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Recent developments and research challenges in electrochemical

micromachining (??ECM)

Article  in  International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology · October 2013

DOI: 10.1007/s00170-013-5024-8

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 Micro ECM – recent developments and research challenges

Alexandre Spieser, Atanas Ivanov

Brunel University – School of Engineering & Design, Advanced Manufacturing and

Enterprise Engineering

1. Abstract

Electrochemical machining and especially micro Electrochemical Machining became an

attractive area of research due to the fact that this process does not create defective layer
after machining and that there is a growing demand for better surface integrity on different
micro applications including microfluidic systems, stress free drilled holes in automotive and
aerospace manufacturing with complex shapes etc. This paper discusses the major
problematic areas identified by different researchers or research groups in their attempt to
develop the process and/or equipment for micro Electro chemical machining and possible
solutions to them.

Electrochemical Machining is still considered as a non-conventional machining process

based on the phenomenon of electrolysis. This process requires the maintaining of a small
gap (the interelectrode gap) between the anode (workpiece) and the cathode (tool-
electrode) in order to achieve acceptable results from the machining (i.e. accuracy, high
aspect ratio with appropriate material removal rate and efficiency).

This paper presents different problematic areas of Electrochemical Micromachining (often

referred to as µPECM or µECM). The aim of this paper is to address the problems met by
the µECM technology developers and to present the current state-of-the-art solutions.

2. Introduction and process overview

Electrochemical micromachining is a non-conventional manufacturing process used as

an alternative to conventional mechanical machining and electro discharge machining
processes. Electrochemical machining (ECM) is based on the process of electrolysis and it
is well known and well used for many years. It is very popular for material volume removal
and shaping the anode using DC current by using complex shaped cathode electrodes. The
anode (workpiece) and the cathode (tool-electrode) are both submerged in a constantly
renewed electrolytic solution and a voltage is applied. The resulting current passes through
the system and a chemical reaction takes place. Anodic dissolution occurs, material is
removed and the shape of the cathode is mirrored onto the workpiece (McGeough, 1974).
This machining process is environmental friendly since it uses non-toxic electrolytes such
as a sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and sodium chloride (NaCl) aqueous solutions (Datta et al.,
1997).

Recent developments in this area aim at the use of much smaller simple shape
electrodes for machining complex features. This requires improving severely the resolution
of the anodic dissolution and respectively the achieved accuracy. These developments led
to the appearance of a new area of ECM machining technology defined as ‘Pulsed
Electrochemical Machining’ (PECM). PECM uses voltage pulses instead of continuous
voltage enabling a better feature resolution. This approach exploits the capacitive
properties of the electrical double layer (EDL) at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces: it has
been demonstrated that the electrical model of the electrochemical cell is a RC circuit. The
charging constant (τ= RCDL, where CDL is the overall capacitance of the cell and R is the
electrolyte resistance) of the EDL depends on the distance between the tool and the
workpiece (which actually corresponds to the charging current path): the further the tool is
from the workpiece surface, the longer the charging time of the EDL will be (Schuster et al.,
2000, 2007, 2004; Trimmer et al. 2003; Kock et al. 2003). By using this property, the
localisation of the material removal can be controlled very accurately.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a pulsed micro-ECM system.

(Zhaoyang et al., 2007)
 This new technology can nowadays be applied at a micrometre scale and is called
‘Pulsed Electrochemical Micromachining’ (also referred to as µECM, EMM or PEMM)). This
machining technology is being developed to meet the increasing demand driven by
progress made in aerospace (turbine blade cooling system), automobile (requirement for
smaller fuel injection nozzles in combustion engines), electronics (miniaturization of
components), medical fields and many others (Bhattacharyya et al., 2001). It enables the
machining of micro-size features with high accuracy, high aspect ratio in materials with high
hardness and stiffness or in the materials that are very hard to machine conventionally
because they are very brittle like Indium Antimonite (InSb).

This technology brings a new challenge to the research teams worldwide and it became
quickly a rapidly growing area because of the industrial interest and the attractive fields of
application of the new micro ECM technology. However, the current state-of-the-art in
electrochemical machining shows that further research is needed: the µPECM process is
very complex and requires knowledge in chemistry, electrical, thermal and hydrodynamic
phenomena.

The last literature reviews were conducted years ago (Bhattacharyya et al., 2004) and
the progress that has been made to date, redefines the new challenges the µECM process
development is now facing.

In the schematic below are given the identified problematic areas of micro ECM
process which will be discussed in this paper as seen by the authors.

Figure 2: Diagram representing the Micro ECM problematic areas

 3. Machining process
i. Process control

Despite the progress made in Micro-ECM and PECM over the last 20 years, the
controllability and monitoring of the Inter Electrode Gap (IEG) in the process is still a big
issue. Usually, in order to be able to control a process, the variation of a reliable parameter
has to be measured and has to be significant enough in order to give a good representation
of the current state of the process. During the machining process, the motion control logic
mainly depends on the variation of the inter-electrode gap size. The dimension of this gap
can vary from a few µm to 100µm depending on the application and has a dramatic
influence on the machining accuracy.

