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10]

Head and Neck Symposium

Imaging in laryngeal cancers

Varsha M Joshi, Vineet Wadhwa1, Suresh K Mukherji2
Vijaya Diagnostics, 1Apollo Hospitals, Hyderabad, India, 2University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Correspondence: Varsha Joshi, Senior Consultant, Vijaya Diagnostics, Hyderabad, India. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Imaging plays an important complementary role to clinical examination and endoscopic biopsy in the evaluation of laryngeal cancers.
A vast majority of these cancers are squamous cell carcinomas (SCC). Cross‑sectional imaging with contrast‑enhanced computed
tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging allows excellent depiction of the intricate anatomy of the larynx and the
characteristic patterns of submucosal tumor extension. CT, MRI and more recently PET‑CT, also provide vital information about
the status of cervical nodal disease, systemic metastases and any synchronous malignancies. Additionally, certain imaging‑based
parameters like tumor volume and cartilaginous abnormalities have been used to predict the success of primary radiotherapy or
surgery in these patients. Integration of radiological findings with endoscopic evaluation greatly improves the pretherapeutic staging
accuracy of laryngeal cancers, and significantly impacts the choice of management strategies in these patients. Imaging studies
also help in the post‑therapeutic surveillance and follow‑up of patients with laryngeal cancers. In this article, we review the currently
used laryngeal imaging techniques and protocols, the key anatomic structures relevant to tumor spread and the characteristic
patterns of submucosal extension and invasion of laryngeal cancer. The role of CT, MRI and PET‑CT in the evaluation of patients
with laryngeal SCC and the impact of imaging findings on prognosis and clinical management is also discussed.

Key words: CT; imaging; laryngeal cancer; MRI; post‑treatment; staging

Introduction the treatment decisions in these patients. Imaging also

provides information about the nodal disease, systemic
Cancers of the larynx constitute about 25% of all head metastases, any synchronous tumors and recurrent
and neck malignancies. They commonly present in disease.[4]
adults between 50 and 70  years and show a strong male
predominance.[1] Over 90% of these cancers are squamous This article reviews the standard imaging protocols to
cell carcinomas  (SCC). Tobacco smoking and alcohol evaluate the larynx and the key anatomical structures
consumption are important risk factors for laryngeal relevant to tumor spread, and illustrates the characteristic
SCC.[1,2] Patients with laryngeal SCC have a higher risk for patterns of submucosal spread of this SCC. The influence
synchronous malignancies arising from the lung and upper of imaging findings on prognosis and choice of treatment
aerodigestive tract.[3] options in these patients is also described.

Majority of these SCCs are readily identified at endoscopy. Imaging Protocols

Integration of endoscopic findings with cross‑sectional
imaging to assess the submucosal and loco‑regional extent CT
of the SCC improves the T staging accuracy and influences Evaluation of laryngeal SCC requires a contrast CT study
of the neck. Excellent images of the neck are obtained using
Access this article online a multidectector CT (MDCT) following the injection of an
Quick Response Code: iodinated contrast agent (total dose 35‑40 g). The contrast
Website: may be hand injected or an automated power injector may
www.ijri.org
be used, in which case sufficient delay should elapse before
scan acquisition begins. The patient lies in supine position,
DOI: breathing quietly and is asked to refrain from coughing or
10.4103/0971-3026.107183
swallowing. Axial scanning is performed from the skull
base to the aortic arch with the acquisition plane parallel to
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Joshi, et al.: Imaging of laryngeal cancers

the plane of hyoid bone, to obtain scans parallel to the true

vocal cords. The raw axial image dataset is reconstructed
with a section thickness of as little as 0.75 mm to obtain
high quality sagittal and coronal reformatted images.
A 512 × 512 matrix is used with a small field of view (FOV)
between 16 and 20 cm. All images are reviewed in soft
tissue and bone windows. An additional examination
for better assessment of the tumor in laryngeal ventricle,
anterior commisure and aryepiglottic folds may be done
with e‑phonation.[5,6]

MRI
A high field MRI scanner using a dedicated neck coil
is preferred. A combination of multiplanar noncontrast
T1‑weighted, T2‑weighted and T2‑weighted fat saturation Figure 1A: Normal anatomy of larynx. Frontal view
images with postcontrast T1 fat‑suppressed images
are routinely used. It is important to take the T1 and
T2 sections at the same levels. A section thickness of 4 mm
is preferred with an interslice gap of 0-1 mm. The entire
examination takes about 30  minutes, and the patient is
asked to refrain from coughing and swallowing during
the acquisition.

The choice of imaging modality is subject to the

availability of the CT or MR scanner and the expertise in
interpretation of the scans, as also the ability of the patient
to tolerate an MR examination. In most institutions,
CT is the preferred imaging method for evaluating
laryngeal SCC and MRI is used as a complementary
problem‑solving tool when CT does not provide all the
information prior to therapy.[7]

Key Anatomical Features of the Larynx

A clear understanding of the laryngeal anatomy is Figure 1B: Normal anatomy of larynx. Lateral view
fundamental to the interpretation of CT and MRI scans
of patients with laryngeal SCC. A  detailed review of the
anatomy[8] is beyond the scope of this article. A few key
anatomical features are discussed below[8,9] [Figures 1‑4].

