Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Introduction to particle physics

Lecture 4

Frank Krauss

IPPP Durham

U Durham, Epiphany term 2009

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Outline

1 Mesons and Isospin

2 Strange particles

3 Resonances

4 The quark model

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Nuclei, nucleons, and mesons

Neutrons
Rutherford’s experiment: Lightest atom = H (p-e-bound state)
But: next lightest atom (He) four times as heavy as hydrogen, with
only two electrons. Similar for Li (three electrons, seven times as
heavy), etc.. Why so heavy?
Discovery of the Neutron by J.Chadwick (1932): Bombard Beryllium
with α-particles, very penetrating non-ionising radiation emerges.
Send through paraffin, in turn protons are emitted.
Measure speed of protons: original radiation cannot be γ’s.
Therefore new particle (“neutron”) with nearly the same mass as
the proton but no charge.
Heisenberg’s proposal (1932): Both neutron and proton are two
manifestations of the same state, the Nucleon.
Symmetry relating them: Isospin (very similar to spin).

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Proposing mesons
H.Yukawa (1934): First prediction of mesons.
Answer to why neutrons and protons bind together in nucleus.
Yukawa’s underlying assumption: Introduce a new force,
short-ranged, thus mediated by massive mesons.
Estimate: 3-400 times the electron mass.
From uncertainty principle ∆E ∆t ≥ 1 with time given by nucleon
radius as ∆t ≈ 1/r0 . Assume r0 of order O(1fm), then
∆E ≈ mmeson ≈ 200 MeV
(Note: natural units used in this estimate).

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

The first “mesons”: The muon & the pion

Two groups (1937): Anderson &
Neddermeyer, Street & Stevenson:
Finding such particles in cosmic rays
using cloud chambers.
But: wrong lifetime (too long, indicating
weaker interaction), and inconsistent
mass measurements
Two decisive experiments to clarify the
situation (Rome, 1946 & Powell et al. in
Bristol, 1947) with photo emulsions.
Result: In fact two new particles.
One weakly interacting, the muon, µ, one strongly interacting,
the pion, π. The latter comes in three versions, π + , π − , π 0 , where
the charged ones mainly decay into muons plus a neutrino, while the
neutral one decays mainly into two γ’s.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Detour: Spins and their addition

Spin-1/2 systems: General remarks

Spin-1/2 systems are often studied in physics.
Spin-statistics theorem suggests that such systems are fermionic in
nature, i.e. respect Pauli exclusion.
Interesting in the context of this lecture:
Basic building blocks of matter (quarks & leptons) are spin-1/2.
Simple representation:
| ↑i =  21 , + 12 and | ↓i =  21 , − 12 .
   

Important: Distinguish total spin s and its projection, sz on a

measurement axis (here the z-axis).
Examples: electron and its spin, isospin, . . . .
Note: Spin can also occur as spin-1 etc..

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Adding two spin-1/2 objects

Often two spin-1/2 objects form a compound.
Examples: bound states of fermions, spin- orbit coupling, etc..
If two spin-1/2 systems are added, the following objects can emerge:
| ↑↑i, | ↑↓i, | ↓↑i, and | ↓↓i.
Naively, they have spin 1, 0, or -1, respectively.
But: Need to distinguish total spin s and its projection onto
the measurement axis sz (here, z has been chosen for simplicity)
Then, truly relevant states are s = 1 (triplet, symmetric)
|1, 1 i = |↑↑i, |1, 0 i = √12 [|↑↓i + |↓↑i], |1, −1 i = |↓↓i
and s = 0 (singlet, anti-symmetric):
|0, 0 i = √12 [|↑↓i − |↓↑i]
Catchy way of writing this: 2 ⊗ 2 = 3 ⊕ 1

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Clebsch-Gordan coefficients
The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients in front of the new compound
states can be calculated (or looked up).
Formally speaking, they are defined as follows:
D E
(1) (2)
s (1) , sz ; s (2) , sz |s (1) , s (2) ; s, sz
indicating that two spin systems s (1) and s (2) are added to form a
new spin system with total spin s (or J). Obviously, it is not only
the total spin of each system that counts here, but also its
orientation. This is typically indicated through “magnetic” quantum
numbers, m, replacing the sz in the literature.

Note: Square-roots around the coefficients are understood in the table above

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Using spin-algebra
Identify: |pi =  12 , + 21 and |ni =  12 , − 21 .
   

Heisenberg’s proposal: Call this isospin (rather than spin).

