ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57: 590–602.

2000
doi:10.1006/jmsc.2000.0723, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine

and nearshore ecosystems
S. J. M. Blaber, D. P. Cyrus, J.-J. Albaret,
Chong Ving Ching, J. W. Day, M. Elliott,
M. S. Fonseca, D. E. Hoss, J. Orensanz, I. C. Potter,
and W. Silvert

Blaber, S. J. M., Cyrus, D. P., Albaret, J-J., Chong Ving Ching, Day, J. W., Elliott,
M., Fonseca, M. S., Hoss, D. E., Orensanz, J., Potter, I. C. and Silvert, W. 2000.
Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore
ecosystems. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57: 590–602.

Estuaries and associated coastal waters support many essential fisheries, a fact which
contributes to their disproportionately high economic value. They are, however, also
among the most extensively modified and threatened of aquatic environments. Almost
all have been strongly affected by human beings, and fisheries are an integral part of
human activities on the coast. We have taken a global perspective in synthesizing the
effects of fishing on estuaries and coastal waters. Rather than attempt to cover all
regions of the world in detail, we review eight process-orientated categories affected by
fishing, with case studies for each of them: target organisms, non-target organisms,
nursery functions, trophic effects, habitat change, reduced water quality, human
environment, and potential for local extinctions. Fishing in the estuarine and near-
shore environment has clear impacts on the structure and functioning of these
ecosystems, although other, non-fishing issues also effect these ecosystems. This creates
multiple interactions and reinforces the need for an integrated approach to coastal
zone management. Nonetheless, some form of fish-based action plan could be
created, especially within estuaries, which would provide management objectives for a
particular system.
 2000 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

Key words: by-catch, coasts, estuaries, extinctions, fishing, habitats, nurseries, target
organisms, trophic effects, water quality.
S. J. M. Blaber: CSIRO Marine Research,PO Box 120, Cleveland, Queensland 4163,
Australia [tel: +61 7 3826 7214; fax: +61 7 3826 7222; e-mail:
[email protected]]. D. P. Cyrus: Coastal Research Unit of Zululand,
Department of Zoology, University of Zululand, Private Bag X1001, KwaDlangezwa,
3886, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. J-J. Albaret: ORSTOM, Laboratoire
d’hydrobiologie marine et continentale, Université Montpellier II Case 093, Place E.
Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France. Chong Ving Ching: Institute of Biological
Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. J. W. Day: Depart-
ment of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences and Coastal Ecology Institute, Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA. M. Elliott: Institute of Estuarine
and Coastal Studies, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, England, UK. M. S. Fonseca,
D. E. Hoss: National Ocean Service, Center for Coastal Fisheries Habitat Research,
Beaufort, NC 28516, USA. J. Orensanz: School of Fisheries, University of Washington,
Seattle, WA 98195, USA. I. C. Potter: School of Biological Sciences, Murdoch
University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia. W. Silvert: Bedford Institute of Oceanogra-
phy, PO Box 1006, Dartmouth, NS, Canada B2Y 4A2.

Introduction Fishing is only one activity in, and adjacent to, estuaries;
the extremely diverse range of other industries and
Throughout the world, estuaries and associated coastal environmental modifications has a wide variety of
waters support numerous essential fisheries, but estu- impacts on the fishes. The measure of change varies. In
aries in particular are among the most modified and some harbours, the shape, hydrology, and functioning
threatened of aquatic environments. Almost all of them of the system have been completely altered. Other estu-
have been affected by human beings in some way. aries are severely degraded by industrial or agricultural

1054–3139/00/030590+13 $30.00/0  2000 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
 Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems 591