The different issues influencing the inter-electrode gap size that can be met during an
ECM or PECM process have been summarized as follows (Win Bei, 1993):

1- Variation of the electrical conductivity in the inter-electrode gap caused by the

appearance of bubbles in the electrolyte. This variation engenders a variation of the
material removal rate.
2- Lack of an understanding of the kinetics and stoichiometry of the anodic reactions,
causing indeterminacy in the reaction modes (and then in the valence and
electrochemical equivalent).
3- Difficulty in determining anodic overpotential changes
4- Variation in local anodic current efficiency
5- Complexity of the involved mass and energy transport conditions in the gap
6- Non-uniformity in the distribution of the electric field in the gap region
7- Presence of stray current lines
8- Adverse effect of uneven workpiece initial allowance distribution on shaping
accuracy due to the remainder of the allowance distribution

The control of the µECM and ECM processes mainly refers to a constant adjustment of
the process parameters in order to achieve better accuracy, productivity and prevent from
occurrence of electrical discharges (sparks) (Kozak et al., 2004). It “has been one of the
main goals of ECM machine manufacturers and user industries such as turbine
manufacturers” (Rajurkar et al., 1995).
 The control system of a PECM machine is complex and is made of several subsystems
controlling different machining parameters: the interelectrode gap, electrolyte flow and
concentration, the pulse generation and the temperature. The role of the electrolyte control
subsystem is to maintain the conductivity and the flow rate at the inlet of the interelectrode
gap within a specified range (Kozak et al., 2004). The inter-electrode gap (IEG) is the
hardest parameter to control because it cannot be measured directly.

By using the eddy current technique, under specified frequencies, Bignon et al. (1982)
have created a measurement method of the IEG. The authors claim that they can correct
the deviations of the IEG from the normal gap value, by adjusting one or several machining
parameters (voltage, feed rate) and also claim that this gives a better reproducibility of
machined shapes. However, this control approach has only been applied to ECM and not to
the PECM or Micro-ECM processes.
In 1996, Wei et al. proved that the current response of the PECM to a pulsed voltage could
be used as a sensing parameter to evaluate the inter-electrode gap. It was concluded that it
is therefore possible to conceive an online gap measurement system that can be used to
control this parameter in real-time - which confirmed the statements from Rajurkar et al.
(1995).
Based on the mathematical model of the inter-electrode gap variation, Rajurkar et al.
(1988) simulated a gap control approach using state space representation. Nevertheless,
no results were presented in their paper and no other work using this method has been
reported later. The validity of this approach regarding the µPECM process has therefore to
be exploited further.

In 1984, Meijer et al. explained that “due to the non-linearity of the process a detail
transfer function, which is helpful in linear cases, cannot be used”. The process can
however be linearized around a specific point but this generates approximations error. In
most cases binary logic control systems were used to control the inter-electrode gap.
 Figure 3: Flow chart for a control of the gap (Yong et al., 2003)

Yong et al. (2003) developed a control system based on the measurement of the
current passing through the system. To be able to regulate the gap during the machining
process, they moved the tool towards the workpiece until a “current jump-up” and then
retracted the tool by a few µm (fig. 3). This control approach was a binary logic one. In
2008, Ozkeskin also developed a binary logic approach to control the current and the
position of the tool during the process. The current was used as the sensing parameter in
the decision making process. The upper and lower limits of the current were experimentally
determined to define a ‘stable machining current interval’.

In 2002, Clifton et al. demonstrated that interelectrode measurement using ultrasonic

waves can also be successfully applied to control the inter-electrode gap. However the gap
measured in the experiment were not smaller than 400µm which makes this method not
very suitable for µECM. Wei et al. (2005) also proposed and patented a method to monitor
electrochemical machining by generating ultrasonic waves towards the workpiece thanks to
2 ultrasonic transducers and then measuring arrival times. The smallest gap that could be
measured using this technique is not mentioned in the patent. Muir et al. (2006), also
reported developping a similar system to measure the inter-electrode gap. The dimensions
of the gap did not correspond to the case of µPECM: the machining area was around
600mm² and the initial gap was 1mm, which were far greater than the IEGs used in
µPECM. The presented method allows to measure IEG <10 µm, but still the suitability of
this method needs to be deminstrated for micro ECM process.
Kozak et al. (2004) described a control method using a “touch and go” step to restore
the gap to its initial value during the machining process. However, this approach requires
the machining process to be interrupted and therefore decreases the productivity. Cagnon
et al., 2003, controlled the motion of the tool by using a shortcircuit detector: if a shortcircuit
occurred during machining the tool was retracted until there was no more contact between
the tool electrode and the workpiece to the initial value of the IEG.
In 2004, Schuster et al. proposed a patented “method for electrochemically processing
material”. They also presented a way to control the inter-electrode gap within a 10µm
range. The current peaks were measured via a current peak detector and their values were
compared with the desired value. The output of the comparator was passed through a low
pass filter (integrator) and a downstream amplifier. This amplifier controlled an
electromagnetic mechanism that had a 10µm travel distance. The position of the workpiece
was then adjusted with respect to the measured current peaks. The authors claimed that
the gap was “sufficiently small to obtain the desired local resolution” and “sufficiently high to
avoid short circuits”. However, no specific distances were mentioned.
Labib et al. (2011) pointed out the necessity for the controller to have decision making
capabilities. Since the PECM process is very hard to mathematically model, conventional
control approaches such as proportional-integral-derivative (PID) or state space controllers
are limited and based on the linearisation of the process function (and therefore
approximation). They observed that the occurrence of sparking was efficiently prevented
when fuzzy logic control (FLC) was applied to the ECM process and encouraged further
research to develop FLCs for the EMM process. Labib et al. (2011) suggested the
association of FLC to another control method and claimed that the FLC would bring
“intelligent control” to the process. They also mentioned that investigation in the area of
adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) would provide the control system also with
learning capabilities.
In order to monitor the gap size, Kim et al. (2005 (1, 2, 3)) measured the potential drop
between the tool and the workpiece. If the potential drop was equal to zero, this meant a
short circuit was detected. This potential drop can therefore be used to control the feed rate
of the tool electrode and also detect short circuits.
 Figure 4: A system for micro ECM (Kim et al., 2005)

The majority of the authors consider that the most reliable sensing parameter to control
the IEG is the current, so a good relationship between the current and the gap size need to
be defined. The only way to answer this demand, is to create the electrical model of the
interelectrode gap.
ii. Interelectrode gap modelling:

In 2000, Schuster et al. experimented PECM with ultra short pulses by taking into
account the effect of the electrical double layer. Studies showed that a capacitor was a
suitable representation of the electrical double layer in this process (Schuster et al., 2000;
Se Hyun et al., 2003). The electrical model of the gap that they used is presented on figure
5.