Laryngeal cartilages
The larynx extends from the tip of epiglottis to the inferior
margin of the cricoid cartilage. The epiglottis, thyroid,
cricoid and the paired arytenoid cartilages are the four
principal laryngeal cartilages [Figure 1].

The epiglottis is the superiormost, midline leaf‑shaped

cartilage. It has a free margin and a fixed portion (stem).
The hyoepiglottic ligament attaches the free epiglottic
margin to the hyoid bone and the thyroepiglottic ligament
attaches the epiglottic stem to the inner surface of the
thyroid cartilage at a caudal level. The free margin of the Figure 1C: Normal anatomy of larynx. Lateral view with one thyroid
epiglottis is closely related to the base of tongue  –  the lamina removed
median glosso‑epiglottic fold runs over the hyoepiglottic
ligament and projects above the level of the hyoid. Hence, epiglottic margin appears before the hyoid is visualised.
on serial axial CT or MR images of the neck, the free The thyroid cartilage has two laminae fused anteriorly,
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Figure 2A: Normal anatomy of larynx on axial contrast CT images -

supraglottis. Axial contrast CT image shows the tip of the epiglottis in Figure 2B: Normal anatomy of larynx on axial contrast CT images
the midline (thin arrow) – supraglottis. Paired valleculae (curved arrows) on either sides of
hyoepiglottic ligament (elbow arrow). Epiglottis is seen in the midline
(thin arrow)

Figure 2C: Normal anatomy of larynx on axial contrast CT images – Figure 2D: Normal anatomy of larynx on axial contrast CT images
supraglottis. The preepiglottic space (white asterisk) seen anterior to – supraglottis. The stem of the epiglottis is seen attaching to the
the epiglottis (thin arrow). Note the aryepiglottic folds (bent arrows) inner surface of the thyroid cartilage in the midline (thin arrow). The
and the piriform sinuses (notched arrows) aryepiglottic folds (bent thick arrows), piriform sinuses (notched arrows)
and paraglottic spaces (curved elbow arrows) are seen
and enlarged posteriorly, to form the superior and inferior
cornua. The superior cornua provide attachment to the The imaging appearance of these cartilages depends
thyrohyoid ligament and the inferior cornua articulate on whether or not they are ossified. The epiglottis and
medially with the sides of the cricoid at the cricothyroid the vocal process of arytenoids are fibrocartilages that
joint. The cricoid is the inferiormost ring‑shaped laryngeal do not ossify. Nonossified cartilages have soft tissue
cartilage and the foundation of the larynx. The paired attenuation on CT and intermediate signal intensity on
arytenoid cartilages sit along the upper margin of the T1‑weighted (T1W) and T2‑weighted (T2W) images.
cricoid lamina, forming the cricoarytenoid joints. The The thyroid, cricoid and arytenoid are hyaline cartilages
vertical height of the arytenoid spans the laryngeal that show progressive ossification with age. On CT, the
ventricle. The apex of the arytenoid attaches the vestibular ossified cartilages have hyperattenuating inner and outer
ligament and corresponds to the level of the false cords. margins with low attenuation of the medullary cavity. On
The base of the arytenoids projects the vocal processes MRI, the ossified cortical margins are of low signal and
anteriorly, that attach the vocal ligament running along the fat‑filled medullary cavity is of high signal on T1W
the inner margin of true vocal cords. and T2W images.
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Figure 2E: Normal anatomy of larynx on axial contrast CT images – Figure 2F: Normal anatomy of larynx on axial contrast CT images
supraglottis. The tip of the arytenoid cartilages (double headed arrows) – glottis. The cricoarytenoid joints (straight arrows) are seen. The
and the false cords (small arrows) are seen. The paraglottic spaces thyroarytenoid muscle forms the bulk of the true vocal cords (block
(curved elbow arrows)are seen deep to the false cords. This section arrows) at this level. Note the anterior commissure (elbow arrow) and
represents the superior margin of the laryngeal ventricular complex the posterior commissure (curved arrow)

Anterior and Posterior Commissure

The anterior commissure is the midline anterior meeting

point of the true vocal cords. It comprises of the anterior
cord, the anterior junction of the two vocal cords, the thyroid
cartilage and the Broyle’s ligament, a fibrous structure
connecting the vocal ligaments to the cartilage. There is no
perichondrium at that point, so the fibers extend directly
from the vocal ligament into the cartilage. The posterior
commissure is the mucosal surface on the anterior surface
of the cricoid cartilage between the arytenoid cartilages.
Both the commissures are seen very well on the axial
images [Figure 2F].