impacts. Relatively few remain in anywhere near a of species retained by fishers in developing countries is
‘‘natural state’’. For example, in a major review of much greater.
KwaZulu-Natal estuaries, Begg (1978) found that only 3 The types of fisheries can be divided into four main
out of 73 estuaries were free of problems, and that the sectors (Harden Jones, 1994; Rawlinson et al., 1995):
impoverished fauna in many of them is principally due subsistence (fishers consume their catch or give it away,
to habitat degradation rather than to overfishing. but do not sell it); artisanal (fishers sell part of their
Fisheries are an integral part of human activities in catch, but also retain part for their own consumption);
the coastal zone and this creates multiple interactions commercial (all catch is sold); and recreational (fishing is
and reinforces the need for an integrated approach to carried out as a sport or leisure pastime and not primar-
coastal zone management. Hence, one of the main ily for producing food or income; nevertheless, the
challenges is to separate the effects of fishing from all associated service infrastructure usually encompasses
other effects. Unlike the situation with many offshore economically important, income-generating activities).
fisheries, it is rarely possible to analyse estuarine and ‘‘Traditional fisheries’’, many of which have a very
coastal fishing in isolation from other industries. The long history and form part of the culture of human
economic value of the estuarine ecosystem far out- estuarine communities, are included within the subsist-
weighs its relative global area: in a recent review of ence and artisanal sectors. They may also have a long-
the economic value of the world’s ecosystems (Costanza standing and complex interrelationship with the
et al., 1997), estuaries had the highest total value environment, and in the subtropics and tropics are
per ha. increasingly coming to be regarded as part of the
This review includes both estuaries and shallow overall ecology (‘‘The Kuala Lumpur Statement’’;
coastal waters. The definitions of Pritchard (1967), Dyer AWN, 1995).
(1973), and Day (1981) provide sound sets of character- We take a global perspective in providing a synthesis
istics that help determine whether a particular body of of the effects of fishing in estuaries and coastal waters.
water is an estuary. Blaber (1997) has broadened his This has entailed a process-orientated approach, with
definitions for the tropics and sub-tropics by including examples and case studies drawn from around the
‘‘shallow coastal waters that are contiguous with estu- world, rather than attempting to cover all regions in
aries and have similarly reduced salinities’’, an issue detail. A more comprehensive approach was not poss-
which has also been discussed by Longhurst and Pauly ible owing to the lack of both commercial and non-
(1987). commercial fisheries data for many areas. We have not
The public interest is increasingly focusing on the included aquaculture except where it directly relates to
protection, conservation, and surveillance of the natural fisheries.
environment, including estuaries and coastal waters.
These ecosystems are regions where marine and diadro-
mous animals are in intensive contact with anthropo- Processes
genic pollution and other forms of environmental
The effects of fishing can be grouped into eight process-
degradation. The biological importance of estuaries
orientated categories: target organisms, non-target
relates especially to their function as nursery areas for a
organisms, nursery functions, trophic effects, habitat
wide variety of marine organisms. An understanding of
change, reduced water quality, human environment, and
the processes affecting this function, including the role of
extinctions.
fishing in the broader context of human impacts, is
Specific references and at least one case study have
necessary to develop restoration and conservation pro-
been used to illustrate the effects on each process. Many
grammes. These complex interrelationships between the
of these case studies refer to several categories, further
estuarine fauna and that of the open sea mean that the
emphasizing the close links between the processes and
effects of fishing in estuaries may have impacts on
the interrelated ways that fishing may affect ecosystems.
offshore fisheries not considered here, and vice versa.
The fishes and many of the invertebrates of estuaries
and coastal waters are a valuable and usually readily Target organisms
accessible human food resource and have formed the
basis for the development of a great variety of fisheries Most coastal and estuarine fisheries are either fully
(Blaber, 1997). In developing countries, such fisheries exploited or overexploited, owing to an increasing
often constitute the main source of both food and number of fishers and/or development of more efficient
income for people living along the coast. fishing gear and mechanization of boats. The effects
The types of fisheries and methods of fishing differ of fishing on target organisms include decreases in
markedly from region to region. Those in developing their abundance, changes in age structure, and size
countries are usually different from those in more devel- composition and changes in species composition. These
oped or industrialized countries. For instance, the range effects have been well documented in coastal areas of the
592 S. J. M. Blaber et al.

