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“Swamishriji”

1st Semester
Paper No. 101 Unit 5 Solutions
In normal life we rarely come across pure substances. Most of these are mixtures containing two
or more puresubstances. Their utility or importance in life depends on their composition. For
example, the properties of brass (mixture of copper and zinc) are quite different from those of
German silver (mixture of copper, zinc and nickel) or bronze (mixture of copper and tin);
1 part per million (ppm) of fluoride ions in water prevents tooth decay, while 1.5 ppm causes the
tooth to become mottled and high concentrations of fluoride ions can be poisonous (for example,
sodium fluoride is used in rat poison); intravenous injections are always dissolved in water
containing salts at particular ionic concentrations that match with blood plasma concentrations
and so on.

SOLUTION
A homogeneous mixture of two or more pure substances whose composition may be altered
within certain limits is termed as solution.

Solvent-is the component of a solution that is present in the greatest amount. A solvent can be
thought of as the medium in which the other substances present are dissolved. It is present in the
greatest amount.Ex: Both sugar and salt (two solutes) can be dissolved in a container of water
(solvent) to give salty sugar water.

Solute-is a component of a solution that is present in a lesser amount relative to that of the
solvent. More than one solute can be present in a solution.

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLUTION

General Properties of a Solution Using the Concepts of Solvent & Solute:
1. A solution contains two or more components: a solvent (the substance present in the greatest
amount) and one or more solutes.
2. A solution has a variable composition; that is the ratio of solute to solvent may be varied.
3 The properties of a solution change as the ratio of solute to solvent is changed.
4. The dissolved solutes are present as individual particles (molecules, atom, or ions).
Intermingling of components at the particle level is requirement for homogeneity.
5. The solutes remain uniformly distributed throughout the solution and will not settle out with
time. Every part of a solution has exactly the same properties and composition as every other
part.
6. The solute(s) generally can be separated from the solvent by physical means such as
evaporation

1.2 TYPES OF SOLUTION

Solvent Solute Examples
1. Gas Gas Mixture of gases, air.
2. Gas Liquid Water Vapour In air, mist.
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3. Gas Solid Sublimation of a solid Into a gas, smoke storms.

4. Liquid Gas CO2 gas dissolve in water (aerated drink), soda water.
5. Liquid Liquid Mixture of miscible liquids e.g. alcohol in water.
6. Liquid Solid Salt in water, sugar in water.
7. Solid Gas Adsorption of gases over metals, hydrogen over palladium.
8. Solid Liquid Mercury in zinc, mercury in gold i.e. all amalgams.
9. Solid Solid Homogeneous mixture of two or more metals
(i.e. alloys) e.g. copper in gold. zinc in copper.

1.3 CAUSE OF MISCIBILITY OF LIQUIDS

(i) Chemically alike liquids dissolve in one another. e.g. all alkanes are miscible in all
Proportions with one another because they are non-polar. Similarly polar liquid dissolves in
each other; e.g. lower alcohol in water.
(ii) Dipole interactions i.e. water and ether, water and phenol.
(iii) Molecular size of liquids which are mutually soluble are also approximately same.

2. SOLUBILITY
The maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of solvent at a given
temperature (usually 25°C) is known its solubility at that temperature.
Solubility = Amount of substance dissolved x 100
Amount of solvent

The solubility of a solute in a liquid depends upon the following factors

(a) Nature of the solute i.e. ionic or covalent (polar or non-polar).

(b) Nature of the solvent i.e. polar with high dielectric constant or non-polar.
(c) Temperature - Usually the solubility of the solute increases with increase of temperature
(e.g. KNO3, NH4Br) but in some cases increase in solubility is negligible (e.g. NaCl) and in
cases of some salts (e.g. Na2SO4 and CeSO4 solubility decreases with increase in
temperature).

SATURATED SOLUTION: contains all the solute that will go into solution at a given
temperature.

UNSATURATED SOLUTION: contains less solute than the amount of solute in a saturated
solution at a given temperature.

SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION: contains more solute than the amount of solute in a

saturated solution at a given temperature.

CONCENTRATED & DILUTE SOLUTIONS:

CONCENTRATED SOLUTION: contains a relatively large amount of solute in solution.

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DILUTE SOLUTION: contains a relatively small amount of solute in solution

Solution Formation
(1) Attraction between the solute particles-solute-solute attraction
(2) Attraction between solvent particles-solvent-solvent attraction
In order for a solute to dissolve in a solvent, two types of interparticle attraction must be
overcome
When they separate out and try to intermingle a solution results. So, solvent-solute interaction is
higher than the above two attraction.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Solution Formation

1. The state of subdivision of the solute: A crushed aspirin tablet will dissolve in water more
rapidly than a whole aspirin tablet.
2. The degree of agitation during solution preparation:
Stirring solution components disperses the solute particles more rapidly, increasing solute-
solvent interaction.
3. The temperature of the solution components: At a higher temp, both solute and solvent
molecules move more rapidly, so solution formation occur more rapidly.