Figure 5: Scheme of an electrical cell, the double layer capacity (Cdl) is charged
 via the electrolyte resistance (Schuster et al., 2000)
Kozak (2008) and Deepak et al. (2008) improved this model by adding a non linear
resistor (ra and rk)in parallel with the electrical double layers (fig. 6). He claimed that the
current going through the double layer was actually the sum of 2 different currents:

Figure 6: Electrical model of the interelectrode gap proposed by

Kozak (2008) in the µECM process

 The charging current: It is the current density that flows through the double layer
when the latter is getting charged.
 The faradaic current: It is the current that casues the dissolution of the material when
the electrical double layer is fully charged.

It can be said that the current representing the gap size is the faradaic current because
it only starts flowing through the cell when the electrical double layer is fully charged, and is
therefore strongly related to the interelectrode gap resistance.

Kozak et al. (2004) made µECM trials by using combining a DC voltage source and a
pulsed voltage. The role of the DC voltage was to polarise the electrical double layer to
make sure that it would never discharge, then the voltage pulses would remove material
more efficiently and at the same time, the tool would be protected from corrosion.
The DC voltage was therefore relatively low and below the activating potential of the
electrochemical reaction.
 According to the reviewed litterature, the current is mainly influenced by the conductivity
of the electrolyte and the gap size. However, the conductivity of the electrolyte is influenced
by several parameters including the ionic the concentration (pH, Cl-, NO3-) and the
temperature. Therefore, if the current is used as a sensing parameter, the properties of the
electrolyte need to be carefully maintained within the interelectrode gap, otherwise the
relationship between the measured current and the gap size changes.

In order to have a more accurate representation of the gap, the side walls of the cathode
(tool) should be insulated to prevent the current from flowing through them: only the current
flowing through the front face of the cathode can be used to indirectly measure the IEG size
unless a very complicated algorithm is created which allows for the change of the active
zone on the cathoide electrode.

iii. Machine Tool

Usually when a new technology appears, people use and adapt existing machines for
the needs of the new technology. In this case also the first attempts were to adapt EDM
machines for the purpose of the ECM technology. Here has to be pointed out that should be
made a difference between development of simple die sinking machine utilising classical
ECM removal mechanism and machines developed which can be used to work in writing
mode (ECM milling). Die sinking ECM machines use a pre-shaped cathode electrode and
create the needed workpiece shape by copying the shape of the cathode electrode onto the
workpiece. Writing mode is a term used to describe machining of complex shape features
using a simple shape tool (electrode) and in this case the final shape of the machined
feature is created by consecutive movements of the simple shaped electrode generating
the needed final shape onto the workpiece.

The accuracy required of the machine is directly linked to the accuracy required to the
final product. In the case of micro ECM process, during machining is required to maintain
gap smaller than 10 micrometers. Therefore the resolution of the machine movement
should be fraction of the gap. Some developers even consider in micro ECM, the aim is to
maintain a gap size ranging from 2 to 5 micrometers, and therefore the resolution of
machine movement would be expected to be better than 100nm or less. Dynamic of the
main axes (usually Z especially for die sinking operations) should be very high in order not
to burn the electrode when short circuit is discovered and to save time in machining when
retracting and approaching the workpiece again. Reaction time of the mechanical structure
of the corresponding axes (usually Z0) of 50ms is a good example. For that purpose
machine design should be based on use slides with lower mass and overhanging slides to
be used a counterweights or frictionless air cylinders to support the weight (usually of the Z
axes) with mounted brakes on them.

Figure 7: Typical ECM machine combining sinking and writing mode

options Source: http://www.indec-ecm.com/en/equipment/ET500/
There are number of requirements to the jigs and fixtures holding the workpiece and the
cathode electrode during machining. During machining there is no physical contact between
the cathode and the anode and therefore there are no foresees involved in the machining
process apart from the electrolyte flow causing some pressure onto the both electrodes. For
the workpiece, apart from removing the 6 degrees of freedom in an appropriate way for the
achieved dimensions and applying a small clamping force, the fixture should be able to
provide electrical contact which preferably not to be exposed to the electrolyte flow. This is
needed on one side to avoid the corrosion of the contact point and on the other to make
sure that the electrical affinity of metals will not cause problems with the current flow. The
cathode electrode should have a reliable electrical contact and at the same time should be
able to allow electrolyte to be flushed through the cathode even with very small diameter of
the cathode electrode. In some cases the electrolyte pressure may reach very high values
like 70- 100 bar pressure if the diameter of the cathode electrode goes down to 100- 80
micrometers diameter in order to have sufficient (some) electrolyte flow. For smaller
diameter electrodes, side flushing is the only solution. Rotating cathode would help to the
renewal of the electrolyte in the working zone and it is highly desirable for the efficiency of
the process. Development of spindles capable of precision rotation and at the same time
having a current transmitted with very high frequency and minimised RF emissions is
another challenge in order to complete the design of a micro ECM machine.

iv. Machining Strategies

The described below existing machining strategies are derived only from the very
limited experience of people having such equipment. At present there is no theory
supporting development of such strategies. The very high complexity of this task is due to
the fact that many variables should be taking part in the process. Workpiece material
properties are very important and formation of oxides on the surface and time for their re-
appearance determines the machining strategy to a great extent.