Gulf of Thailand (Simpson, 1982; Longhurst and Pauly, are confined to estuaries and whose numbers in a given
1987), South Africa (Tomlin and Kyle, 1998), West estuary cannot therefore normally be replenished nat-
Africa (Albaret, 1987; Laë, 1994, 1996), and Australia urally by immigration. Such plans can include establish-
(below). ing a legal minimum length, a legal minimum mesh
size for netting, and the provision of refugia through
Case study 1 – The fishery for eel-tailed catfish in SW establishing areas that are closed to fishing.
Australia
The eel-tailed catfish (Cnidoglanis macrocephalus) in the Non-target organisms
estuaries of south-western Australia complete their life
This category includes both non-target species and non-
cycles within these systems (Laurenson et al., 1993a),
commercial sizes of target species. A selection of docu-
and the populations in each estuary are genetically
mented examples is given in Table 1. The effect of
distinct from each other and from those found in
trawling on non-target species, and thereby on the
coastal, marine waters (Ayvazian et al., 1994). In terms
marine environment, is a subject of growing world-wide
of value per live weight, this catfish is one of the two
concern, because it may threaten the viability or profit-
most valuable commercial fish species in these estuaries.
ability of many fisheries (Pauly, 1979; Sainsbury, 1987).
However, during the mid-1970s and late 1980s, the
Among the most controversial and widely reported
(gillnet) catches in several estuaries underwent marked
direct effects of fishing on non-target species is the
overall declines and sometimes also boom and bust
capture, and often death, of larger vertebrates. Public
cycles. The overall declines in catches and in c.p.u.e. are
concern about the capture of turtles, dolphins, por-
presumed to reflect a decline in abundance as a result of
poises, dugongs, and manatees is reflected in the increas-
overfishing. The boom and bust cycles probably reflect
ing amount of legislation designed to reduce or prevent
targeting by commercial fishers when the catfish is
the capture of such animals in a wide variety of fisheries.
abundant, followed by a switch to other species when its
The extent to which they have been affected by fishing is
numbers have been reduced. Once the population has
not well documented or understood.
recovered, this process might repeat itself.
The situation concerning the effects of trawling is not
An interrelated study of the biology and mesh selec-
a major estuarine or nearshore issue other than in the
tivity of this species was therefore initiated in an attempt
tropics (Watling and Norse, 1998).
to discover the basis for these changes in catches and
thereby provide data which could be used for manage- Case study 2 – Trash fish in the prawn fishery in Malaysia
ment and conservation (Laurenson et al., 1993a, 1994). In the peninsular part of Malaysia, penaeid prawn
The study focused on Wilson Inlet, where the largest landings rose rapidly after the introduction of trawl
catches are obtained. On average, it takes 3 years for the fishing from 14 000 t in 1965 to 63 000 t in 1978 (present
eel-tailed catfish to reach a total length of 400 mm. Prior landings: 53 000 t). The effect of intensive trawl fishing
to these studies, the legal minimum size for capture was mainly for prawns in the northern part of the Straits of
equivalent to a total length of 318 mm, well below the Malacca is the erosion of the overall fish stock biomass.
average size at first maturity of 425 mm (Laurenson Analyses of trawl survey results indicate that the demer-
et al., 1993b). Furthermore, nearly 40% of the fish sal fish biomass decreased over 60%, from 30 kg ha
1 in
caught using the legal minimum mesh size of 76 mm 1971 to 10 kg ha
1 in 1981 (Chong et al., 1998).
were less than 425 mm. The Western Australian Fish- Interestingly, this effect applies to waters of 20–60 m
eries Department therefore raised the minimum legal depth, but did not greatly affect fish populations in
length for capture to 430 mm, with the aim of increasing shallow waters (<20 m) that function as nursery or
the numbers of catfish that are able to reproduce before feeding areas (Chong et al., 1990). Apparently, trawling
being caught. for prawns in shallow inshore waters caused growth
Although the catches declined in Wilson Inlet during overfishing of the demersal offshore finfish stocks
the 1980s, a considerable fishery for catfish did remain, because a major portion of trawl catches comprised
despite a combination of heavy fishing pressure and an young fishes. The high catch rates of young fish are due
inappropriate legal minimum size. The maintenance of to the small codend mesh size (mean of 26.6 mm) used
appreciable catches is almost certainly related to the by most trawlers (Matsushita and Ali, 1997). For every
presence of considerable numbers of this species in an unit weight of prawns caught, about two to four times
area of the estuary that was closed to fishing, and which the weight of young (trash) fish are captured (Chong,
thereby acted as a refugium and provided recruits for the 1984).
fishery.
This case study emphasizes the need to take into Case study 3 – Sea turtles in Australia’s northern prawn
account a combination of data on the biology and mesh fishery
selectivity of a species, particularly when drawing up The species composition, catch, and mortality rates of
management plans for conserving those species which sea turtles captured incidentally in the prawn fishery in
Table 1. A selection of documented examples of indirect ecological effects of fishing on non-target species.

Ecosystem
Region type Target species Type of action Ecological effects References

Effects mediated by biological interactions, competition, predation, etc.

Central Chile Rocky shores Mostly Fissurella spp. Intertidal hand-picking Harvest of grazers (Fissurella Castilla and Bustamante
spp.) promotes development of (1989); Durán and Castilla
algae (1989)
Transkei and Rocky shores Mostly brown mussel (Perna Intertidal hand-picking Increase in species richness of Hockey and Bosman (1986);
KwaZulu, perna); also limpets (Patella balanoid zone assemblages. Dye (1992)
South Africa spp.), other gastropods, and Long-lasting shifts in
Gelidium algae community structure
Alaska Subtidal kelp Sea otters, sea urchins Sea otter hunting; commercial Multiple equilibria and Estes and Palmisano (1974);
forests diving for sea urchins ecosystem driven by fishing Simenstad et al. (1978)
S California Coastal Sandshrimp (Callianassa Bait digging Increase in recruitment of Peterson (1976, 1977)
lagoons californiensis) Sanguinolaria nuttallii
Uruguay Exposed Yellow clam (Mesodesma Commercial intertidal clam Competitive advantage of Defeo and Alava (1995);
sandy beach mactroides) digging yellow clam over wedge clam Defeo (1998)
(Donax hanleyanus) released
by harvesting
Changes, distribution and modification of habitat and/or biota
Ceará, NE Mangrove Miscellaneous fish Fishing on man-made Cutting of mangrove trees for Tahim et al. (1996)
Brazil forests submerged structures use in construction of
(‘‘marambaias’’) marambaias
Bahı́a Mangrove Mangrove oysters Cutting of mangrove roots Destruction of mangrove L. Garcı́a Pámanes (pers.
Magdalena, forests with attached oysters forest comm.)
W México
Argentine Nearshore Tehuelche scallop (Aequipecten Dredging Removal of epibenthic Orensanz (1986)
Patagonia bottoms, tehuelchus) materials (including substrates
scallop beds for scallop settlement),
siltation, etc.
Apulian Calcareous Date mussels (Lithophaga Demolition of rocky Destruction of habitat and Fanelli et al. (1994)
Coast SE rocky coasts, lithopaga) substrates: subtidal by community which, combined
Italy), and subtidal zone commercial divers, intertidal with grazing by sea urchins,
Adriatic by recreational gatherers causes ‘‘desertification’’ of
coasts long stretches of rocky shores
Chesapeake Oyster reefs Eastern oyster (Crassostrea Harvest of oyster reefs with Destruction of oyster reefs Rothschild et al. (1994)
Bay virginica) mechanical tongs from the entire ecosystem
UK Intertidal Cockles (Cerastoderma edule) Hydraulic suction and tractor Overall effects low; faunal Hall and Harding (1997)
flats dredging structure in disturbed plots
recovered in less than two
Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems

months
Langebaan Tidal Sandprawns (Callianassa Bait digging and prawn pumps Disturbance and sedimentary Wynberg and Branch (1994)
Lagoon, sandflats kraussi) and mudprawns compaction; fast recovery of
South Africa (Upogebia africana) meiofaunal density;
macrofaunal recovery slow
(signs of depression detectable
593

after 18 months)
594 S. J. M. Blaber et al.

1989 and 1990 were estimated by monitoring the catch warm season) are also part of the West African estuarine
(Poiner and Harris, 1996). Five species were taken: the ichthyofauna and thus belong to the marine-estuarine
flatback (Natator depressa) (59% of total), loggerhead category (Albaret, 1994). Many represent commercial
(Caretta caretta) (10%), olive ridley (Lepidochelys oliva- species that are exploited both in and outside the estu-
cea) (12%), green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (8%), and aries. Size structure data show that these fishes are
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) (5%). The overall caught during their late juvenile and/or sub-adult phase
incidence of capture was 0.051 turtles per haul, with (Caverivière and Rabarison Andriamirado, 1988).
0.007 turtles per haul drowning in the nets. Mortality The weight of discards is always higher than that of
varied between the species: the most common flatbacks landed catches. The difference is even more pronounced
had the lowest mortality, while the rarest hawksbills had when expressed in numbers, because discarded fish rep-
the highest mortality. Based on effort data, it was resent small species and juveniles. Discards fall within
estimated that 5503 turtles were caught and returned to three different categories: juveniles of marketable species
the sea in 1989 and 5238 in 1990, of which 567 and 943 (30%), non-marketable species (65%), and species mostly
drowned, respectively. In 1990, about 25% of turtles exploited by other fisheries than littoral trawling (5%).
suffered non-lethal damage, about 21% were comatose, The pink shrimp is also intensively exploited in West
and 4% were injured. It was concluded that, considering African lagoons and estuaries. Different kinds of hand
other threats in the region (such as their capture for nets and fixed nets (large drift nets using the strength of
consumption by coastal peoples), trawl-induced drown- the ebb current) represent the main fishing gear. These
ing is not a major factor affecting turtle populations in small-mesh nets (12 mm, bar) also catch vast numbers of
northern Australia. Nevertheless, measures to reduce non-marketable juvenile fishes that use estuaries as
capture, drowning, and delayed mortality have now nursery grounds. Of the nine predominant by-catch
been introduced by the fishery. species caught in fixed nets, three represent juveniles of
species exploited in the estuary, while another three are
exploited both in and out of the estuary. All are major
Nursery functions components of the Casamance estuary fish community
(Albaret, 1987). The quantitative impact of this removal
Estuaries and shallow waters throughout the world play of juveniles on both the estuarine fish community and of
a major role as nursery areas for a wide variety of the artisanal fishery for adults is at present unknown.
organisms. Fishing, in these habitats and in the adjacent
sea, may have far-reaching effects on this function. Most
juvenile animals are non-target organisms and thus this Fishing for larvae and post-larvae
category is closely related to the previous category.
Case study 5 – Overfishing of shrimp post-larvae in
Ecuador
There has been widespread destruction of mangroves in
In-estuary and out-of-estuary fishing the tropical zone owing to construction of shrimp ponds
Case study 4 – By-catch of juvenile fish in West African (Pannier, 1979; Twilley et al., 1996). This summary of
shrimp trawling the situation in Ecuador is largely based on (Twilley
The pink shrimp (Penaeus notialis) is intensively et al., 1993). Shrimp aquaculture has had a number of
exploited along the West African coast by both an detrimental environmental impacts, including destruc-
industrial trawl fishery, aiming at the adult phase on the tion of mangrove forests and poor water quality in
continental shelf, and an artisanal fishery, using several adjacent estuarine waters. Another impact is the capture
types of fishing gear, aiming at juveniles and sub-adults of wild stocks of post-larvae to supply the ponds. The
living in the estuaries and lagoons. The by-catch of expansion of shrimp ponds and enhanced pond manage-
juvenile fishes is high in both fisheries. ment has led to the development of a new fishery to
Studies by Rabarison Andriamirado (1986) and by provide post-larvae and seed shrimp for stocking. It is
Caverivière and Rabarison Andriamirado (1988) esti- estimated that more than 90 000 artisanal fishers were
mated the proportions of by-catch discarded and landed involved in the 1983 and 1984 harvests. The catches of
by both the ice and the freezer shrimp trawlers off the these fishers are non-selective, with small fish, penaeid
Senegalese Coast. For example in 1985, 18 600 t of fish post-larvae, and juvenile shrimp, including a mixture of
were caught as by-catch, but only 6000 t were landed. four penaeid species as well as some freshwater carid
The proportion of shrimps in the total catch ranged species.
from 10% (warm season) to 13% (cold season). There are Because only two species survive well in mariculture
26 commercial categories (i.e. fish species or groups of ponds, owners pay according to the proportion of the
related fish species) recorded. catch that is Penaeus vannamei and P. stylirostris. Selec-
Most fish species caught on the continental shelf (9 tion is a post-harvest process and therefore less-valued
out of 15 species in the cold season, 14 out of 16 in the species are lost from the estuary. The peak of the
 Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems 595