The Paraglottic Space (PLS) and the

Pre‑Epiglottic Space (PES)
Figure 2G: Normal anatomy of larynx on axial contrast CT images –
subglottis. Axial section through the subglottis shows the cricoid ring
The PGS is located deep to the mucosal surfaces of the
Laryngeal Ventricular Complex (LVC) true and false cords and bound laterally by the thyroid
and cricoid cartilages and is best seen on axial CT and
This is the key component in organizing the larynx into the MR sections through the supraglottis  (2C‑E), where it
supraglottis, glottis and subglottis [Table 1]. It comprises is entirely composed of fat. It extends caudally upto the
the false cords, true cords and intervening laryngeal undersurface of the true vocal cords. The entire extent is
clearly demonstrated on coronal images [Figure 4]. The
ventricle.
PGS is continuous with the extralaryngeal soft tissues
between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages antero‑laterally;
The LVC is best identified on coronal images  [Figure  4];
an important pathway for extralaryngeal tumor spread.
the ventricle itself is seen as a small air‑filled outpouching
The pre‑epiglottic space (PES) is a fat‑filled space, rich in
between the false and true cords. On axial images, the superior lymphatics. It is bound superiorly by the hyoepiglottic
margin of the LVC is defined by a section through the apex ligament, anteriorly by the thyrohyoid membrane,
of the arytenoids, the false cords and the fat‑filled paraglottic inferiorly by the thyroepiglottic ligament and posteriorly
spaces deep to the false cords [Figure 2E]. The inferior margin by the epiglottis. The PES and PGS communicate with
is defined by a section through the true cords with the each other superiorly. Sagittal images are best suited
thyroarytenoid muscle and the cricoarytenoid joint [Figure 2F]. to delineate the entire extent of the PES  [Figure  3];
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Figure 3B: Sagittal T1W MR image through the larynx. Sagittal T1W
Figure 3A: Sagittal CT image through the larynx. Sagittal CT MRI shows the epiglottis (thin arrow) and the preepiglottic fat space
reformation shows the epiglottis (thin arrow) and the preepiglottic fat (thick arrow). Note the close relationship of the base of tongue (elbow
space (thick arrow). Note the close relationship of the base of tongue arrow) with the epiglottis
(elbow arrow) with the epiglottis
The TNM classification laid down by the American Joint
however, axial images also provide good delineation of Commission on Cancer  (AJCC) is universally accepted
the same [Figure 2C‑E]. for staging laryngeal cancer[10] [Table 2]. This classification
incorporates all information available prior to treatment,
Tumor Origin and Characteristic Patterns of including the clinical examination, endoscopy, endoscopic
Spread (T staging) biopsy and cross‑sectional imaging. The guidelines rely
heavily on the use of cross‑sectional imaging for the T
Clinical examination followed by endoscopy is always staging; however, no recommendation is made regarding
the first step in T staging of laryngeal SCC. CT and the preference of one technique over the other.
MRI are performed to define the submucosal extent
and deeper margins of the tumor. Small and superficial The general radiological criteria used for tumor involvement
mucosal tumors may not be appreciated at CT or MRI include asymmetric soft tissue prominence or thickening,
and hence, it is mandatory that an endoscopy is done abnormal contrast enhancement, a bulky mass, obliteration of
prior to any imaging study. Integration of cross‑sectional the normal fat planes and spaces, or a combination of these.[11]
imaging with endoscopy findings significantly improves
the accuracy of T staging. Zbaren, et al. reported the Supraglottic SCC
accuracy of clinical T staging alone for laryngeal SCC Approximately 30% of all laryngeal cancers arise in the
to be 57.5%, but as high as 80% when combined with supraglottis. They often present in advanced stages,
contrast‑enhanced CT.[9] because symptoms  (hoarseness, due to vocal cord

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Table 1: Laryngeal subdivisions

Subdivision Extent Contents
Supraglottis Tip of epiglottis to laryngeal ventricle Epiglottis
False cords
Aryepiglottic
folds
Arytenoid
cartilages
Preepiglottic
space
Paraglottic
space
Vestibule
Glottis From laryngeal ventricle to an True vocal
imaginary plane 1cm below this level cords
Anterior
commissure
Posterior Figure 4A: Coronal image though the larynx. Line diagram shows
commissure complete extent of the paraglottic space and the laryngeal ventricle
Subglottis From undersurface of true cord to complex in the coronal plane. Note the laryngeal subdivisions
inferior surface of cricoid cartilage

Table 2: T‑ staging of Laryngeal Cancers (according to AJCC)

