Bulletin of the Department of Geology

Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal, Vol. 12, 2009, pp. 43–54

Hydrogeologic assessment and groundwater reserve evaluation in

northwestern parts of Dun valley aquifers of Chitwan, inner Terai
*Rajendra Neupane and Suresh Das Shrestha
Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal

ABSTRACT

The Chitwan Valley is one of the largest Dun Valleys in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal. Dun gravels perhaps deposited in the
late Pleistocene to very early Holocene about 22,000–7000 yr. B.P. Chitwan Dun Valley is underlain by Dun fan gravels or Dun
gravels which form unconfined to semiconfined or leaky confined aquifers. The study area, situated in the NW part of the valley
occupies an area of 70.8 km2 .The hydrogeological situation in the study area is inferred from drilling data of Ground Water
Resources Development Board (GWRDB), Agriculture Development Project Janakpur (ADPJ) and several private drilling
companies .The Chitwan Dun Valley constitutes a closed groundwater system in the Siwalik Zone of Nepal Himalaya. The study
area reveals the existence of two definite groundwater sub-basin each having its own hydraulic system and is a part of single large
regional groundwater basin. Annual potential evapotranspiration (PET) calculated at Rampur (station no 0902) for five-year period
(1990–1995) is 1.68 mm/day. Annual precipitation data recorded at Rampur is 2214 mm. Area of recharge is 70.8 km2 and estimation
of total groundwater storage(reserve) is 87.31 MCM per year, and dynamic reserve or annual potential recharge is estimated as
48.60 MCM per year.

INTRODUCTION Gitanagar VDCs. The study area includes the part of

command area of the Narayani Lift Irrigation Project.
The study area lies in the Chitwan District,
Narayani Zone, Central Development Region of The climate of Chitwan is subtropical. Average
Nepal between longitudes 83°54' 45’’to 84°48’15'’ maximum and minimum temperatures (1995 to 2006)
E and latitudes 27°21'45’’ to 27°52' 30’’N. The district recorded in the meteorological station at Rampur are
boundaries are marked by Nawalparasi District in 34.91oC in June and 8.08oC in January, respectively.
the west along the Narayani River and the Makwanpur The mean annual rainfall during 12 years from 1995
District in the east and the Parsa District and Bihar, to 2006 at Rampur is 2214 mm. More than 80% of
India in the south. It has the Tanahun, Gorkha and the total annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon
Dhading Districts to the north (Fig. 1). It lies season from June to September (DHM 2006).
approximately 146 km SW from Kathmandu. The The altitudes in the Chitwan District range from
total area of the Chitwan is about 2,218 km 2 . more than 1876 meters in the north to about 141
The study area covers about 70.8 Km2. The area meters in the middle to 880 meters at the border with
includes ward nos. 2, 7,8,9,11,13 & 14 of Bharatpur India (Kansakar and Amatya 1993). The altitude in
municipality and parts of Mangalpur, Phulbari and the study area ranges from 170 to 210 m from mean
sea level. The Narayani River is the biggest river in
*Corresponding author: the Chitwan District, which forms the western border
E-mail address: [email protected] with the Nawalparasi District. The Rapti River, which
 R. Neupane and S.D. Shrestha / Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 12, 2009, pp. 43–54