seed-fishing season is from December to March, when the habitat and the loss of disproportionately rich
fishers may take up to 40 000 post-larvae a day in the feeding areas (Costa and Elliott, 1991) will ultimately
size range from 7 to 10 mm. The annual demand for affect the nursery function.
post-larvae is estimated at 16.5 billion based on
120 000 ha of shrimp ponds using mostly extensive pond Case study 7 – Seaweed harvesting
management (1989 estimates). Only about half of the
post-larvae collected along the beaches are P. vannamei, The impacts of harvesting of the seaweed Ascophyllum
requiring a total harvest of 33 billion shrimp post-larvae. nodosum have been studied in detail by Rangeley (1994)
This demand represents a potential impact on the gen- and Rangeley and Kramer (1995, 1998). This large
etic stability of non-targeted organisms that use the seaweed dominates many of the intertidal zones of the
coastal environments during their life cycle. The abun- eastern North Atlantic, where it is an important source
dant supply of post-larvae during El Niño events created of meal products for animal and human consumption,
an incentive to construct new ponds. However, the and for fertilizers and alginates. Commercial harvesting
natural supply of post-larvae during the following nor- methods may remove locally 40–80% of the rockweed
mal years was too small to stock all ponds and by 1985 biomass.
nearly 50% of the ponds were not in operation. The This seaweed provides shelter and foraging opportu-
overall outcome is a numeric reduction in the shrimp nities for numerous species. The fronds provide habitats
populations, another example of the impact of a fishery for invertebrates, such as crabs, gastropods, amphipods,
on the target species as well as on non-target species. and copepods that are the main prey of many inshore
and coastal fishes. Rangeley and Kramer (1995) showed
that seaweed is the main nursery area of pollack (Polla-
Incidental by-catch of juveniles chius virens) and is used both for foraging and as a
Case study 6 – Juvenile fish removal in the Loire estuary refuge from predators. They concluded that large-scale
The removal of juveniles of economically important and harvesting might have a serious impact on fish popu-
non-commercial fish species during commercial fishing lations. It may also have indirect impacts because the
for shellfish has been studied by several authors (Tiews, break-up and decomposition of algal fronds along the
1983; Robin, 1992). The use of small-mesh beam trawls water line is an important source of food and nutrients,
for shrimp in many shallow estuarine areas will affect and offshore floating rafts of detached fronds contain
the populations using these as a nursery. Robin (1992) faunal communities (Rangeley, 1994). Comparable
indicated that in the Loire estuary, France, the removal impacts may occur in many countries where seaweed
of 99 t of shrimp resulted in a by-catch of 3.6 million harvesting is practised, such as India (Kaliaperumal
individuals of bib (Trisopterus luscus), 1.8 million sole and Kalimuthu, 1997), South Africa (Jaffray and
(Solea solea), 0.9 million whiting (Merlangius merlan- Coyne 1996), Norway (Christie et al., 1994), and Chile
gus), and 0.6 million flounder (Platichthys flesus). The (Norambuena, 1996).
majority of these fish were 0-group. Other, non-
commercial species, such as dragonets and gobies, were
also taken in large numbers. Trophic effects
Although the catches of these incidental species varied
with season and climatic conditions – for example, Community structure may change if fishing directly
juvenile plaice catches were related to salinity – the size removes or reduces the populations representing specific
of the by-catch related to population structure and trophic levels of the community (e.g. predators or prey),
recruitment. The survival of any fish returned after or indirectly by changes to the physical nature of the
capture varied with species. While gadids, smelt and habitat (e.g. by dredging or trawling), or by the pro-
small flatfish rarely survived release after capture, the vision of additional food or nutrients in the form of
larger flatfish had a good survival rate (Robin, 1992). discards. As shown by Caddy (1973), trawling may
Similar trends were also shown for the by-catch of the significantly alter demersal trophic structure. One way in
glass-eel fishery in the Loire estuary (Robin, 1990). which it does this is by causing an increase in the
numbers of scavengers, as shown by Wassenberg and
Hill (1987).
Removal or alteration of habitats The acadja fishing method (brush park fishery)
Estuarine mud and sandflats play an important role as is practised in several countries of West Africa
nursery and feeding areas for marine fishes (Elliott and (Welcomme, 1971, 1972; Kapetsky, 1981). The instal-
Dewailly, 1995). While pollution of those areas has large lation of brush parks in a lagoon creates new habitats
effects, the greatest impact on marine fish is through for plant and animal communities and has been shown
loss of habitat, especially through land reclamation to alter their trophic structure by affecting algal bio-
(McLusky et al., 1992). The change to the integrity of mass and productivity and community structure of
596 S. J. M. Blaber et al.