Supraglottic SCC
T1 Tumor confined to one supraglottic subsite with normal vocal cord mobility
T2 Tumor invades mucosa in more than one supraglottic subsite, without
cord fixation
T3 Tumor limited to the larynx, with vocal cord fixation and/or invasion of
postcricoid area or preepiglottic space
T4A Resectable: Tumor invading through the thyroid cartilage and/or other
extralaryngeal tissues (trachea, cervical soft tissues, strap muscles,
thyroid, esophagus)
T4B Unresectable: Tumor invading prevertebral space, encasing the carotid
artery, or invading mediastinal structures
Glottic SCC
T1 Tumor limited to vocal cord (s), with normal mobility (may involve
anterior or posterior commissure)
T1A Limited to one cord
T1B Involving both cords
T2 Tumor extension to supra and/or subglottis with impaired vocal cord
mobility
T3 Tumor limited to the larynx, with vocal cord fixation and/or invasion of
paraglottic space and/or inner cortex of thyroid cartilage
T4A Resectable: Tumor invading through the thyroid cartilage and/or other
extralaryngeal tissues (trachea, cervical soft tissues, deep extrinsic
muscles of tongue, strap muscles, thyroid, esophagus)
T4B Very advanced local disease: Tumor invading prevertebral space,
Figure 4B: Coronal CT image through the larynx. Coronal CT image
encasing the carotid artery, or invading mediastinal structures
shows the epiglottis (thin arrow), false cord (elbow arrow), laryngeal
Subglottic SCC ventricle (thick arrow), true cord (curved elbow arrow) and paraglottic
T1 Tumor limited to subglottis space (asterisk)
T2 Tumor extending to vocal cord (s), with normal or impaired mobility
T3 Tumor limited to larynx with fixed vocal cords II and III) is a frequent finding in these patients. The
T4A Resectable: Tumor invading cricoids and/or thyroid cartilage and/or overall 5‑year survival rate is 75%.[12]
invading tissues beyond the larynx (trachea, cervical soft tissues, deep
extrinsic muscles of tongue, strap muscles, thyroid, esophagus) Supraglottic SCC may arise in the anterior compartment
T4B Unresectable: Tumor invading prevertebral space, encasing the carotid (epiglottis) or the postero‑lateral compartment (aryepiglottic
artery, or invading mediastinal structures fold and false cords).

involvement) do not occur until late. Due to the rich a. Epiglottic SCC
lymphatic network of the supraglottis, nodal disease (level These are anterior midline cancers that primarily invade
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Figure 5B: Supraglottic mass arising from the epiglottis. Axial line
diagram shows the pathways of spread (thick black arrows) of epiglottic
mass (red colour)

c. False cord SCC

These are lateral masses with a strong predilection for
submucosal spread into the PGS [Figures 10 and 11] More
extensive tumor may destroy the thyroid cartilage and
spread transglottically into the glottis and subglottis. Tumor
spread to the PGS on CT or MRI is seen as replacement
of the normal paraglottic fat by the enhancing tumor
tissue [Figures 11 and 18a]. Both CT and MRI have a high
sensitivity of about 95% to detect paraglottic tumor spread,
Figure 5A: Supraglottic mass arising from the epiglottis. Sagittal line the specificity, however, ranges between 50 and 75% as
diagram shows the pathways of spread (thick black arrows) of epiglottic peritumoral inflammation may mimic tumor resulting in
mass (red colour)
false positive assessments.[7,9]

Glottic SCC
into the PES  [Figures  5 and 6]. While the SCCs arising
Glottic SCCs represent about 65% of all laryngeal cancers.
from the mobile portion of the epiglottis may spread from
Hoarseness of voice due to vocal cord involvement is the
the PES further into the base of tongue and laterally into
primary presenting symptom in these patients. Metastatic
the PGS, those arising from the stem often invade the low
nodal disease is rare in glottic carcinomas due to the sparse
PES and via the anterior commissure, reach the glottis or lymphatic drainage of the glottis. The 5‑year survival rate for
subglottis  [Figure  5]. The primary sign of PES invasion T1 glottic cancers is 90% and falls to 25% for T4 cancers.[12]
at imaging is replacement of the normal fat by abnormal
enhancing soft tissue  [Figures  6,7,9,18A and 19B]. The Glottic SCCs commonly arise from the anterior half of
sensitivity of CT and MRI to detect invasion of the PES the vocal cord and spread into the anterior commissure.
is 100% and the corresponding specificities are 93% and Anterior commissural disease is seen on CT or MRI as
84‑90%.[9,13] soft tissue thickening of more than 1‑2 mm. The accuracy
of CT in predicting anterior commissure involvement is
b. Aryepiglottic fold (AE fold) SCC about 75%.[14]
These cancers present as exophytic or infiltrative masses.
They expand the AE fold and spread into the PGS. They From the anterior commissure, the tumor may spread
may spread further anteriorly into the PES or posteriorly further anteriorly into the contralateral cord and the thyroid
to invade the piriform sinus [Figures 8 and 9]. cartilage or posteriorly into the posterior commissure,
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Figure 7: Supraglottic SCC – epiglottis. Axial contrast CT image in

another patient shows the epiglottic mass (arrowheads) filling the right
vallecula (white asterisk). Enlarged necrotic deep cervical node level
Figure 6: Supraglottic SCC – epiglottis. Axial contrast CT image
II on the right side (elbow arrow)
shows a lobulated enhancing epiglottic mass filling the preepiglottic
space (black asterisk)