Study area

Fig. 1 Location Map of the Study Area

is flowing westwards through middle part of district, that were here caught up in final phases of folding
is the second major river. Several other streams are and rising, so that they extend in a strike direction
also a part of drainage system in the district. All of parallel to the Himalayas (Haffner 1979). The cross-
the streams flow from north to south (Fig. 2). Two section of geological map of the Chitwan Valley (Fig.
major rivers the Narayani River in the west and the 4) illustrates the geological condition of the valley.
Rapti River in the south bound the study area. The The Lower and Middle Siwaliks occur
Kerunga ghol is a drainage flowing from east to south continuously all along the Himalayas, but the Upper
west direction forming a tributary of the Rapti River. Siwaliks occur intermittently in some areas only. The
Many swamps, wetlands and depressions are present sediment size increases upwards and becomes
in this area. conglomeratic in the Upper Siwaliks.
The Siwalik Range, which borders the Rapti Valley
GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE in the south, attaining to heights of upto 800 m,
CHITWAN DUN VALLEY consists in the east of conglomerates of the upper
Siwaliks. The formations from the Lower Siwaliks
The Dun Valleys are one of the ten natural divisions predominate in the west (Hagen 1969). To the north
in Nepal Himalayas (Hagen 1969). These tectonic of the Siwaliks is the Rapti Valley, which steadily
Dun Valleys are considered to be part of the Siwalik. widens from east to west. The eastern valley floor is
The Chitwan Dun Valley is a NNW-SSE trending covered by the broad alluvial fans of tributaries
synclinal intermontane valley (about 140 km long emerging from the Mahabharat Range. In the west,
and 60 km wide) formed within the Sub-Himalayas the floor of the basin consists of alluvial deposits of
(Siwaliks) of Nepal Himalayas (Fig. 3). The Siwaliks the Narayani River (Haffner 1979). The yearly
consist mainly of conglomerates, sandstones and monsoon flooding and the frequent migrations of the
clays of Neogene period. The lenticular shaped riverbeds contribute to the continual change in the
longitudinal valley in the Siwaliks represents the mosaic-like landscape. In the north, the Rapti Valley
active front of the Himalayan chain and represents is bordered by the Mahabharat Range. Positioned in
tectonic or structural depression in the post Siwalik front of it is a mountain range built up from the
time. These youngest formations of the Himalayas, Middle Siwalik strata (Hagen 1969).

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Hydrogeologic assessment and groundwater reserve evaluation in northwestern parts of Dun valley aquifers of Chitwan, inner Terai

0 7.5 15 30 Km Dhading District

Sharp bend at
Mangalpur

t
ric
ist
iD r
ive
ras
iR
yan
lpa

ara
wa

N
Na

Makawanpur District
iver
ra R
oha
Rapti River

Man
Reu
Riv
er

Legend
Tributary
I N D Road
I A
River

Fig. 2 Drainage system of the Chitwan Dun Valley

27o42’10”N
83o27’50”E
27o0’N
84o52’E

Fig. 3 Location of Chitwan Dun in Siwalik (Sub-Himalaya) of Nepal

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 R. Neupane and S.D. Shrestha / Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 12, 2009, pp. 43–54

N
S Rapti Dun Mahabharat 1500
Churia Range Range 1250
Jitpur Khairani Gardas
Karahiya a a 1000
Jorpani Siwaliks`a
aa a 750
Ladri khola `a a` 500
`
Rapti khola
E-W highway aaa 250
a m
84033’ a bc b a MBT
b c
Legend:
0 5 10km
Conglomerate of upper Siwalik formation
a alluvial fans
Pebbles, Sand and sandstones of the middle Siwalik formation b river terraces
c riverbed
aa Precambrian basement of the lower Himalaya
a MBT Main Boundary Thrust
alluvial sediments
Sources: Hagen,1969:Fig. 85,91;Haffner,1979:56;
alluvial sediments, high groundwater level
GoN-map No.35,1:125000;
gravels and sediments of alluvial fans
GoN-geological map No. 72-A-B 1:125000

Graphics: K.Wegner

Fig.4 Geological cross-section of Chitwan dun Valley (After Hagen 1969; Haffner 1979)

HYDROLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY trend of the Narayani River. The westward migration
of the Narayani River near the Bharatpur Municipality
The Narayani River Basin and the western margin of the Mangalpur VDC were
The area of the Narayani River Basin is of about detected from the study of satellite imageries (Dangol
31,100 km2 in central Nepal behind the confluence and Paudel 2004).
of the two major rivers, the Kaligandaki River and
the Trisuliganga River. The main stream is the SUB-SURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE
Kaligandaki River that flows from Mustang. The STUDY AREA
catchment of 90% area lies in the Nepalese territories.
Major tributaries are the Trisuli, Marsyandgdi, Seti, The sediment distribution in the area is relatively
Budhi Gandaki, Madi, Daraudi and Kali gandaki etc. uniform and homogeneous (Fig. 6). The depth of
these deep wells ranges from 40 m to 126 m
Recent shifting trend of Narayani River respectively. Generally, effects of local rivers influence
Just after crossing the Mahabharat Range, the sediment distribution. All the deep wells are situated
Trisuli and the Kaligandaki Rivers confluence at at the elevations between 184 m and 210 m above
Devghat, and gives way to the Narayani River. The mean sea level. In general, the most permeable
River takes an eastward course from Devghat. While portions of the Dun sediments, the coarse fractions,
reaching Narayanghat, the river follows in the are confined to the northern part which gradually
southward trend (Fig. 5). There is a sharp bend at changes to finer sediments towards south. In the
Mangalpur. The river then flows in the westward northern part of the area there are places where boulder
direction. The bend displays a contrasting sharpness. and hard formation predominates at Bharatpur. In
most of the areas predominance of sand and boulders
The areal distance from the first eastern depression
constituting more than 80% of total sediments, which
to the present river channel is over 32 km. Present
form thick layers in most of the places.
river also has various braided channels, and the latter
are extending to the western part close to the The subsurface lithology is composed of boulder,
Nawalparasi District, where the channel is 10–12 km cobble, pebble, gravel, and sand with intercalation
wide. Every year, eastern Nawalpur faces an acute of clays as well as detritus of quaternary age. There
flooding problem, indicating the westward shifting is relatively uniform distribution of sediments in the

46
 Hydrogeologic assessment and groundwater reserve evaluation in northwestern parts of Dun valley aquifers of Chitwan, inner Terai

Fig. 5 Parallel alignment of depressions in west Chitwan (After Dangol and Paudel 2004)

underlying alluvial deposits and the sequence shows productive and have been tapped through hundreds
a little areal change in lithology. of tube wells. Well inventory of deep wells are
presented in Table 1.
GROUND WATER CONDITIONS Static Water Level
The main Dun valley aquifer is chiefly filled with The depth to water level is measured in a network
highly porous and permeable unconsolidated to poorly of 98 dugwells uniformly spread over the study area
consolidated pedimont alluvium or fan deposits (late Pre-Monsoon and Post-Monsoon season. Among
Pleistocene to Holocene), which form the large aquifer these 98 dugwells the maximum depth to water level
system underlying the study area. These was 11.9 m measured at Krishnapur, in Pre-monsoon
unconsolidated valley-fill deposits consist of thickly season. Similarly, the maximum depth to water level
bedded conglomerates with pebble- to-boulder clasts observed in dugwells during Post-monsoon period
in a fine-grained matrix, and are locally called the (early November) at Sharadpur was 10.4 m.
Dun Fan Gravels or Dun Gravels. The valley-fill The minimum depth to water level was 1.0 m
deposits forming the main aquifer system is measured in Narayanpur in Pre-monsoon (end of
homogeneous as evident in the tubewell logs and by May to early June). Water table fluctuation ranges in
their hydraulic properties. River fans and ancient the unconfined aquifers from about 0.1 m to 6.85 m
river terraces are found mainly in the valley. The b.g.l. (below ground level) with a mean water level
Bhabar Zone area in the Chitwan Ddistrict is estimated of 2.21 m. The minimum range has been observed
as 280 km2 (Sharma 1995) while area of the Dun in the Gauriganj area in the eastern part of the study
valley is estimated as 800 km2. The Chitwan Dun area i.e, water table at shallower depths in this area
lies at a slightly higher elevation than the Terai Plain. and deeper away towards northcentral part. In addition,
The porous and permeable pedimont deposits the maximum range has been noticed in Narayanpur,
i.e. 6.85 m in the Central part of the study area.
form the main large aquifer system in this area. The
aquifer system is multilayer in nature, as commonly Piezometric level in Pre-monsoon period ranges
found in alluvial deposits. Groundwater is under from 184.2 m a.m.s.l. (above mean seal level) to
unconfined or water table types in shallow aquifers 207.5 m a.m.s.l. The lowest piezometric level has
and under semi-confined or leaky confined conditions been found at Narayanpur area, i.e., 184.2 m and
in deeper aquifers. Perched water table conditions highest at Ganeshthan i.e., 207.5 m the northern part
also present in places. The deeper aquifers are of the study area. Similarly, piezometric level in Post-