meiobenthos and fish (Guiral et al., 1993; Welcomme et al., 1994). In addition, dredging and trawling create a
1972; Kapetsky, 1981). water-column oxygen demand that has the potential to
form a barrier, which may hamper the movement of
Case study 8 – Mangrove crab fisheries and litter seques- migratory fishes (Elliott et al., 1988).
tration Seagrass beds and oyster reefs are subject to a wide
In certain mangrove forests, crabs remove large amounts variety of anthropogenic disturbances because of their
of litter by burying it in burrows. Robertson and Daniel location in the shallow waters of the coastal zone. These
(1989) reported that sesarmid crabs removed 71–79% of disturbances have been well documented (Rothschild et
total annual litterfall from an Australian mangrove al., 1994; Short and Wyllie-Echeverria, 1995). Seagrass
forest. Consequently, litter standing crop was low even beds, and particularly oysters, can be classified as physi-
though litter fall was high (800–1000 g m
2 yr
1). cal ecosystem engineers sensu Jones et al. (1994), Lawton
Compared with crabs, microbial litter turnover was et al. (1995), Jones et al. (1997): a group of individuals
insignificant, accounting for less than 1%. In areas which, through their presence, affect the delivery of
where crabs were absent or rare, litter standing stocks resources to other members of the community. The
were significantly higher and litter removal was slower. resources in these two cases include shelter, nursery, and
Robertson and Daniel (1989) estimated that, in forests foraging habitat as well as numerous abiotic resources
with crabs, litter turnover was >75 times the rate of such as sediment and nutrient capture. As a conse-
microbial decay. Twilley et al. (1997) reported a similar quence, impacts on these habitats are particularly dev-
finding for the Guayas River estuary in Ecuador. Crabs astating. A direct assault on the health and abundance
removed more than 80% of litter during the year. Only of these plant and animal engineers fundamentally
during August–October are crabs inactive on the forest impairs the function and resiliency of the entire habitat
floor. Crabs increased litter turnover by 10 to 20-fold. as well as its ability to sustain a myriad of other
These turnover rates are the highest reported in the ecological functions, including its ability to recover from
literature. injury.
Some tropical areas (e.g. Costa Rica and Ecuador) Damage to seagrass beds and oyster reefs mirrors the
contain important fisheries for crabs living in mangrove larger picture emerging world-wide with respect to fish-
areas. Their removal can have an important impact on ing and fishing gear impacts on marine ecosystems.
nutrient dynamics, because litter removal results in a Recent reviews by Dayton et al. (1995), Gilkinson et al.
retention of litter in the forest and a much greater (1997), Kaiser et al. (1998), and Thrush et al. (1998)
turnover rate. Mangrove forests with crabs tend to have describe a broad scope of environmental effects, both in
higher litterfall rates, perhaps because of the retention of terms of habitat impacts and direct impacts to biota.
nutrients (Twilley et al., 1997). Removal of a significant The overwhelming conclusion of these reviews is that
proportion of the crab population could result in a there are few, if any, fishing practices that do not
reduced productivity. adversely affect habitat structure and function.

Case study 9 – Seagrass beds on the Atlantic coast, USA

Habitat change There is nothing in the extensive scientific literature on
the ecology of seagrasses suggesting that disturbance of
An extremely diverse range of human activities affects the root and rhizome system is required for seagrass bed
estuaries and the coastal zone. Fishing is only one such growth and function – reviews by Thayer et al. (1984)
activity and its effects are usually hard to disentangle and Zieman and Zieman (1989). Rather, seagrasses rely
from the broad spectrum of industrial, agricultural, and on vegetative propagation and seed set to colonize and
other influences. Brush park fisheries have turned an hold new space on the seafloor, making their growth
open-water environment into a confined artificial reef strategy quite similar to that of commercially marketed
ecosystem and provide new habitats for animal commu- lawn grasses, and no one would regularly plough their
nities. The enormous quantity of branches interferes lawn in order to maintain good grass cover.
with local currents and causes changes to sedimentation Many of the fishing gear impacts to seagrass systems
(Guiral et al., 1995). Welcomme (1972) noted that (e.g. mechanical dredges, hydraulic dredges) resemble
acadjas not only accelerate silting up, but also introduce the effects of terrestrial ploughs in that plants are
up to 60 t of wood per hectare, hence progressively uprooted and dispersed or buried. Direct impacts on
shallowing the lagoon. seagrass beds from fishing vary among gear types.
Throughout the world, many invertebrate bait organ- Mechanical harvesting of clams is unquestionably dev-
isms are collected from soft substrata by digging, affect- astating to seagrass beds (Peterson et al., 1987) and may
ing the target organisms, the structure of the be illegal. Peterson et al. (1983) found that bull rakes
substratum, and its community (McLusky et al., 1983; were particularly detrimental to seagrass, while hand
Olive, 1993; Blake, 1979a, b; Beukema, 1995; Dahl methods using small hand rakes were significantly less
 Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems 597