Also, the three kinds of pions can be written as:
|π + i = |1, +1i, |π 0 i = |1, 0i, and |π − i = |1, −1i.
Catch: Isospin conserved in strong interactions!
Dynamical implications: Bound states (here the deuteron).
Add two nucleons: can in principle have iso-singlet and iso-triplet.
But: No pp, nn-bound states, therefore |di = |0, 0i (deuteron =
iso-singlet).
Consider processes (+ their isospin amplitudes, below):
0
p + p → d + π+ p+n →d + √π n + n → d + π−
Aiso ∝ 1 Aiso ∝ 1/ 2 Aiso ∝ 1

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Strangeness. Who ordered that?

Finding strange particles

Rochester & Butler (1947): Cloud

chamber experiment with cosmic rays.
Unusual “fork” of a π + and a π − .
Interpretation: Cosmic ray particles,
mass between π and p, the kaon, K.
Like pions, but strangely long lifetime
(typically decay to pions or a
muon-neutrino pair), again hinting at
weak interactions being responsible.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Finding more strangeness Why are they “strange”?

Anderson (1950): Another With the advent of the
“strange” particle, decaying Bevatron it became clear:
into proton and π − , the Strange particles (kaons and
hyperon: Λ → pπ − . lambdas) are copiously
produced, but decay slowly
(strong interaction in
production, weak interaction in
decay)!
Also: In strong reactions,
strangeness only pairwise
produced.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Cataloguing strangeness
Gell-Mann and Nishijima propose a new quantum number (1953):
Strangeness.
Conserved by strong interactions, but not by weak
interactions.
Allowed: p + π − → K 0 Λ, Σ+ K − , . . .
Forbidden: p + + π − → K 0 n, Σ+ π − , . . .
Side remark: Baryon number (B) is also conserved. (More on baryons and mesons later)

Relation of strangeness S, electric charge Q, and isospin I :

Q = e I3 + B+S


2 .
(Gell-Mann-Nishijima relation)

Here I3 is the third component (= ±1/2 for p, n) of the isospin,

S = ±1 for kaons, Λ’s, and Σ’s, B is the baryon number (= 1 for
baryons like p, n, Λ, Σ and = 0 for mesons like π, K ).

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Kaons
Found four varieties, of kaons K + , K − , K 0 , K̄ 0 .
All are pseudo-scalars (i.e. spin-0, negative parity), just like pions.
All have the same mass, about three times mπ (mπ ≈ 140 MeV,
mK ≈ 495 MeV) =⇒ “relatives”?
Apparent problem: Different multiplet structure.
Pions come in one iso-triplet (3 states with same isospin I = 1 but
different I3 = +1, 0, −1 for π + , π 0 , π − - see the Gell-Man-Nishijima
formula).
The kaons in contrast have either S = +1 (K + , K 0 ) or S = −1
(K − , K̄ 0 ), and they do not form an iso-triplet - they are organised in
two iso-doublets.
Also, while for pions the antiparticles are π̄ + = π − and π̄ 0 = π 0 ,
for the kaons K̄ + = K − but K̄ 0 6= K 0 !
(We will sea that later, when we discuss weak interactions and CP-violation)

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Detour: Resonances
. . . and how they manifest themselves
Up to now: Most particles have lifetimes τ ≥ 10−12 s, long enough
to observe them directly in bubble chambers etc..
But: There are many particles with shorter lifetimes. =⇒ direct
detection mostly impossible, existence must be inferred indirectly.
These transient particles appear as “intermediate” ones. They
typically form when colliding two particles, and decay very quickly.
They respect conservation laws: If, e.g., isospin of colliding particles
is 3/2, resonance must have isospin 3/2. =⇒ a ∆-resonance.
Indication for their emergence: Strongly peaking cross section σ (i.e.
probability for the process ab → cd to happen), when plotting σ vs.
c.m.
c.m. energy of the collision. The mean is then at Eab , with a
width given by ∆E = 1/τ , the lifetime of the resonance.
Will look at this in more detail in homework assignment.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Comparison with driven, damped oscillators

For oscillators, intensity I is defined as the square of the amplitude.
Consider a linear oscillator with a resonance frequency Ω, driven
with a frequency ω. The intensity of oscillations then reads
Γ
2
I (ω) ∝
2 .
(ω − Ω)2 + Γ2
Here, Γ, the width parametrises the dampening of the oscillator. It is
also known as the (line-) width of the resonance.
In particle physics, cross sections for resonances are very similar:
σ(s) ∝ (s−M 2 )12 +(MΓ)2 ,
where s = (pa + pb )2 is the c.m. energy squared of the incoming
particles a and b, M is the mass and Γ = 1/τ is the lifetime of the
resonance.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Resonances in e + e − → hadrons Zoom into J/Ψ

σee→hadrons (Eee )

Note the more or less sharp

resonances on a comparably flat
“continuum”, coming from
e + e − → qq̄ Note: Here width around 3
(We will discuss this in more detail!) MeV completely determined
They are (apart from the Z ) all by detector (ΓJ/Ψ = 87
related to qq̄-bound states. keV)

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

The quark model

The particle zoo

In the early 60’s it was clear that hundreds of “elementary”
resonances exist. Each had well-defined quantum numbers such as
spin, isospin, strangeness, baryon number etc.. Typically, widths
increased with mass, or, reversely, lifetimes decreased with mass of
the resonance.
Obvious task: Need a classification scheme
(similar to Mendeleev’s periodic table).