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R. Neupane and S.D. Shrestha / Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 12, 2009, pp. 43–54

Fig. 6 Sediment distribution pattern in the study area

48
 Table 1: Well inventory of deep tubewells

Well Hydraulic Specific

Elevation m Depth Piezometric Surface Yield (Q) Transmissivity Screen position m
Well ID Well Location Longitude Latitude diameter conductivity capacity
(a.m.s.l) (m) l/s m2/day (b.g.l.)
(mm) m (b.g.l.) m (a.m.s.l.) m/day m3/day/m

DTW-1 *Torikhet 84.40237 27.644 196 53.6 350/200 8.5 187.5 35 1105.6 355.76 20.1—50

DTW-2 *Parasnagar 84.4171 27.632 193 70 350/200 7 186 40 686.45 172.8 36—66

DTW-3 *Lanku 84.41348 27.675 197 73.5 350/200 22 175 40 1519.5 576 35-71

DTW-4 *Kalyanpur 84.39625 27.663 192 60 350/200 8 184 50 1114.3 360 24.5--36.5

DTW-5 Trichowk 84.42312 27.681 209 300/200 209

34-40,59.5-70.5,73-
DTW-6 DWSS off. 84.43905 27.69 210 120 300/200 18.4 191.6 30 887.16 13.92 254 84,89.5-95,100.5-

49
106,110-114.5

DTW-7 Kataharchowk 84.42388 27.67 208 126 300/200 208 45-69, 75-81,97-115

50-62,68-80,86-92,96-
DTW-8 BPKMCH—1 84.4155 27.663 204 105 6.2 197.8 43.4 763.22 203
102

DTW-9 BPKMCH—2 84.4171 27.667 204 70 10.5 193.5

DTW-10 *Rambag 84.38392 27.652 194 75 350/200 10.5 183.5 35 686.45 172.8 42—72

DTW-11 Municipal complex 84.42238 27.682 205 300/200 205

Hotel Safari
DTW-12 84.4286 27.689 209 99 150 20.17 188.8 10.19 988.69 300 51---87
Narayani

DTW-13 Hakim Chowk 208 115 300/200 15 40 197.77 3.29 288 49—83,86-112

DTW-14 Coca Cola Factory 207 40 300 1.45 1.5 85.68 5.36 24.9 18.5-36
Hydrogeologic assessment and groundwater reserve evaluation in northwestern parts of Dun valley aquifers of Chitwan, inner Terai
 R. Neupane and S.D. Shrestha / Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 12, 2009, pp. 43–54

monsoon season in August–September ranges from 42 m (Average 30 m) and occurring at different depths
191.15 m a.m.s.l. to 205.1 m a.m.s.l. in the respective through slotted casings.
area. High fluctuation may indicate loss of
Aquifer Characteristics
groundwater as subsurface outflow. Water level
fluctuations have higher values towards northern part Yield (Q)
controlled by topography.
In the study area, the yield of the deep tubeless is
Hydraulic gradient highest at the area (50 l/s) and lowest at Cocoa Cola
Hydraulic gradient is the change in head per unit Factory, i.e., 1.5 l/s. ADAPT deep tube wells are
of distance in a given direction. Hydraulic gradient mainly used for irrigation purpose. Some of the deep
during pre-monsoon period (April/May) has been wells are used for municipal supply and domestic
calculated at different locations such as Kesharbag purpose.
(5 m/km), Prembasti (1.58m/km), Krishnapur (1.67
m/km), Salyani (1 m/km), Narayanpur (1.5 m / km) Transmissibility
and Khaniya tol ( 2.14 m /km) . The transmissibility values are presented in Table
Hydraulic gradient during Post-monsoon period 1 ranges in Dwell is 85.68 mad. (Jacked-method) and
(August/September) found at different locations are in Two is 1105.6 mad. (empirical method).
as follows: at Kesharbag-2.5 m/km, at Prembasti- Transmissibility in some ADAPT tubeless were
2.5 m/km, at Krishnapur-2.3 m/km, at Gauriganj calculated by the empirical method developed by
temple-3.0m/km, respectively. By calculation, (2007) in Deriding valley as:
hydraulic gradient is found almost uniformly similar
at the whole study area. Hydraulic gradient changes
in every meter of horizontal distance. log To = 1.36 + 0.66 log (Q/S)