destructive; these effects varied tremendously among 24, and 700 mg l
1 N, P, and TSS, respectively (Day
bottom types, with seagrass growing in mud bottoms et al., 1998).
being particularly susceptible to bull-raking effects. With
sufficient intensity and magnitude, hand-raking too can
easily cause lasting impacts, particularly when coupled Human environment
with trampling effects, as this fishery is conducted by
The concentration of human activities in estuaries and
walking in the seagrass bed itself.
the coastal zone means that fishing often comes into
Because the act of navigating to and from fishing
conflict with other activities. From a human environ-
grounds is an implicit part of the fishing operation, chief
ment perspective, these conflicts may include the nega-
among the indirect impacts on seagrass habitats is
tive effects of some types of fishing on aesthetic and
that of propeller scarring – sensu Sargent et al. (1995),
recreational values (e.g. the noise of hydraulic clam
Crawford et al. (1998).
harvesting in Puget Sound, Washington) (Goodwin,
Persistent turbidity from fishing operations may also
1997). Other effects include disturbance of wildlife (e.g.
degrade habitat, particularly at the deeper edge of
commercial dive fishery and bald eagles in Puget Sound)
seagrass distribution where plants are near their environ-
(Watson et al., 1995), smell from fish processing plants,
mental light limit (Kenworthy and Fonseca, 1996). Once
conflicts between recreational and commercial fishers
a seagrass bed is substantially damaged and the binding
and conflicts between recreational fishers and other users
influence of the roots and rhizomes lost, substantial loss
of sheltered waters, such as water skiers. Quite apart from
of sediment with resulting turbidity may occur (review
these interactions between fishing and other activities,
by Fonseca, 1996). Moreover, loss of cover resulting in
there may be conflicts between different sectors of the
elevated turbidity makes restoration highly problematic,
fishing industry, as illustrated by the following case study.
as there may then be insufficient light to support a
planting.
Case study 11 – The Gulf of Nicoya fishery, Costa Rica
The Gulf of Nicoya is a large, mangrove-lined estuarine
embayment on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica support-
Reduced water quality ing a substantial artisanal fishery on various species in
the inner Gulf, as well as a commercial prawn trawl
Most effects of fishing on water quality are local and fishery in the outer Gulf. The artisanal fishery uses a
short-term, and include changes in turbidity, oxygen great variety of gears (hand-lines, seines, gillnets, and
levels, sediment disturbance, and changes in water chem- traps) and lands about 6300 t per year, of which 43% is
istry. For example, Howell (1985) showed that digging sciaenids (Szelistowski and Garita, 1989; Herrera and
for bait worms resulted in increased bioavailability of Charles, 1994). The artisanal fishery is barely managed
heavy metals. Nonetheless, fisheries include not only the and the fish is regarded as a common-property resource.
process of catching fish, but also post-harvest, onshore Legislation has restricted the commercial trawlers to the
activities of fish processing that may release wastewater outer Gulf to protect the spawning and nursery areas in
and organic pollutants. These may have significant and the inner Gulf. However, their activities result in the
long-lasting effects. One important source of nutrients by-catch and destruction of large numbers of juveniles,
leading to water quality deterioration in tropical coastal and hence adversely affect stocks fished by the artisanal
systems is effluent from aquaculture ponds (Twilley sector (Campos et al., 1984). All stocks have suffered
et al., 1993). severe declines under the high fishing pressure from both
sectors. Hence, the government is in the process of
Case study 10 – Discharge of fish-processing wastewater instituting tough new management programmes to try
and protect the dwindling stocks (Weidner, 1992).
Wastewater from fish-processing plants can have delete-
rious effects on coastal systems because these plants are
often located near coastal waters. Common problems Extinctions
associated with discharge include increased nutrient and
organic matter levels, lowered dissolved oxygen, a Although drastic reductions in population size as well as
decrease in the diversity of benthic organisms, increased local extinctions attributed to fishing have been recorded
turbidity, and algal blooms (Hopkins et al., 1995). Raw for many species, documented cases of global extinctions
wastewater can contain high concentrations of pollut- in estuaries and coastal waters are extremely rare. Local
ants. Meo et al. (1975) reported that menhaden waste- extinctions have been seen in many heavy industrialized
water from a processing plant in the Mississippi, USA, estuaries, especially in north-west Europe. For example,
had total C, N, and P concentrations of 800, 600, and the loss of estuarine fishes from the Thames, Clyde,
50 mg l
1, respectively. Likewise, effluent from a and Mersey through poor water quality as a result
shrimp-processing plant in the same area averaged 187, of excessive organic pollution is well documented
598 S. J. M. Blaber et al.