Obvious question: Are all these particles “elementary” or are they

composed of even more fundamental objects.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Internal symmetries, once more

Such a classification scheme is provided by internal symmetries.
Proposed independently by M.Gell-Mann and Y.Ne’eman (1961).
Starting point: Isospin
(from charge independence of strong interactions).

In symmetry language: p and n are in a two-dimensional

representation of the group SU(2) (rotations in two-dimensional
complex space). Hamiltonian governing their strong interactions is
invariant under 
transformations
 of the form
  ′ 
p SU(2) p p
−→ Ĝ =
n n n′
Similarly, the pions (π + , π − and π 0 ) and the Delta-resonances
(∆++ , ∆+ , ∆0 , and ∆− ) are in three- and four-dimensional
representations of this group.
(Note: Despite different dimensions the number of real angles to characterise these SU(2)-rotations is the same, namely 3. The

rotations, i.e. the matrices Ĝ are linear combinations of the three Pauli-matrices in the respective representation.)

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Quarks
But there’s also strangeness: Maybe go to SU(3)?
In 1964 Gell-Mann and Zweig pointed out that this fits the bill:
They proposed three “hypothetical” quarks, up, down and strange,
could built all known particles as their “bound states”.
Similar to combining spins in SU(2). Two kinds of bound states:
Mesons are made from a qq̄-pair, baryons from three quarks.
In the group theory notation from before they have:
Mesons: qq̄ ≡ 3 ⊗ 3̄ = 1 ⊕ 8
Baryons qqq ≡ 3 ⊗ 3 ⊗ 3 = 1 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 10,
i.e. one singlet of mesons and baryons, one octet of mesons, and two
octets and one decuplet of baryons.
This would repeat itself for higher spin states.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Hadron multiplets
With only u, d, and s quarks, the hadrons are characterised by
strangeness and electrical charge (or third component of isospin).
(For some graphs see next transparencies)

Implies the following quark charge assignments (added as scalars):

qu = 2/3 and qd = qs = −1/3.
Also isospin assignments (isospin added with Clebsch-Gordans’s)
I3,u = 1/2, I3,d = −1/2, and I3,s = 0.
(Result: ∆’s form an isospin 3/2 multiplet, nucleons an isospin-1/2 doublet.)

′
The mesons (bound qq̄ -states) come in multiplets of nine particles,
which differ by their spin and occupy different mass regions. The
most important ones are the two lightest ones: a pseudo-scalar
multiplet (including pions and kaons), a vector multiplet (including
ρ’s and the φ-meson).
The two lowest lying baryon multiplets are an octet and a decuplet.
The former includes, e.g., the proton and neutron, while the latter
includes the ∆-resonances and the Ω− .
F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Meson multiplets
Pseudoscalars Vectors

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Baryon multiplets
Decuplet
Octet

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

The discovery of the Ω−

In 1961, “tip” of the decuplet not yet found.
M.Gell-Mann’s prediction: m = 1672 MeV, plus the right production
mechanism and a long lifetime.
Decay chain:
K − + p → Ω− + K + + K ∗0
(strangeness conserving)

Ω− → Λ0 + K−
(∆S = 1 weak decay)

Λ0 → π − + p
(∆S = 1 weak decay)

K ∗0 → π − + K +
(∆S = 0 strong decay)

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

The postulate of colour

In the decuplet, one problem appears: Some states like for instance
the ∆++ are composed from three identical quarks (u’s for the
∆++ ). Since the decuplet baryons are spin-3/2 objects they are
fermions, i.e. their wave function must be antisymmetric. With three
identical quarks, in identical spin states (spin-3/2 implies the
spin-1/2’s point into the same direction), this is possible only by
invoking a new quantum number, colour.
We will discuss this when we encounter the strong interaction again.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4
Mesons and Isospin Strange particles Resonances The quark model

Summary
More particles in the zoo.
First encounter with isospin as a first symmetry.
Emergence of strangeness - giving rise to the quark model:
SU(3) or “the eightfold way”.
Symmetry as the method of choice to gain control.
Resonances as intermediate states.
To read: Coughlan, Dodd & Gripaios, “The ideas of particle
physics”, Sec 7-10.

F. Krauss IPPP
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4