In some cases in the beginning of the machining, longer current pulses are needed to
break the oxide layer on the surface of the workpiece. Later the duration of the pulses can
be shortened in order to improve the resolution and the accuracy of the features. Moreover
it has been reported that in the case of micro electrochemical milling, the features were
machined using 2 tool paths: during the first tool path, a long pulse duration (143ns) was
used, in order to do a “rough machining”, then a short pulse on-time (50ns) was used for
the second tool path at a slower tool feed rate, giving a better surface finish to the
machined structure (Cagnon et al., 2003).

Recently, a simple shape tool has been used to 3D machine structures: the tool was
moved along the workpiece surface like a milling cutter, locally removing material. This has
been defined as micro electrochemical milling (Kim et al., 2005 (1, 2, 3); Cagnon et al.
2003). This kind of machining method does not yet have any software tool to calculate the
tool path in order to machine a particular feature.
In some other cases, the pulse duration was increased when the tool reached a desired
location, in order to create cavities (undercuts) into the workpiece and machine complex
features (fig. 8) (Chan Hee Jo et al., 2008).
 Figure 8: Micro cavities machined by controlling dissolution
time and pulse duration (Chan Hee Jo et al., 2008)
It is well known fact that the renewal of the electrolyte in the working area is a very
important factor for effective ECM machining. Hence, machining using rotating electrodes
and vibrations have shown some increase in performance (Yang et al. 2009; Bhattacharyya
et al., 2007). However, it is too early to say that this kind of machining techniques should be
applied at a greater scale and what will be the effect on the accuracy and efficiency of the
process

For the moment, there is no CAD/CAM software offering automatic generation of the
machining parameters (electrolyte composition, pulse duration, duty cycle, feed rate and
tool path) as well as CLD file to produce 3D structures utilising ECM writing mode process.

Side flushing or flushing through the cathode is another problem. Usually it is

considered that through flushing gives better results but this limits the size of the electrodes
to be used and creates additional difficulties for micro ECM milling applications. If the
electrolyte is flushed through the electrode, the pressure requirements increase if the
electrode diameter decreases, leading to very expensive equipment and complex technical
solutions. Moreover, the gap size between the electrodes must be big enough to allow the
electrolyte to circulate.

Side flushing does not require expensive equipment, but the electrolyte flow might
apply a lateral force which bends the tool and disturbs the machining process especially
when high aspect ratio is required.

It can also be said that the pulse duration should be defined according to the EDL
charging time τ RC to ensure the localized removal of material. The larger the distance
from the tool electrode is, the longer the charging time constant of the EDL will be. Schuster
et al. (2004) stated that the pulse duty cycle has to be adjusted so that the temporal mean
value of the voltage remains below the activating potential of the anodic dissolution.
4. The power supply unit

In micro-ECM, a special power supply is needed. It should be able to apply pulses with
the following characteristics:

- Pulse amplitude : 0-10V

- Current : up to 5A
- Frequency : ranging from 10kHz up to 50MHz

This kind of device is hard to design mainly because of the very high switching
frequency of the MOSFETs. Indeed, most of the silicon based power transistors
commercially available are designed to work at a maximum switching frequency of 1 MHz
and are limited by their turn-on and turn-off times. To make a MOSFET turn on in a few
nanoseconds, a very high current pulse has to be applied to charge the capacitor at its
gate. Therefore in most cases a special gate driver needs to be developped. Most of the
µECM power supplies found in the litterature have a half bridge configuration. The low side
switch applies the voltage pulse to the gap when it is closed (pulse on-time), and the high
side switch shorts the gap during the pulse off-time. Driving the high side switch at 50MHz
is another issue, since the conventional high side gate drive technique using a bootstrap
diode and a bootstrap capacitor cannot be used (because of the long charging/discharging
time of the bootstrap capacitor). A solution to this problem is to completely insulate the high
side using an insuated DC/DC converter. The DC/DC converter should be able to provide
the driver with enough current to drive the MOSFET at the required frequency.

Machining at a very small interelectrode gap dramatically increases the chances of

short circuits to occur. Short circuits are strongly undesired as they might damage the tool,
alter the quality of the workpiece surface and even damage the pulse generator. Therefore,
an ultra fast short circuit protection is necessary to be build in into the power supply unit.
Most of the solutions implemented for that purpose, measure the current flowing through
the system via a sensing resistor in series with the gap. The potential accross this sensing
resistor – whose value is usually a few milliohms – is measured with a differential amplifier
and compared with a reference voltage corresponding to the maximum allowable voltage
accross this resistor (the voltage proportionally represents the current going through the
resistor according to Ohm’s law). If the current increases over a preset value, the
comparator triggers a logic signal that will switch off the power transistors (Zhang et al.,
2009). This implies also that the pulse generator and the control system of the machine
should communicate constantly in order to react accordingly to the short circuit situation
(i.e. switch off the pulses and retract the tool).

Zhang et al. (2009) proposed a power supply design and claimed they could achieved a
pulse frequency of 20MHz using a MAX038 function generator to control the MOSFETs
(see fig. 9). They also presented a fast short circuit protection, which basically consists of
an over current protection where the current is measured through a sensing resistor.