(Wheeler, 1979). Also, local extinctions have resulted mass mortalities has been found, but apart from fishing
from the combined effects of poor water quality and a coccidian parasite is suspected of causing mortality.
overfishing. For example, the Forth estuary, eastern
Scotland, lost its commercial population of smelt
(Osmerus eperlanus) through overfishing and the effects
Conclusions
of pollution as shown by siltation and a dissolved It is evident that the effects of fishing in estuaries and
oxygen sag in its upper estuarine spawning grounds coastal waters are diverse and may be far reaching.
(Howard et al., 1987; Griffiths, 1987). Although the However, for the majority of fisheries, what to do about
population declined during the first half of the 20th their effects will always be clouded by uncertainty for a
century and then disappeared from the 1960s to 1980s, it number of reasons. From an ecological perspective, we
has since recolonized and the population has recovered list the following:
(Elliott, pers. obs.). The following case study illustrates  Complexity of system dynamics: If the assessment of
some of the difficulties in determining whether extinction the effects of fishing on single-target populations is
has resulted from fishing. riddled with uncertainty, the problem is phenom-
enally compounded in the case of the ecological
Case study 11 – The white and black abalone of California impact on coastal ecosystems, where many popu-
The white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni) was very abun- lations interact in spatially and hydrographically
dant in rocky reefs around the California Channel complex scenarios. Here, uncertainty relates not
Islands in the early 1970s, but density had declined by only to the quantitative responses, but also to the
two orders of magnitude by 1981. The species had qualitative behaviour of the impacted system.
almost disappeared by the early 1990s (Davis et al.,  Uncertainty about pristine conditions: For many
1996): three live individuals were found in 1992, and in harvested coastal systems, it is difficult to characterize
the 1970s, during a similar search, 6000–30 000 abalone the ‘‘pristine’’ condition, given that they may have a
would have been found. Landings reflected the popu- long history of exploitation (Dayton, 1998), often
lation collapse. Annual commercial landings averaged going back hundreds or even thousands of years.
41 t in 1971–1976, peaked abruptly at 65 t in 1972, and  Inappropriate scales of observation: Owing to mis-
then plummeted to 0.14 t in 1981. The landings averaged matches between the scale of observation (small in
only 0.15 t from 1991 to 1994. The last major recruit- space, short-term) and the scale of the process, the
ment event in the area occurred in the late 1960s. Davis cumulative effect of small perturbations may go
et al. (1996) postulate that survivors of legal harvesting unnoticed, mostly because there is no detectable effect
in the 1970s were so few and so sparsely distributed that at the scale of single perturbation events. This may be
no significant reproduction has occurred since then. The the case in the harvest of soft-bottom resources,
California white abalone population is now apparently where patches affected by single perturbations (e.g. a
extinct. dredge haul) may become indistinguishable from the
Although the extinction of white abalone may be due undisturbed background. In fact, the resilience of
to overfishing, the case of the California black abalone intertidal flats and subtidal soft-bottom ecosystems to
(Haliotis cracherodii) cautions for attributing blame to the disturbance created by different types of gear may
only one agent. Davis (1993) and Richards and Davis be more apparent than real and caution is needed.
(1993) also thoroughly investigated the decline in this Small-scale disturbances can ‘‘heal’’ quickly, but
species. They monitored the abundance and distri- the large-scale and intense disturbance typical of
butions of rocky intertidal organisms in the Channel commercial operations may not (Beukema, 1995).
Islands National Park, California, from 1985 to 1992.  Difficulty of separating effects of fishing from other
While the abundances of barnacles, mussels, algae, and sources of variability: Alternative hypotheses for
limpets remained relatively stable, black abalone popu- explaining ecological changes observed concurrently
lations crashed, with less than 10% of the 1985 levels with fishing are always available. Most notable
present in 1992. In the warm waters of the south-eastern among these are autocorrelated forms of variability,
islands, 90% of abalone died between 1985 and 1988, such as those resulting from climatic trends. In the
and the population declined to less than 1% of its 1985 worst case, the effects of fishing and of natural
level. In contrast, populations in the cold water of the variation may be inextricably confounded if they
north-western islands declined only gradually: the reduc- push the system in the same direction. From a
tion in the proportion of large individuals as abundance statistical perspective, hypothesis testing (usually
dropped implicates harvesting as a factor in the decline. identified with Type I errors) is usually comple-
In both areas, recruitment ceased when adult popu- mented by power analysis (which attends to Type II
lations dropped below 50% of their initial abundance. errors). This framework, however, is inadequate
Withered and weak abalone were frequently observed, and can be misleading (Hilborn, 1997; Hilborn and
suggesting an infectious agent. No single cause for the Mangel, 1997). Testing is often not meaningful,
 Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems 599

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