Water as a Solvent
• Ionic compounds are a regular array of positive and negative ions.

• Water is a polar molecule, with positive and negative dipoles.

• The negative ions attract the positive dipole of water, and the positive ions attract the negative
dipole of water; each ion attracts two to four molecules of water

• Ions dissolved in water are said to be hydrated (surrounded by water molecules).

• water of hydration: the attraction between ions and water is so strong that water molecules are a
part of the crystal structure of many solids.

Mole Concept
Suppose you want to carry out a reaction that requires combining one atom of iron with one atom
of sulfur. How much iron should you use? How much sulfur? When you look around the lab,
there is no device that
can count numbers of atoms. Besides, the merest speck (0.001 g) of iron contains over a billion
billion atoms. The same is true of sulfur.Fortunately, you do have a way to relate mass and
numbers of atoms. One iron atom has a mass of 55.847 amu, and 55.847 g of iron contains 6.022
137 _ 1023 atoms of iron. Likewise, 32.066 g of sulfur contains 6.022 137 _ 1023 atoms of
sulfur. Knowing this, you can measure out 55.847 g of iron and 32.066 g of sulfur and be pretty
certain that you have the same number of atoms of each. The number 6.022 137 x1023 is called
Avogadro’s constant. For most purposes it is rounded off to 6.022 X 1023. Because this is an
awkward number to write over and over again, chemists refer to it as a mole (abbreviated mol).
6.022 X 1023 objects is called a mole, just as you call 12 objects a dozen.
Look again at how these quantities are related.
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55.847 g of iron _ 6.022 _ 1023 iron atoms _ 1 mol of iron

32.066 g of sulfur _ 6.022 _ 1023 sulfur atoms _ 1 mol of sulfur
A chemist has a jar containing 388.2 g of iron filings. How many moles of iron does the jar contain?
SOLUTION

A student needs 0.366 mol of zinc for a reaction. What mass of zinc in grams should the student obtain?

3. METHODS OF EXPRESSING THE CONCENTRATION OF A

SOLUTION
Because solutions are mixtures, they have a variable composition.
Concentration: is the amount of solute present in a specified amount of solution. There are
many methods of expressing concentration, two methods include percent concentration and
molarity.

Percent Concentration
1. Percent by mass (or mass -mass percent) <--most often used in chemical laboratories
2. Percent by volume (or volume -volume percent)
3. Mass -volume percent

There are three different ways of representing percent concentration

Percent by Mass: is the mass of solute in a solution divided by the total mass of solution,
multiplied by 100 (to put the value in terms of percentage). Abbreviated as %(m/m).

Example 1:Determine the percent composition by mass of a 100 g salt solution

which contains 20 g salt. Solution:20 g NaCl / 100 g solution x 100 = 20% NaCl solution

Example 2:
What is the percent-by-mass, %(m/m), concentration of sucrose (table sugar) in a solutions made
by dissolving 7.6g of sucrose in 83.4g of water?
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- The solute and solution masses must be measured in the same unit, which are usually grams.
- The mass of the solution is equal to the mass of the solute plus the mass of the solvent.
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

Perform by Volume: is the volume of solute in a solutions divided by the total volume of
solution, multiplied by 100.

Solute and solution volumes must always be expressed in the same units when you use percent
by volume.
Mass -volume percentis the mass of solute in a solution (in grams) divided by the total volume
of solution (in milliliters), multiplied by 100.

Percent composition:
• Mass of solute per volume of solution (m/v); a solution of 10 g of table sugar in 100 mL of
solution, for example, has a concentration of 10 percent m/v.

• Mass-volume percentage= (mass of solute (g) / total volume in solution (ml)*)100

• Mass of solute per mass ofsolution (m/m); essentially the same as m/vexcept that the mass of
the solution is used instead of its volume.
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

• Percent by mass = (mass of solute / total mass of solution) *100

• Volume of solute per volume of solution (v/v): example, a solution of 40 mL of ethanol in

100 mL of aqueous solution is 40 percent v/v.

Percent by volume = (volume of solute / total volume of solution)*1 00

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(iv)Molarity-is the moles of solute in a solution divided by the liters of solution. The
abbreviation for molarity is M. The mathematical equation for molarity is

Example:
Moles of solute (KMnO4) = 4.35 moles
*Note: Molarity requires liters for the volume units.
750mL x (10-3L / 1 mL) = 0.750L
The molarity of the solution is obtained by substituting the known quantities into the equation
M = (moles of solute / liters of solutions)
Which gives…

4.35 moles of KMnO4 are dissolved in enough water to give 750 mL of solution.

