God or sovereign of
another state. Can only be guilty of inequality.
Sovereign’s responsibility is to decide on how to maintain peace.
Responsibilities; law, doctrine, taxes, life and death of subjects.
Relations of authority do not arise naturally but are products of
contrivance and art.
Multiple authorities be they local, national, civil or ecclesiastical
would dilute sovereign power. This can’t happen, as sovereign power must
be absolute.
Individual who bears artificial person of the state could be anyone.
Sovereign represents unity. It doesn’t matter who makes the decisions,
what matters is only one decision is made.
“It is the unity of the representer, not the unity of the represented
that maketh the person one”.
Unity of representer is of vital importance. Multitude of conflicting
wills replaced by a single will that of the unified will of the
sovereign. Eradicates root of significant number of conflicts.
People create real unity for themselves by allowing a sovereign to choose
for them the means of maintaining peace.
Sovereign is capable of acting in opposition to laws but this translates
to inequality rather than injustice as sovereign defines what is/isn’t
just.
Sovereign acts in the best interests of the state which automatically
also is in the best interests of the individual. Best ints of state=best
ints of individual. Signifies unity between them.
Previous point shows that Hobbes’s philosophy facilitates the founding of
the modern state.
Sovereign and religion
When deciding doctrine Sovereign should prioritise avoiding sectarian
conflict, promote social peace. Relevant to contemporary wars/unrest.
Thus, Hobbes encouraged toleration rather than enforced uniformity. He
fought laws against religious heresy until he died.
Sovereign can interpret scripture and determine official doctrine
without interference. No church in the way. Why? Because no room for
another authority for a well functioning state.
Absolute power is integral because divided sovereignty increases
likelihood of contention and dispute.
Why obey the sovereign?
Sovereign will defend the commonwealth from foreign invasion, injuries
caused by internal disputes, so they will live contently.
Sovereign=legislator. Laws to uphold peace and ensure safety of
subjects from each other and foreign forces.
Laws & statues anyone who obeys sovereign can expect protection from
anyone who seeks to unlawfully harm/disadvantage them.
No laws=no punishment= chaos.
Justice Man in the state of nature was senses and passions but without
a sense of justice/injustice. Governance and society gives man the
ability to develop an awareness of this and to promote it.
Justice depends on valid covenants. Valid covenants depend on coercive
power. Coercive power depends on state.
Sovereign’s absolute power keeps subjects in awe and prevents a return
to the state of nature.
Though submitting to the sovereign may seem like a high price, a well
ordered Hobbesian state gives man the ability to develop awareness of
justice, gives them security. Means they need not suffer poverty,
hardhearted justice and huge intrusions by govt.
Governance will also lead to a prosperous society.
Peace, order and survival by taking humans out of the state of nature.
Away from peripheral war and fear of death+poss of premature death.
Submitting to sovereign means forfeiting rights to pursue own gain at
the expense of others.
In mans own interests to hand over right to selfgovernance+ obey
sovereign. Reciprocal relationship of peace and obedience.
Sovereign can define property and set up laws to protect property
ownership rights.
The sovereign and coercion (fear of punishment)
Hobbes knew that political arrangements cannot change the dispositions of
people but they can inhibit dispositions and make it dangerous for them
to act aggressively (by introducing sanctions).
Consequences of sovereign’s unlimited power will never be as bad as the
perpetual war in the state of nature.
Covenants without the sword are but words and words on their own have no
power. Coercive power binds people to the covenant.
The sword is the sovereign’s monopoly on the use of force within
territorial boundaries.
Visible power is essential, must keep people in awe and fasten them by
fear of punishment to their covenants and the observation of law and
statues.
Sovereign has the right to eliminate dissenting individuals or
minorities, in order to maintain peace.
Sovereign’s role is to align opinion and maintain peace in this way. Not
to control every aspect of the subject’s life. NOT to control every
aspect of the subject’s life.
Coercive force at the sovereign’s disposal acts as deterrent for
upheaval helps prevent chaos and maintain chaos.
Sovereign cannot breach the covenant; it is an agreement between
individuals who transfer their power. Not an agreement between
individuals and their sovereign. Not agent, but master of the people.
The state of nature hypothetical+linked to fear of returning to the state of nature
Man has senses & passions, inclining men to fear death and want peace.
Desire for comfort and commodious living.
“Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”.
Atmomistic no cooperation between humand prevents industry innovation
and technological advancement. Because there are no covenants= no
assurance that other will hold up their end.
Even the weakest has strength to kill the strongest impossible to
emerge superior for anything longer than a short period of time.
In state of nature man is selfish+ selfinterested. Root of conflict
between people is competition, diffidence and pursuit of glory.
Competition as everyone is selfinterested. May be violent consequences
of this competition.
Law of nature decrees that the only real good is selfpreservation.
Only real evil is death. Must be avoided.
Law of nature is to seek peace, whether that is not possible, one may
resort to violence. Not poss in state of nature as recourse to violence
is common and lawful.
Multitude of wills one man’s actions for selfpreservation may be
disgraceful to another.
Total liberty in state of nature=undesirable as this will only lead to
savagery and ruthless competition.
Civil society= way out of prisoner’s dilemma.
Each ind has absolute sovereignty makes judgments as to what is
conducive to their survival. Absolute sovereignty= power. Natural right
even to another’s body= no security.
The Covenant
The multitude condense their multiple wills into one single person or
body of people in doing this, they are unified.
Through unification, the multitude gain a legal personality as the
sovereign is a corporate entity, which has a legal personality.
Collective transferring of rights is called a covenant. Covenant forms
the foundation of moral obligation to uphold said covenant.
Contract is formed when individuals hand over the responsibility for
their collective safety and their right to selfgovernance to the
sovereign.
Subjects obligated to obey the sovereign and the sovereign is obligated
to work for peace and safety & prosperity of the subjects. Reciprocal
relationship between obedience & peace.
Sovereign is authorised, gives them the right to make judgements as to
what is conclusive to their selfpreservation/collective self
preservation.
Loss of traditional notion of liberty necessary for peace.
Total freedom given to subjects in aspects laws do not cover. Sovereign
will not control all aspects of subjects’ lives.
The sovereign’s power is a product of the covenant between individuals
that they have collectively made. Owes sovereignty to acts of
authorisation made by each subject.
Each individual will have some security from everyone else diffidence
no longer characterises the relationship between people.
Covenants are source of justice; injustice is the breaking of
covenants. In absence of covenants, each has right to everything and
everyone.
Language used by Hobbes “to bear” the person (corporate entity)
resembles language used by Roman republicans to limit power of office
holders; e.g. magistrates and make it clear they were in representative
role.
Conflict in the state of nature
Desire for glory people want others to value them as much as they
value themselves. Resort to physical to extract that value.
Relationship between ungoverned man characterised by diffidencelack of
faith in one another. Because each man is aware the other could kill
him/has strength to do so.
Diffidence linked to anticipation comes from mans need to ensure self
preservation.
“War, as is of every man against every man” doesn’t necessarily
involve actual combat but a state where it is known that such combat is
likely or possible.
Competition for resources equality of ability and the fact that no two
people can share the same resources= competition for res.
Natural passions: pride, revenge are all contrary to the laws of
nature which is to seek peace. Human psychological egoism.
Human nature man is wholly a physical being whose thoughts; emotions
and sensations are produced mechanically.
Different forms of commonwealth by institution
MONARCHY:
Best according to Hobbes. Public interest best served in a system where
public and private interest aligns.
This system would be a monarchy because only in a monarchy do sovereign’s
interest depend exclusively on interests of subjects. No king can be rich+
glorious if subjects are too poor or weak to maintain war against their
enemies.
Public interests & that of the monarch are the same in a monarchy.
Benefits of civil society; Industry, culture, prosperity, innovation
Sovereign able to uphold industry of subjects even when state is at
war; industry does not collapse+ misery does not engulf all subjects.
Sovereign keeps the state going
Civil society brings with it progress and civilisation in state of
nature, people live without industry, art & society. Because these
things cannot develop in a climate of “continual fear and danger of
violent death”.
Part of sovereign’s duty is to ensure subjects live without fear and in
prosperity.
Prosperity comes from the fact that individuals are able to cooperate
and make more particular contracts with one another which leads to the
creation of business and enterprise.
Healthy competition regulated in contrast to competition in the state
of nature, will allow technological advances. Facilitated by
laws+statues to regulate and sanction.
Only in a society with laws can a person be assured that their
possessions will not be stolen+ this gives freedom to innovate and
create.