Ground water flow rate or T = 22.9 (Q/s)0.66

The rate of groundwater movement is governed where, both T and Q/S are in m2/d developed for
by the hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer and the the piedmont alluvial aquifer (Dun valley) system.
hydraulic gradient (Todd 2001). Hydraulic
conductivity (Permeability) of shallow aquifer has Hydraulic Conductivity.
been calculated by GWRDB/UNDP in six wells. The
trend of hydraulic conductivity can be estimated from Hydraulic conductivity of deep aquifer at DTW-
Table 1 in the study area. The ground water flow rate 14 (Coca Cola Factory) is 5.36 m/d, DTW-6/Bhojad
is relatively higher at DTW-4/Kalyanpur-50 l/s and is 13.92 m/d and DTW-13 (Hakim Chowk) is 3.29
BPKMCH/DTW-8 -43.4 l/s, whereas 35 l/s discharge m/d.
rate is found at Rambag (DTW-10).
Specific Capacity
Deep tubewells and piezometric surface The specific capacity of deep tubewell ranges
Deep wells are used to exploit the groundwater from 1519.54 m3/day/m at Kalyanpur/DTW-4 to
from deep confined aquifer. The depth of the deep 24.90 m3/day/m at Coca Cola Factory. Relatively
tubewells ranges from 40 m at Gondrang area to 120 greater specific capacity values are observed at ADPJ
m at DWSS office at Bhojad near East-West highway. Tubewells.
In the study area, the piezometric head ranges from
1.45 m at Gondrang area/DTW-14 to 22 m at Flow Tendency
Lanku/DTW-3. With reference to the mean sea level, Water table contour maps for different seasons
piezometric surface varies from 153 m at to 210 m have been prepared to predict flow tendency. The
at These tubeless tap variable thickness of granular piezometric surface map shows that flow direction
zones (sand mixed with gravels), ranging from 18 to is mainly towards west to the Narayani River and
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 Hydrogeologic assessment and groundwater reserve evaluation in northwestern parts of Dun valley aquifers of Chitwan, inner Terai

south-east to the Kerungha ghol a depressed land in June to October water level rises and reaches
eastern part. Map imageries show several parallel maximum during July–October. In dry season with
depressions of the Narayani River could be part of minimum rainfall water level gradually decreases
of an abandoned channel. Remnants of the past river and reaches minimum during April-May.
courses are observed at Gitanagar known as Gitanagar Contour map of static water level measured in
ghol. Another depression begins at Lonku Tandi and post-monsoon has shown that there is a ground water
continues upto Sukranagar and the Rapti River. There discharge areas in the southeastern part of the study
is a distinct depression close to the western end of area. Groundwater flow is locally confined in the
the Barandabhar forest. All these abandoned channels basin/ trench and the flow eventually follows
show that these could serve as excellent aquifers. southwest (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8). At the central part of
the area, around Narayanpur-Krishnapur area water
Water level fluctuation in the study area is directly
level contours are relatively closely spaced. Similarly
related to the rainfall or seasonal variation and return southeast corner of the area shows widely spaced
flow from irrigation, seepage from streams and canals. contours revealing flatter area. The rest of the area
With maximum rainfall at four months of the year shows water level contours, which are more or less

Fig. 7 Water Level Contour Map of Dugwells (m b.g.l.) in Pre-Monsoon (April–May) 2008