Figure 9: Principle of pulse generator for micro-ECM (Zhang et al., 2009)

Burkert et al. (2009) outlined the differences between the power supply units (PSU) in
PECM and µ-PECM. The ‘classic’ PECM-pulse unit circuitry is shown on figure 10:

Figure 10: Basic circuitry of pulse-unit (PU) for PECM in connection

with gap via feeder. Switches SW carry the rising current ifeed during
 ti, diodes D carry the falling reverse-current irev at beginning of t0. PU
is connected to supply-unit PS on the left side. (Burkert et al., 2009)
The pulse unit for the μ-PECM has to meet the requirements of the gap conditions
during the micromachining. In order to improve the localization of the machining, Burkert et
al. (2009) claimed it is necessary to reload the double layer capacitances, which means
both loading and unloading them. Burkert et al. (2009) presented a bipolar PSU enabling to
load/unload the electrical double layer thanks to two power sources, as shown on figure 11.

Figure 11: Basic circuitry of simple μ-PECM pulse-unit (PU) in push-pull

topology with bipolar (two) power supply (PS) feeding. Switches SW may
conduct in alternation for loading and reloading of the gap’s double layer
capacitance (Burkert et al.,2009)

The two supply voltages of the power supplies PS1 and PS2 are adjustable; the
unloading/loading of the double layer capacitances can therefore be controlled and hence
the current slope can be optimized for a more efficient metal dissolution. ‘In this respect,
the connecting of the gap to the necessary voltages takes place via the semiconductor
switches SW1 for the positive PS1, and SW2 for the negative PS2. The diodes D serve the
purpose of protecting the circuit.’ (Burkert et al., 2009).
A low cost power supply unit with satisfying performance will have to be developed in
order to make the µECM technology fulfill the needs of the industry. Lots of further research
is therefore needed in this particular area. Schulze et al. (2008), outlined the specifications
of an energy source that have to be developped in order to efficiently use ECM for micro-
machining.
 Recent developments in Gallium Nitrade power transistors (such as the eGaN FET
from EPC Corporation) having a very high switching speed with a very small package
inductance and resistance should make the developpment of this kind of power supply
more feisable.

Since the pulses last about 20ns each, and that a very high current density is applied,
an innovative power supply unit (PSU) has to be developed. In µPECM, the EDL
loading/unloading time can be controlled to improve anodic dissolution. For this reason, the
PSU circuitry for PECM is not the same as in µPECM.

5. Electrode and Workpiece Preparation

In µECM, the shape of the electrode is copied onto the workpiece. Therefore, the
accuracy of the tool shape has a direct effect on the workpiece accuracy (B. Bhattacharyya
et al., 2005). As mentioned before, the electrode does not wear during the machining
process, so the electrode does not have to be changed after the machining operation.
i. Off-Machine Manufacturing 3D Electrodes

In the cases of die sinking operation the cathode electrode has to be machined in
advance as a mirror image of the features required on the workpiece.

In these cases 3D micro features are machined on the cathode electrode and it is used
sinking method to copy the mirror image of the cathode onto the anode workpiece (fig. 12)
(Chang et al., 2011; Trimmer et al., 2003).

Figure 12: Scanning electron micrographs (a) the tool; (b)

structure in Ni substrate (Trimmer et al., 2003)
The problems in these cases are the methods how to calculate the shape and feature
size to be machined onto the cathode electrode. The methods and software that were used
to design tools for “normal” ECM (Kozak et al., 2000) can generally not be applied to the
µECM because the effect of the electrical double layer is neglected in the normal ECM
simulation.
Kenney et al., (2004) and Chang et al. (2011) proposed simulation tools and
procedures that could be used for future cathode tool design and process parameter study
for the EMM process.
Companies such as Elsyca provide their customers with complete solutions for
electrochemical processes consisting of value added services, intelligent hardware tooling
and embedded software (Hotoiu et al., 2011).
All these simulation tools either use numerical methods such as BEM or FEM to map
the current density over the workpiece surface according to predefined parameters
(electrolyte conductivity, electrical double layer capacitance, geometrical configuration). The
main challenge is to take into account the variation of the electrical potential distribution
(and therefore, of the current density distribution) when material is removed: after each
pulse, the distribution of the electrical potential needs to be recalculated. In most of the
time, to simplify the system, the electrical double layer capacitance and the conductivity of
the electrolyte within the IEG (depending on both temperature and electrolyte
concentration) are considered constant throughout machining time (Kozak et al. 2008;
Deepak et al. 2008).
The current density is at its strongest value at the end surface of the electrode.
However, when the workpiece is machined the sidewalls of the electrode also have an
influence on the shaping process. In reality, µECM processes present a non-uniform
distribution of the electrical potential along the surface of the workpiece (Kock et al.; 2003).
To reduce the stray current, the sides of the tool can be insulated. When using insulated
tools, “the machining rate and the machining gap are uniform, regardless of the machining
depth” . Moreover, the taper shape of structures can be effectively prevented (Park et al.,
2006).“Insulated materials like SiC, can be coated on the side wall of the cathode by
chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process.” (B. Bhattacharyya et al., 2005). A dual pole
tool would also help achieving a higher accuracy by making the current flowing only through
the front face of the electrode (D. Zhu et al., 2002).
All the above recommendation require the cathode to be prepared off the machine.
Therefore, for such precise machining application the clamping of the tool electrode is a
very delicate step at machine setup procedure.
 ii. On-Machine electrode preparation

Figure 13: 10 µm tungsten tool electrode machined using

electrochemical etching (Zhaoyang et al., 2007)
In drilling and milling operations, the cathodes usually have a simple shape (cylindrical
or semi-cylindrical) and can be machined by electrochemical etching (see fig. 13)
(Zhaoyang et al., 2007, 2011; Lee et al. 2007) or in a manner similar to the Wire Electro-
Discharge Grinding devices (see fig. 15) which allow to achieve very small sizes
(diameters) (Yang et al., 2009; Sheng Ho Huang et al., 2004).