Figure 8: Supraglottic mass arising from the aryepiglottic fold. Line Figure 9: Supraglottic SCC – aryepiglottic fold. A right aryepiglottic
diagram shows a section through the aryepiglottic fold in the axial plane. fold mass (thin white arrows) is seen invading into preepiglottic (white
The mass in the false cord is seen in red with pathways of spread in asterisk) and right paraglottic space (black asterisk) and narrowing the
black curved arrows right piriform sinus (curved white arrow). Note sclerosis of thyroid lamina
(thin black arrow) with extralaryngeal tumor (white curved elbow arrows)

the arytenoids, cricoarytenoid joint and the cricoid Subglottic SCC

cartilage [Figures 12 and 13]. While vocal cord mobility is These cancers are rare, accounting for only 5% of all
best assessed at endoscopy, disease in the cricoarytenoid laryngeal cancers, clinically silent and present late in the
joint and interarytenoid region [Figures 14A, B] have been course of the disease and have a poor prognosis with a
5‑year survival rate of 40%.[12] Lymph node metastases are
described as imaging correlates for vocal cord fixation.[15]
common and affect the pre and paratracheal nodes. Hence,
The tumor may spread superiorly to access the PES and the neck CT should be extended to include the superior
the PGS, or inferiorly to reach the subglottis. Subglottic mediastinum in patients with primary subglottic cancer.
spread below the anterior commissure is seen as an irregular
thickening of the cricothyroid membrane. Tumor may Subglottic cancer is diagnosed if any tissue thickening is
gain access into the extralaryngeal tissues through the noted between the airway and the cricoids ring [Figure 15].
cricothyroid membrane [Figure 14]. Due to their late presentation, invasion of the cricoids
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Figure 10: Supraglottic mass arising from the false cord. Line diagram
shows a section through the false cord in the axial plane. The mass in
the false cord is seen in red with pathways of spread in black curved
arrows Figure 11: Supraglottic SCC - False cord. Axial contrast CT section
through the false cords shows a mass within the right false cord and
invading into the right PGS (black asterisk)

Figure 12B: Glottic mass. Axial line diagram shows the pathways of
spread (thick black arrows) of glottic SCC (red mass lesion)

cartilage, trachea and the cervical esophagus with

extralaryngeal spread are common findings in these patients
at imaging [Figure 16].

Transglottic SCC
Laryngeal SCC encroaching on both, the glottis and
supraglottis, with or without subglottic component and
when the site of origin is unclear, is termed as transglottic
tumor [Figure 17A, B].[6,7] This tumor spread is frequently
through the PGS and is readily identified on CT or MR
imaging [Figure 18]. Transglottic carcinoma is frequently
accompanied by metastatic lymphadenopathy.[7] Coronal
images are particularly helpful in assessing transglottic
extension of tumor [Figure 18D].

Influence of T‑Staging on Treatment Options

Figure 12A: Glottic mass. Sagittal line diagram shows the pathways
of spread (thick black arrows) of glottic SCC (red mass lesion) The treatment options for patients with laryngeal SCC
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Figure 14A: Advanced glottic SCC. Axial contrast CT image shows

aleft vocal cord mass (thin white arrows) reaching anterior commissure
(asterisk). Note the sclerosis of left thyroid lamina and left cricoarytenoid
joint (thin black arrows)

Figure 13: Glottic SCC. Axial contrast CT image shows a glottis mass
in the left true cord reaching the anterior commissure (black asterisk).
Mild thickening of posterior commissure is noted (thick black arrow)
with sclerosis of left arytenoid and left lamina of thyroid cartilage

Figure 14C: Advanced glottic SCC. Axial contrast CT image through

the subglottis shows the mass extending into the subglottis (thin white
arrow) with irregularity of the cricothyroid membrane and extralaryngeal
spread (white elbow arrow)
Figure 14B: Advanced glottic SCC. Axial contrast CT image at a
caudal level shows the mass (thin white arrows) with disease in the
posterior commissure (curved black arrow) and cricoid erosion (thick transglottic, deep subglottic and extralaryngeal extension.
black arrow) These are clinical blindspots and can be assessed on imaging
include primary radiation, surgery, chemotherapy and studies alone.
combinations of these. Surgical treatments include
endoscopic laser resections, partial laryngectomies and Tumor in the laryngeal submucosal spaces is associated with
total laryngectomy. an increased incidence of nodal metastases and a high risk
of recurrence following radiation therapy. Bulky disease in
Important parameters for T‑staging that influence the the PES and PGS, transglottic and deep subglottic extension
management in patients with laryngeal cancer include are negative indicators for primary radiotherapy and partial
presence of tumor in the laryngeal submucosal spaces, laryngectomy procedures.[4,7] It is of prime importance to
spread across the commissures, cartilage invasion, ascertain the inferior margin of a supraglottic mass. Only
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Figure 15: Subglottic SCC. Axial contrast CT image through the Figure 16: Advanced subglottic SCC. Axial CT image through the
subglottis shows a smooth well-defined enhancing mass is seen on the subglottis in another patient shows a circumferential subglottic mass
right side (thin white arrows) reaching anteriorly just below the anterior with destruction of the cricoid and the thyroid cartilages (curved black
commissure (black asterisk) elbow arrows) and extralaryngeal spread of tumor (thin white arrows)