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 R. Neupane and S.D. Shrestha / Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 12, 2009, pp. 43–54

parallel and equally spaced showing moderate gradient associated with the Narayani River and the other
throughout the year. flow-system is associated with watershed of the
southwest corner or the Kerunga River. In both flow-
There occurs a groundwater mound in the
systems, groundwater initially moves from
Sharadpur area in eastern part below the East-west
topographically high areas towards the valley axis.
highway and groundwater flows to the east and finally
The lower reaches of Kerunga ghol are perennial due
south in this area. Similarly, a ground water mound
to base flow.
of water table occurs in the parallel alignment of the
Narayani Canal in Yangyapuri-Narayanpur-Tiger In this area recharge areas are located in
Chowk-Gulafbag area. Water level contours show topographically high areas and discharge areas are
that ground water movement follows topography located in topographically low areas. The Narayani
from higher level to the lower level. A ground water River and Kerunga ghol are represented as the valley
mound in the center of the study area, from which bottoms of concentrated groundwater discharge into
ground water flows in the eastern and western streams, with the streamlines converging to them.
directions or in opposite direction, also occur. This Two recharge areas exist following two topographic
groundwater divide splits the study area into two relieves on either sides. The Piezometric surface maps
groundwater flow systems. One flow-system is of Pre-monsoon and Post-monsoon in the area show

Fig. 8 Piezometric Contour Map of Dugwells (m a.m.s.l.) in Post-Monsoon (August-September), 2008

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 Hydrogeologic assessment and groundwater reserve evaluation in northwestern parts of Dun valley aquifers of Chitwan, inner Terai

Table 2: Storage, recharge and discharge estimates of groundwater in the study area

Item Storage Recharge Discharge

per year per year

Volume of water 87.10 MCM its 15%

(static reserve) = 13.10 MCM

Recharge by 3 methods

1. Duba’s estimate 48.6 MCM

2. Conservative estimate(with 10% of rainfall) 15.67 MCM

3. Calculation considering effective porosity

23.47 MCM
and fluctuation of water table

Evapotranspiration (Calculated PET value at

6.52 MCM
Rampur Station is 1.68 mm/day)

no ground water declining/over exploitation trend in CONCLUSIONS

the area. The flow of the Narayani River is perennial
The grain size of the alluvium gradually decreased
with increasing discharge towards south.
from north to south. The aquifers are multi layered
Ground water Recharge interconnected lenses of sand, gravel and pebble
alternating with silt and clay. Aquifer materials for
There is active recharge through highly permeable unconfined and semi-confined aquifers are generally
superficial alluvium to the shallow aquifer recharge sand, gravel, pebble and even cobble and boulder.
input is direct from rainfall and from riverbed
infiltration. The infiltration rate gradually decreases Estimation of total groundwater storage in the
towards south. The total recharge inflow in the study area on both confined and unconfined condition is
area can be conceptualised as having several sources: 87.31 MCM per year and potential recharge calculated
a) precipitation b) irrigation return flow and c) seepage by applying Duba’s estimation is 48.60 MCM per
beneath standing surface water bodies (lakes, ponds year. As annual recharge by precipitation exceeds
and losing reaches of streams) or inflow from rivers. rate of evapotranspiration in the valley area there
However during the wet season, after a period when could be ample scope for groundwater utilization.
the aquifers become completely replenished (aquifer Based on flow lines, the ground water flows
full conditions), any further potential recharge is
mainly towards the Narayani River and southeast
rejected. This contributes to extensive flooding. Heavy
area both in pre-monsoon an post-monsoon seasons.
rainfalls during the monsoon period together with
The study area has good potential for both shallow
snow melt from the Himalayas cause extensive
and deep aquifers. But shallow aquifers are confined
flooding in the area.
to the southeastern part.
The groundwater recharge is mainly due to rainfall
and is the main source. Besides this, the overland Deep aquifers are recharged by inflow of the
flow from the surrounding hills and mountains are Narayani River and shallow aquifers may be recharged
the additional sources of direct and indirect recharge. in the lower reaches of the valley. It may not be
The recharge zone lies mostly along the northern side possible to recharge the terraces of study area because
of the study area. Around Ramnagar and Devghat present bed level of the Narayani River is 179 m
area, 10 to 15 m thick gravel deposit is exposed. This a.m.s.l., whereas these terraces are in higher elevation,
older permeable formation acts as a recharge zone. i.e., 210 m a.m.s.l..

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 R. Neupane and S.D. Shrestha / Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 12, 2009, pp. 43–54

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