The following diagram (fig. 14) shows an example of a micro-tool being machined using
electrochemical etching (anodic dissolution of the tool with a DC current) followed by the
machining of the workpiece (anodic dissolution using the pulsed power supply unit).

Figure 14: Schematic diagram of micro-ECM sequentially:

(a) micro-tool machining, (b) micro-workpiece machining
(Zhaoyang et al., 2011)
 Figure 15: Schematic diagrams of the tool electrode
fabrication: (a) cylindrival tool and (b) semi-cylindrical
tool (Yang et al.,2009)

One of the major benefits of on-the-Machine electrode preparation is that the axis of
rotation of the electrode and the electrode position and dimension(s) are known. Once the
tool is ‘ground’ and the required size is achieved, it can be used in the electrochemical
micromachining process by inversing the polarity of the electrodes.

In analogy with the micro EDM process on-the-machine electrode preparation can be
used a block electrode, wire electrode (in this case there is no need to be running wire as
there is no wear of the electrode) and disk electrode. Still there are no publications to show
which method of on-the-machine electrode preparation would be the most suitable for micro
ECM process.

iii. Electrical connections

Burkert et al. (2009) stated that one of the critical parameters of the µECM process
circuitry is the inductance of the cables connecting the PSU to the electrodes. This parasitic
cable inductance increases the rise time of the voltage pulses especially for pulse durations
below 1µs. At high frequency, the impedance of the cable gets so big that only a portion of
the output power is delivered to the IEG. To solve this issue, special low inductance cables
should be used and their length has to be minimised. This would mean that the PSU has to
‘be positioned as close as possible at the gap connection’. This task becomes even more
difficult when additional device like the described above on-the machine grinding device
should be considered for the wiring.
 In most of the cases of µECM machining a tool electrode with a simple shape
(cylindrical or semi-cylindrical) is used. The electrical connection of the cathode is complex
to achieve because the tool is spinning: energy must be reliably transmitted to the rotating
element (Zhang et al., 2009).

In the case of high frequency power supply and high current it is not suitable to use the
traditional carbon or silver brushes because the transition of high current has a detrimental
effect on them and most importantly they do not work well when high frequency power
supply is applied. At the moment there is no good solution on the market such as a system
transmitting high frequency signals and high current to a spinning electrode and at the
same time to be located as close as possible to the IEG.

The solution adopted by the authors is to develop a bespoke spindle and to have the
transmission of the signals to be done through a liquid metal bath. An example of the
spindle design is shown on the figure below. The spindle also can be designed so that it
can accommodate the PCB from the power supply with the high frequency and this way
severely reduces the length of the connection cables.

Shaft and body – electrically 
insulated from the electrode

Mercury slip ring

Electrode clamping 

Figure 16: Proposed µECM spindle design with build in mercury slip ring for
minimising the current path and minimising the inductance
 The Electrical connection of the anode electrode (workpiece) is even more complicated
and important as few rules have to be followed.

 Only the machined material has to be exposed to the electrolyte and the electrical
connection.
 The cables should be special and with minimum length to minimize the inductance.
 In the best case the working zone should be in structure acting like Faraday cage to
prevent the RF emission.
 In the case of on-the-machine electrode preparation the power supply should be able
to inverse the polarity of the pulses and the wiring should support this as well.

6. Measurement

Measuring the workpiece position in the coordinate system of the machine, the
electrode dimensions, the achieved feature dimensions or the surface quality of micro-
features is not an easy task. All measurements have to be performed on-the-machine,
because any off machine measurement is linked with introducing more errors associated
with removing and relocation either of the electrode or the workpiece or both. On-the-
machine measurement of the electrode and feature dimensions is necessary in order to
achieve good accuracy in a micro-ECM machining process. This is mainly due to the fact
that removing a machined part for measurement and re-clamping it afterwards will create a
resetting error that will drastically affect the final accuracy of the machined features.

i. Dimensions

At present there is no accurate way to predict the achieved dimensions with the micro
ECM process. There are not many machines available and all micro ECM machines are still
in state where these new features are under development. In analogy with the micro EDM
process where the electrode is used as a probe to perform measuring functions as well, in
micro ECM machines it will be not that easy to adopt the same approach. In micro ECM
machines, similar to micro EDM machines the two electrodes are electrically insulated from
each other. However in micro EDM process the working medium used is dielectric which
allows the use of the electrode for probing based on electrical contact between the
electrode and the surfaces from the workpiece. In micro ECM machines the working
medium is electrically conductive and such approach is not applicable unless further
research and developments are done. At present the approach is to remove all electrolyte
from the electrode and the workpiece and to use measuring cycles similar to the one used
in micro EDM machines based on the electrical contact between the electrode and
workpiece surfaces. The dimensions are calculated using data from the encoders which
register the exact moment of electrical contact. Measuring algorithms are well developed
and used for many years on CMM machines and all CNC based machines utilising
measuring cycles.