if the tumor is restricted to the supraglottis and does not T1‑weighted sequences have been the accepted criteria
involve the laryngeal ventricle or the arytenoids, is a partial for positive identification of neoplastic cartilaginous
laryngectomy indicated [Figures 19A, B]. Extension of glottis invasion  [Figures  20B and 21]. However, peritumoral
carcinoma across the anterior commissure to involve greater inflammation may mimic neoplastic invasion if these
than 1/3 of the contralateral vocal cord contraindicates a criteria are used, especially in the thyroid cartilage, thereby
vertical hemilaryngectomy. Disease in the interarytenoid leading to false positive assessments. Recently, Becker,
region and the posterior commissure precludes supracricoid et al,[19] reported that in assessing neoplastic infiltration
laryngectomy.[6,7] Presence of significant cartilage invasion of laryngeal cartilage at MR imaging, the T2‑weighted
on CT or MRI is also associated with a higher risk of tumor and gadolinium‑enhanced T1‑weighted signal intensity
recurrence, increased risk of late complications and is should be compared with the signal intensity of the
predictive of poor response to radiation therapy.[7] Isolated adjacent tumor on the corresponding sequences. If the
sclerosis of arytenoids cartilage at CT does not affect the cartilage displays higher signal intensity than tumor, a
radiation outcomes in patients with laryngeal carcinoma.[16] diagnosis of peritumoral inflammation within the cartilage
Cricoid cartilage invasion always requires a total laryngectomy. is suggested; if, however, the cartilage displays a similar
signal intensity to tumor, neoplastic cartilage invasion is
T‑staging Parameters Used for Prognosis of suggested [Figures 20B and 21].[18]
the Disease Process
The CT criteria for reporting cartilage invasion include
Cartilage invasion sclerosis, erosion, lysis and the presence of extralaryngeal
MRI has a high sensitivity  (89%‑95%) but lower tumor  [Figures  22A, B].[19,20] While sclerosis has a high
specificity (74%‑84%) as compared to CT for the detection sensitivity  (83%) to detect intracartilaginous disease, it
of cartilage invasion. The negative predictive value of has a specificity that varies from one cartilage to another,
MRI to exclude cartilage invasion is also very high, at being lowest in the thyroid cartilage (40%) and higher
around 94%‑96%.[17,18] in the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages (76% and 79%
respectively).[17‑19] Erosion or lysis and extralaryngeal tumor
Presence of tumor invasion can be readily identified on the are highly specific criteria (86%‑95%) for neoplastic cartilage
T1‑weighted images if the cartilage is ossified [Figure 20A]. disease; however, their sensitivity ranges between 64% and
Tumor is seen as abnormal soft tissue intensity within the 72% and 44%, respectively, as they occur very late in the
bright signal of the medullary fat of the cartilage. High course of the disease.[18] By applying a combination of all
intracartilaginous signal on fat‑suppressed T2 weighted and the above criteria, the overall sensitivity of CT is as high as
cartilaginous enhancement on postcontrast fat‑suppressed 91% with a negative predictive value of 95%.
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Joshi, et al.: Imaging of laryngeal cancers

Figure 17A: Transglottic mass. Sagittal line diagram shows a large

supraglottic mass (red colour) spanning the glottis and the subglottis Figure 17B: Transglottic mass. Sagittal line diagram shows a
transglottic mass (red colour) in the glottis extending into the
supraglottis and subglottis

Pretreatment tumor volume with indistinct spiculated margins (suggesting extranodal