Molarity (M)Molarity is probably the most commonly used unit of concentration. It is the
number of moles of solute per liter of solution (not necessarily the same as the volume of
solvent!).
Example:What is the molarity of a solution made when water is added to 11 g CaCl2 to make
100 mL of solution?
Solution:11 g CaCl2/ (110 g CaCl2/ mol CaCl2) = 0.10 mol CaCl2100 mL x 1 L / 1000 mL
= 0.10 Lmolarity = 0.10 mol / 0.10 Lmolarity = 1.0 M
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(v) Molality (m) -

Molality of a solution may be defined as the number of gm moles of the solute dissolved in 1000
gm (1 kg) of the solvent. It is represented by small ‘m’. Mathematically
Molality (m) =Mass of the solute in grams per kg of solvent
Molecular mass of the solute
A solution containing one mole of solute per 1000 gm of solvent (1 kg) has molality equal to one
and is called molal solution. Molality is expressed in units of moles per kilogram (mol kg–1).
The molality of a solution does not change with temperature.

(vi) Normality -
Normality of a solution is defined as the number of gram equivalent of the solute dissolved per
litre of the solution. It is represented by N. Mathematically.

Normality N =Massof solute in grams per litre

Equivalentmassof thesolute
A solution having normality equal to one is called “normal solution”. Such a solution contains
one gram equivalent of solute per litre of solution. A seminormal solution contains 1/2 gram
equivalent. A decinormal solution contains 1/10 gram equivalent and a centinormal solution
contains 1/100 gram equivalent of solute per litre of solution.or
Normality =Mass of the solute x 1000
Equivalent mass of the solute x V
Or

Mass of solute in gram

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(gm. eq. mass of solute) x volume of solution (L)

Where V is the volume in millilitre.

(vii) Mole fraction -

Mole fraction may be defined as the ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total
number of moles of all the components (i.e. solute and solvent) present in the solution.
Let us suppose that a solution contains the components A and B and suppose that a gram of
A and b gram of B are present in it. Let the molecular masses of A and B are MA and MB
respectively.
Then number of moles of A are given by nA = a/MA

and number of moles of B are given by nB = b/MA

Total number of moles of A and B = nA + nB

Mole fraction of A, XA = nA
nA + nB

Mole fraction of B, XB = nB
nA + nB

Sum of mole fractions of all components is always one.

i.e. XA + XB = = nA + nB =1
nA + nB nA + nB

So if mole fraction of one component of a binary solution is known say XB. then the mole
fraction of XA = 1 – XB.
It may be noted that the mole fraction is always independent of the temperature.
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(viii) Mole percent -

Mole percent is the number of moles of a component in 100 mole of the solute and solvent.
Mole percent = Mole fraction x 100
Example. for a solution containing 8 moles NH3 and 12 moles of H2O.
Mole fraction of NH3, XNH3= 8 mole 2/ 5
12 moles + 8moles =

Mole percent of NH3 = 2/ 5 x 100 =40%

(ix) Formality (F) -

It may be defined as the number of gram formula masses of the ionic solutes dissolved per litre
of the solution. Mathematically
Formality (F) =Mass of the ionic solute in gram per litre
Formula mass of the solute
Commonly, the term formality is used to express the concentration of the ionic solids which do
not exist as molecule but as network of ions.

(x) Parts per million (ppm) -

When a solute is present in trace amounts, its concentration is expressed in parts per million.
It may be defined as the number of parts by mass of solute per million parts by mass of the
solution.
Parts per million (ppm) = Mass of solute x 106
Mass of solution

Dilution-is the process in which more solvent is added in order to lower its concentration. The
same amount of solute is present, but it is now distributed in a larger amount of solvent (the
original solvent plus the added solvent).
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A simple relationship exist between the volumes and concentrations of the diluted and stock
solutions, which is…

Or Csx Vs= Cdx Vd

Dilution Example:
A nurse want to prepare a 1.0%(m/v) silver nitrate solution form 24mL of a 3.0%(m/v) stock
solutions of silver nitrate. How much water should be added to the 24mL of stock solution?
Solution :
The volume of water to be added will be equal to the difference between the final and initial
volumes. The volume is known (24mL). The final volume can be calculated by using the
equation Csx Vs= Cdx Vd
.
Once the final volume is known, the difference between the two volumes can be obtained.
Substituting the known quantities into the dilution equation, which has been rearranged to isolate
V4 on the left side, gives

The solvent added is Vd-Vs= (72 -24)mL = 48 mL

Density
Density is the ratio of mass to volume; d = m/V. Because d is such a ratio, it is an intensive
property. That is, d is a property of the material, but does not depend on how much you have.
[d also depends on conditions, especially temperature and pressure. Effects of
these variables are very large for gases, but modest for solids and liquids. We
will ignore them here.]
The Greek letter ρ (rho) is also used for density.
The density equation contains three terms (d, m, V). In general, in density problems you know
two of these and want to calculate the third.
Most density problems can be solved by careful attention to the units, even if you do not
precisely remember the above equation.