Different researchers communicate that repeatability of the process is very high but a
test run is needed in order to establish the exact parameters of the process and to measure
the achieved dimensions. The dimensions and the corresponding accuracy are directly
related to the method used for achieving and maintaining the interelectrode gap. If the
method of maintaining the IEG is not accurate the final accuracy from the process will not
be good. If the algorithm for maintaining the IEG is good and variation of the gap is small
the accuracy from the pulsed micro ECM process is good.

ii. Machine Set-up

At present the development of micro ECM equipment is still at research level. Nearly all
machines use one preset cathode electrode for one specific operation. Therefore the
setting up of the machine will be considered only for one electrode which simplifies the
machining set up procedure. As for all setting up procedures for CNC machines, the setup
includes:

 determining the position of the working coordinate system of the workpiece

according to the machine coordinate system;
 measuring the relative position of the cathode electrode according to the workpiece
coordinate system.

The setting up procedure in this case will involve also positioning of the electrode to the
IEG distance which to be maintained during machining operation.

There are no reported machines with optical devices for setting up the position of the
workpiece and therefore the described above measuring capabilities of the machine will be
used to determine the position of the working coordinate system (workpiece coordinate
system) in the machine coordinate system and the position of the programmed point from
the cathode electrode in two dimensions length (usually in Z direction) and diameter
(usually X , Y direction).

To define the inter-electrode gap, a similar approach is used. A small voltage is applied
to the electrochemical cell and the tool is being moved towards the workpiece until a short
circuit is detected. Then the tool is very slowly retracted until the electrical contact
disappears. This method helps define the position of the workpiece surface. From this
position, the tool is retracted by the initial gap distance. The accuracy of the above
measurements will adversely affect the accuracy of the machined features and the position
of these features onto the workpiece.

Still there is no solution to the problem of performing reliable set up measurements

when very small electrodes are used (e.g 20 micrometers or below). The major difficulties
come from the cleaning the surfaces of the workpiece and especially of the electrode from
the electrolyte in order to perform the measuring cycles.

iii. Surface Quality

There is a lot information of macro ECM and some on micro ECM how the different
components of the process influence the surface quality.

 Electrolyte influence (NaNO3 versus NaCl)

Lee et al. (2002) compared the surface profiles of microgrooves electrochemically

machined with 2 different electrolytes: NaCl solution and NaNO solution. They observed that
the use of the NaCl eletrolyte results in a rougher anode surface whereas the NaNO
electrolyte makes the machined surface smoother as shown on figure 17.
 Figure 17: Comparison of grooves profiles created with 2
electrolytes (Lee et al., 2002)
 
Another interesting comparison between and electrolytes has been made
by Haisch et al. (2001) who measured current efficiency during the machining of a 100Cr6-
workpiece (fig. 18). From their result they noticed a strong influence of the electrolyte on the
process. Using the electrolyte seems strongly increases the current efficiency
compared to the . Moreover, during their study they observed that the dissolution of
the metal starts at a lower overpotential for the electrolyte (+0.6 to +0.75V (vs.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)) with a polarization resistance of 0.4 Ohm.cm²) than
for the one electrolyte (+1.8V (vs. SHE) with a polarization resistance of 0.6
Ohm.cm²).

Figure 18: Current efficiencies of the soft annealed steel

 100Cr6 obtained by galvanostatic flow channel experiments
with NaCl (20%) and NaNO3 (40%). The corresponding values
for Armco-Iron Are given for comparison. Average flow velocity:
7m/s. (Haisch et al., 2001)

The properties of the electrolyte and electrolyte flushing conditions (inlet pressure,
temperature, concentration) influence severely the accuracy of the machined features,
surface topography, overpotential at the electrodes and the material removal rate.

The electrolyte has to be carefully selected and the electrolyte parameters must
therefore be carefully (and actively) monitored and controlled.

 Material grain structure and composition

There is evidence in the reviewd literature on work related to the surface integrity based
on the grain structure of the workpiece material. The autors would expect good corelation
between the surface finish and the grain structure of the material. So far, there is also no
research highlighting the relation between the current passing through the IEG and the
surface finish of the machined structure. The current seems only responsible for material
removal but how this affects the surface finish is not unvestigated yet. Of course, events
implying very high current such as short circuits will damage the workpiece and the tool,
which will have an influence on the surface finish.

7. Handling
i. Electrodes and Parts

In all micro manufacturing processes, problems with handling of the parts and tools
exist. µECM is not an exception: In Micro ECM die-sinking, drilling or milling, different
techniques and devices can be employed to help handling and manipulating small
electrodes and parts. For instance, the electrodes mainly used for EDM drilling and milling
are Copper (Cu), W (tungsten) or WC (tungsten carbide) rods or tubes, of diameters within
the range 0.1–0.4 mm, and their handling is difficult as they can be easily damaged. There
are available rods below 0.1mm diameter but handling them and clamping them on the
machines have proved unreliable. Therefore, sub-systems must be incorporated into micro-
ECM machines for on-the-machine manufacture and holding of the required micro-
electrodes as explained above. The most common sub-systems are ceramic guides for the
electrodes and electrode dressing units as shown above whic are very similar to the one
used in micro EDM process.

ii. Electrolytes

“The electrolyte not only closes the electric circuit between the tool and workpiece, but
also allows the desired machining process to occur.”- (Bhattacharyya et al., 2005)
Unlike micro-EDM process where a dielectric medium (either pure water or oil-based) is
used and is very rarely changed, in micro-ECM there is a need to change the electrolyte
depending on the material properties of the workpiece material and required parameters of
the machined surface topography.
The electrolyte flows in the inter-electrode gap and flushes away the waste (i.e
) produced during the reaction. Clark et al. (1977) monitored the temperature of the
electrolyte at different locations during the ECM process and observed that the temperature
inside the inter-electrode gap was higher than at the outside. They also highlighted the fact
that the electrolyte would rise to temperature close to the boiling point if the flow-rate was
not high enough. Hence the electrolyte has to evacuate the heat generated by the high
current passing through the gap and it is therefore supplied with a very high velocity (more
than 5m/s) (Kozak et al., 2004; Yong et al., 2003). This may cause problems to control the
electrolyte splashes.
According to Clark et al. (1977) the solution seems to rise in temperature more
easily than the solution.