An increasing volume of the primary tumor correlates disease spread) are the generally accepted radiological
with an increasing rate of local failure. Supraglottic criteria to diagnose malignant nodes at CT and MRI.[26,27] The
cancers with pretreatment CT volume of  ≤6 ml and sensitivity and specificity of CT to detect nodal disease using
glottic cancers with volumes  <3.5 ml have shown better these criteria are 90% and 75% respectively. The overall
control rates (83% and 85%, respectively), as compared to accuracy of PET‑CT in identifying nodal disease is higher
supraglottic cancers > 6 ml and glottis cancers >3.5 ml (46% than that of CT alone, by almost 20%.[28] However, PET‑CT
and 22%, respectively).[21,22] Abnormal signal intensity of is not useful to exclude the presence of metastases in the
laryngeal cartilages at MRI correlates with poor prognosis clinically N0 neck. This is because 40% of metastatic lymph
after radiation therapy if the tumor volume  >5 ml, but nodes are <7 mm in diameter and PET‑CT is not useful in
not if it is  <5 ml.[23] Mukherji, et al. have found that the evaluating small subcentimeter nodes.[29] Standardized
local surgical control rate for supraglottic tumors with uptake values  (SUV) of FDG uptake by the nodes has
volumes <16 ml was 98% compared with 40% for tumors been used by some authors to identify nodal metastases;[30]
with volumes >16 ml.[24,25] however, to date, no universally accepted SUV threshold
has been determined to differentiate benign from malignant
Nodal Disease (N Staging) nodal disease. Currently, ultrasonography  (USG) with
USG‑guided fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is the
A minimum axial diameter more than 10mm, round or most accurate method for evaluating metastatic disease
spherical shape, a necrotic node of any size and a node in subcentimeter size nodes.[31] Nodal staging is the most
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Joshi, et al.: Imaging of laryngeal cancers

Figure 18A: Large transglottic SCC. Axial contrast CT image shows

mass in the supraglottis invading the preepiglottic (black asterisk) and
right paraglottic space (white asterisk). Extralaryngeal tumor (white
arrows) is seen along outer aspect of right thyroid lamina abutting right
carotid artery (black arrow)

Figure 17C: Transglottic mass. Coronal line diagram shows the spread
of transglottic cancer in the paraglottic space

Figure 18C: Large transglottic SCC. Axial contrast CT image shows

subglottic extension with extralaryngeal tumor (thin white arrows)

while a bilateral nodal involvement indicates a 75%

reduction.[8] Additionally, extranodal spread increases the
risk of treatment failure and increases the risk of recurrence
by a factor of 10 and reduces the survival by 50%.[30,32]

Systemic Metastases (M staging)

Figure 18B: Large transglottic SCC. Axial CT image shows tumor in The single most frequent site for distant metastases in
right true cord, anterior commissure (curved black elbow arrow) and
anterior left true cord (thick black arrow). Widened thyroarytenoid gap
laryngeal SCC is the lung, followed by bones and the
(curved black arrow), extralaryngeal tumor (thin white arrows) abutting abdomen. Systemic metastases are encountered in patients
right carotid artery (black arrow) with advanced stage laryngeal SCC and upstage the disease
from M0 to M1. While a chest radiograph may suffice in
accurate prognostic factor for SCC. Unilateral nodal patients with early cancer, a contrast CT of the chest or whole
disease indicates a 50% reduction in long term survival body PET‑CT is recommended in patients with advanced
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Joshi, et al.: Imaging of laryngeal cancers

Figure 18E: Large transglottic SCC. Sagittal CT image very nicely

shows tumor in the lower preepiglottic space (curved arrow)

Figure 18D: Large transglottic SCC. Coronal CT shows the entire

extent of transglottic mass spreading along the right paraglottic space
(thin arrows). Note the normal left paraglottic fat space (thick arrow).
Transglottic cancer precludes primary radiation or partial laryngectomy

laryngeal SCC.[30] Presence of systemic metastases upstages

the disease to M1 and precludes curative attempts by surgery.

Post‑Treatment Evaluation

Post‑treatment follow‑up is critical in detecting the response

to treatment and also for assessment of early recurrent
disease. Surveillance is especially crucial in the first 2‑3 years
because two‑thirds of local recurrence and nodal metastases
Figure 19A: Aryepiglottic fold SCC confined to supraglottis. Axial
occur in this period.
contrast CT image shows a left aryepiglottic fold mass infiltrating the
preepiglottic (straight white arrow) and the left paraglottic space (white
A baseline pretreatment FDG PET CT has been recommended elbow arrow)

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Joshi, et al.: Imaging of laryngeal cancers

Figure 20A: Cartilage invasion on MRI. T1 axial image shows a large

mass destroying left thyroid lamina with extralaryngeal spread encasing
left carotid artery (curved arrow). See the normal ossified right thyroid
lamina (thick arrow)
Figure 19B: Aryepiglottic fold SCC confined to supraglottis. Axial
contrast CT image at the level of the false cord shows no tumor.
Tumor confined to supraglottic larynx precluded the need for a total
laryngectomy