B. Calculate d
To calculate d, you need to measure the mass and volume of some amount of the material.
Example
You have a piece of copper. Its volume is 9.27 mL and its mass is 82.9 g. Calculate the
density of copper.
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Note the units of density, g/mL. These units reflect the equation, mass/volume.

Problems
1. You measure out 5.00 mL of concentrated nitric acid, HNO3. It weighs 7.10 g. What is the
density of concentrated nitric acid? [Note. This refers to common lab “concentrated nitric
acid”, which is about 70% (w/w) HNO3.]
2. A 34.6 g bar of aluminum occupies 12.8 mL. Calculate the density of aluminum.

C. Calculate m
You can calculate the mass of something from its volume, if you know the density. That is,
given d and V, you can calculate m. If you do algebra on the density equation, you see that
m = d*V. You can use this equation, and use the units as a check. Or you can just follow the
units. In effect, such a problem asks you to convert V to m (mL to g).
Example
The density of ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is 0.789 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 10.0 mL.

Emphasize: Check the units, even if you start by using the equation. The units will protect you
from some silly mistakes.
Problems of this type may be particularly common for liquids. It’s often convenient to
measure a liquid by volume, but you may need to know the mass of the sample, perhaps so
you can convert it to moles.

Problems
3. What is the mass of 150 mL ethanol? (d is in the Example, above).
4. Continuing… How many moles is this? (Ethanol is C2H5OH.)
5. Calculate the mass of 100 mL of concentrated nitric acid (density = 1.42 g/mL).
6. Continuing… What is the actual mass of HNO3 in that 100 mL? (Remember, the
“concentrated” acid is 70% HNO3 by weight.)
7. Continuing… How many moles is that?

D. Calculate V
From the density equation, V = m/d. Again, you can use this and check yourself with the units.
Or you can use the units alone to guide the problem. Problems of this type involve converting
m to V (g to mL).
Example
What is the volume of an 18.2 g piece of aluminum (d = 2.70 g/mL)?
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Note that we wrote the density upside down here, in order to cancel the g and get the answer
in mL. This is equivalent to dividing by d, as the equation indicated.

Problems
8. What is the volume of a 23.9 g piece of gold, d = 19.3 g/mL?
9. Given 134 g of concentrated nitric acid (d = 1.42 g/mL), what is the volume?

E. Misc problems
These problems are similar to the problems in the three sections above.
Problems. (Most d values are in previous problems.)
10. Given 12.8 mL of concentrated nitric acid, what is its mass?
11. What is the volume of 4.20 g of ethanol?
12. You have 173 g of gold. What is its volume?
13. The weight of 9.28 mL of ethanol is 7.31 g. Calculate the density of ethanol, based on
these data.
14. An aluminum bar has mass 242 g. What is its volume?
15. An aluminum bar occupies 5.32 mL. How much does it weigh?

F. More complexity?
There are only three basic kinds of density problems. These are covered in Sect B-D. After all,
there are only three terms in the density equation.
The main possible source of additional complexity would be in the units. For example, d may
be given in g/mL but you want m in kg (or even pounds). Or you may have measured the
volume in liters (or even ounces), and want d in g/mL.
To do problems such as these, remember that density is fundamentally mass/volume. You can
change the mass units from one to another, and you can change the volume units from one to
another; but these changes do not change the basic form of the solution. Show each step as a
simple dimensional analysis conversion, and the units will guide you.
Example
Calculate the mass of 2.40 L of ethanol, d = 0.789 g/mL. That is, convert 2.40 L to g.
2.40 L 0.789 g 1000 mL

Of course, you might do this other ways. For example, you might immediately recognize that
2.40 L = 2400 mL, and start the problem with 2400 mL. What you have done in that case is to
do one conversion step in your head. L still gets converted to mL, either in your head or on
paper. The example solution shown above shows all work. If at all in doubt, this is the safe
way to do the problem.
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Problems. I encourage you to show all steps explicitly. (Most d values are in previous
problems.)

16. Calculate the mass of 5.00 L of concentrated nitric acid.

17. What is the volume of 2.00 mg of gold?
18. What is the mass of 2.0 mL of air, d = 1.2 g/L?
19. What is the volume of an aluminum bar which weighs 1.88 kg?
20. Calculate the volume of 25.0 mmol of ethanol.