Mukherjee et al. (2007) studied the influence of the electrolyte during an ECM process.
They concluded that the electrolyte only contributes to a fraction of the current-
carrying process, whereas the and ions produced by the electrolysis of water play
an important role in carrying the current.
According to Bhattacharyya et al. (2005), EMM electrolytes are basically classified into
two categories:

 “Passive electrolytes containing oxidizing anions, i.e. sodium nitrate ( ),

sodium chlorate, etc. They are known to give better machining precision.”
 “Non-passive electrolytes containing aggressive anions, i.e. sodium chloride. Acidic
electrolytes are advantageous due to formation of soluble reaction products, which
 can completely get swept clean from the narrow IEG during machining without micro-
tool being affected.”

Bhattacharyya et al. (2005) also claimed that decreasing the concentration of the
electrolyte allows a smaller IEG to be maintained, which, as previously mentioned,
improves the machining accuracy and current efficiency. It was als pointed out that it is also
possible to use additives in the electrolytes to improve the dimensional accuracy
(. . . In another experiment (2007), Bhattacharyya et al. confirmed the significant
effect of the electrolyte concentration on the material removal rate and accuracy.

Some materials are well machined with salt based electrolytes ( , ) but some
would require acid based electrolytes ( , ) (Trimmer et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2005
(1, 2, 3); Lee et al. 2007). The use of highly concentrated 6M HF and 3M HCl electrolyte to
machine stainless steel workpiece has been reported (Cagnon et al., 2003). Obviously the
use of such chemicals creates additional difficulties for manipulations of the electrolytes on
the machine.

The electrolyte system on the micro ECM machine should be able to allow easy and
quick change of the electrolyte and at the same time this should be safe for the operator of
the machine. The contact of the operator with the electrolyte should be minimised and the
change of the electrolyte on the machine should be made a safe procedure.

8. Discussion and conclusions:

In this paper, the necessity for a more precise inter-electrode gap control system and
the elements influencing its variation have been highlighted. It has been observed that a
variation of the material removal rate would affect the variation of the inter-electrode gap
and hence disturb the process and alter the quality of the machined features. The literature
review underlined that a change in material removal rate can have many different sources;
however it has been concluded that these sources are all linked to events occurring within
the inter-electrode gap: variation of the current distribution, variation of the conductivity of
the electrolyte, sparks, arcs and short circuits. A constant adjustment of the tool position is
therefore essential to maintain the gap within an acceptable range for an efficient and
accurate machining process as well as a protection of the tool against events happening
within the gap. A lot of work remains to be done to reliably control the interelectrode gap.
The trend in µECM control systems seems to go towards fuzzy logic and neural networks,
allowing manufacturers to put their knowledge into the system for a more efficient and
accurate machining process.

Measuring the variation of the current pulse amplitude has been identified as a suitable
way to measure the variation of the gap. Indeed, assuming that the conductivity of the
electrolyte is maintained to a constant value, the variation of the current is the closest
representation of the interelectrode gap change. It has been shown that the current density
distribution is influenced by the shape of the tool electrode and plays a very important role
in the dissolution process. A smaller interelectrode gap and a side-insulated (an insulated
on the sides) tool should force the current to go through the front face of the cathode,
improving the localization of the removal of material and a providing a better gap size
representation for a better control.
It has been found in the literature review that the electrolyte has a severe influence on
the μECM process and has to be chosen in accordance to the material of the workpiece.
Moreover, if the properties of the electrolyte are not maintained the current cannot not be
used as a sensing parameter. The accuracy of the gap measurement therefore relies on a
proper maintenance of the electrolyte properties. The electrolyte also directly influences the
electrical double layer (capacitance and local resistance) whose effect has to be considered
in μECM.
The double layer can be loaded/unloaded with very short voltage pulses to confine the
dissolution process into a very small area. As a result, the removal of material is localized
and micro features can be machined with very high aspect ratio.
It has been reported that the machining precision depends on the charging time of the
double layer. This time constant can be approximately determined by assuming that the
inter-electrode gap can be modeled as an RC circuit. It has been confirmed that a fine
tuning of the pulse width and the scanning ratio would ensure the localization of the
dissolution process. However, the specifications of the pulses involve the development of a
new type of power supply unit that would provide with outstanding performance at an
affordable cost.
The key role of the tool electrode characteristics have also been outlined: They will
influence the electrical double layer capacitance, the overpotential, the accuracy of the
shaping process and current density distribution. It has been seen that a coating of the tool
sides with an electrically insulating material would improve the localization (already
mentioned before). Other improvements such as vibrating and rotating tools have been
discussed and experiments have to be undertaken to confirm the efficiency of these
approaches. The properties of the cathode (tool electrode) should not vary during the
process and were therefore considered as constants during the simulations.
Further research needs to be done to avoid the use of dangerous chemicals and strict
safety measures have to be implemented on the equipment developed for micro ECM
machining. It is also worth noticing that in µECM the electrolyte are generally more
concentrated that in macro ECM process and use dangerous chemicals such a strong acids
( , ).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
"The research reported in this paper is supported by the European Commission within the
project “Minimizing Defects in Micro-Manufacturing Applications (MIDEMMA)” (FP7-2011-
NMP-ICT-FoF-285614)"

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