Figure 21: Cartilage invasion on MRI. Contrast fat-suppressed

T1 image shows a large laryngohypopharyngeal mass invading
preepiglottic (black asterisk), right paraglottic space (white asterisk)
and right piriform sinus (thick arrow). Intracartilaginous enhancement
Figure 20B: Cartilage invasion on MRI. T2 axial image shows the large is seen of similar intensity as tumor with thin rim of extralaryngeal
mass with cartilage destruction. The intracartilage signal is similar to tumor (thin arrow)
the adjacent mass (thin arrow)

to use for comparison at subsequent post‑treatment results in significant anatomic distortion making the
follow‑up in patients with laryngeal SCC. A decreased FDG diagnosis of recurrence extremely difficult. Recurrence
activity in the early phase of combined chemoradiation is following surgery is generally reported on CT, when
associated with greater tumor response, survival and local focal areas of nodularity or soft tissue are noted in the
control.[29] A pretreatment SUV less than 9 in the primary surgical bed. These typically occur at the cut margins
tumor has been found to be predictive of a lower rate of local of the surgery where the tumor was previously located.
recurrence and improved disease free survival compared Radiation for laryngeal SCC is followed by significant
with a primary tumor SUV of 9 or more.[30] edema, thickening and abnormal enhancement in
the laryngeal tissues. The normal fat in the PES and
While endoscopy remains the preferred method to the PGS has a stippled appearance. The epiglottis,
diagnose mucosal recurrences, imaging contributes to the aryepiglottic folds and the arytenoids are swollen.
detection of deep recurrence. Surgery for laryngeal cancer Fragmentation, sclerosis and lysis of the cartilages may
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Joshi, et al.: Imaging of laryngeal cancers

Figure 22B: Cartilage invasion on CT. Axial CT bone window

Figure 22A: Cartilage invasion on CT. Axial contrast CT image shows image in another patient shows destroyed left thyroid lamina and left
left true cord mass with left thyroid lamina sclerosis (white arrow) and cricoarytenoid joint
cricoid destruction (black arrow)

Figure 23A: Post-treatment CT following chemoradiation. Axial contrast Figure 23B: Post-treatment PET-CT following chemoradiation. Axial
CT image in a patient with epiglottic cancer, post chemoradiation PET-CT image obtained eight months later shows an area of uptake
therapy shows no obvious mass. The biopsy was negative on the left side suggesting tumor recurrence. Biopsies were consistently
negative

be seen suggesting the onset of chondronecrosis. While Other Laryngeal Cancers

the knowledge of post‑treatment larynx on CT and MRI
scans helps in the interpretation of CT and MRI scans in While SCC is the commonest laryngeal cancer, the less
these patients, PET‑CT has superior diagnostic accuracy common laryngeal cancers include the chondrosarcoma,
in detecting tumor recurrence [Figures 23A, B].[33‑36] The
lymphoma and the paraganglioma. These are usually
best results are obtained when PET‑CT is performed 2‑3
submucosal and may not be seen at endoscopy except for
months after the completion of treatment.[35] Successful
radiation therapy leads to a substantial reduction of a subtle bulge or asymmetry. The role of imaging in such
tumor volume within 4 months and treatment failure tumors is to detect or confirm the presence of a submucosal
must be suspected if 50% or more of the tumor mass is mass, to define the deeper margins and to guide the
still visible after this period.[37,38] endoscopist to the most appropriate site for biopsy.
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Joshi, et al.: Imaging of laryngeal cancers

Conclusions Romano S, Lima RA, et al. Anterior vocal commissure invasion in

laryngeal carcinoma diagnosis. Laryngoscope 2005;115:724‑30.
15. Mancuso AA, Tamakawa Y, Hanafee WN. CT of the fixed vocal
CT and MRI play a significant complementary role to
cord. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1980;135:7529‑34.
clinical endoscopy in pretherapeutic staging of laryngeal
16. Tart RP, Mukherji SK, Lee WR, Mancuso AA. Value of laryngeal
SCC. Determination of the precise extent of cancer spread cartilage sclerosis as a predictor of outcome in patients with
within the larynx (T staging) is the singlemost critical factor stage T3 glottic cancer treated with radiation therapy. Radiology
guiding treatment decisions in patients with localised 1994;192:567‑70.
laryngeal cancer. Additionally, imaging studies are routinely 17. Becker  M, Zbären P, Casselman  JW, Kohler  R, Dulguerov  P,
used to assess associated nodal disease (N staging) and Becker  CD. Neoplastic invasion of laryngeal cartilage:
Reassessment of criteria for diagnosis at MR imaging. Radiology
systemic metastases (M staging), presence of synchronous 2008;249:551‑9.
cancers and also post‑therapeutic tumor recurrence in 18. Zbaren P, Becker M, Lang H. Pretherapeutic staging of laryngeal
these patients. A clear understanding of the standard carcinoma, Clinical findings, CT, and MRI compared with
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regions of the larynx, are fundamental to the interpretation
20. Beitler JJ, Muller S, Grist WJ, Corey A, Klein AM, Johns MM, et al.
of CT and MRI scans of these patients.
Prognostic accuracy of CT findings for patients with laryngeal
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Acknowledgments 21. Freeman  DE, Mancuso  AA, Parsons  JT, Mendenhall  WM,
Million  RR. Irradiation alone for supraglottic larynx carcinoma:
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22. Lee WR, Mancuso AA, Saleh EM, Mendenhall WM, Parsons JT,
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Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
J Radiol 2002;44:108‑19.

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