Introduction to the engineering analysis

The entire products of world are divided into two categories namely engineering products and
non-engineering products. Except food grains and some medical materials, all other materials are
considered as engineering products. These engineering products must be inspected before they have
been brought into use for the safety of both human and products. Depending on size and shape of the
products, they are subjected to simple inspection or vigorous inspection which may include some
theoretical analysis also. The analysis is mostly adopted for machineries and building structures
before and after assembling their parts in order to know about

 The location for loading

 Stress development
 Deflection produced
 Vibration occurrence
 Pressure, temperature variation
 Any other failure like crack formation and mostly for human safety.

Methods of engineering analysis

There are 3 methods are usually adopted for analysing engineering products.

They are,

1. Experimental methods
2. Analytical methods
3. Numerical methods

1. Experimental methods:
In these methods, the actual products or their prototype models will be really tested. To know
the strength of product, the proto model called specimen may be subjected to continuous force till
breakage. By this way, the strength of actual product will be correlated. Since this process requires
some material wastage, it is followed only if other analysing methods cannot be used.

2. Analytical methods:
These methods are theoretically analysing methods. Only simple and regular shaped products
like beams, columns, shafts, plates, cylinders etc., can be analysed by these methods. The products
and their loading are specified by mathematical and science theories and we may get exact solutions.

Page 1
3. Numerical methods:
For the products of completed sizes and shapes with complicated material
properties and boundary conditions, getting solution using analytical methods is highly
difficult.in such situation, the numerical method can be employed. By this method we
may get approximate but acceptable solutions. Usually 3 methods are considered as
numerical methods.
Which are
I. Functional approximation method
II. Finite element method
III. Finite difference method

I. Functional approximation method:-

To find the solution for the complex problem like non-linear and continuous systems, this
method can be used. The physical problems are first written in-terms of differential equations (or)
any possible mathematical expressions. By integrating and applying boundary conditions, an
approximate solution can be obtained by this method.

II. Finite element method:-

The finite element method is a numerical method in which the unknown function of the
problem domain is approximated by piecewise defined functions. That is, complex region defining
the domain is divided into smaller elements called finite elements. The physical properties like
shape, dimensions and other boundary conditions are imposed on the elements. Then these elements
are assembled in a proper way and the solution for the entire system can be revealed.

III. Finite difference method:-

The finite difference method approximates the derivatives in the governing differential
equation using difference equations. That is the FDM replaces the derivative terms in the differential
equation by the “Difference equivalents”. This method is useful for solving Heat transfer and Fluid
mechanics problems and also for two dimensional regions with boundaries parallel to the co-ordinate
axes. This method cannot be effectively used for regions having curved and irregular boundaries.

The need of Finite Element Analysis

When designing a component, many factors like type of loading, size and shape of the
component, purpose of usage, place of applications, environmental conditions, quantity required,

Page 2
appearance etc., are analysed by the design engineer. While dealing with the type of loading, the
resulting parameters like nature of stress, strain, displacement, vibration etc., must be carefully
considered. Also due to operating and surrounding temperatures, the parameters like heat transfer,
temperature distribution may also be analysed.

If the situation and other factors as mentioned above are simple, the analysis will be easy for
the entire component and the solution can be determined in one (or) two operations. At the same
time, if the surroundings and other things are complicated, the solution for such complex problem
cannot be determined so easily in one (or) two operations. Hence an alternative method called “Finite
element method”can be adopted.

Historical background of FEM

The finite element analysis can be traced back to the work by Alexander Hrennikoff (1941)
and Richard Courant (1942). Hrenikoff introduced the framework method, in which a plane elastic
medium was represented as collections of bars and beams. These pioneers share one essential
characteristic: mesh discretization of a continuous domain into a set of discrete sub-domains, usually
called elements.
a. In 1950s, solution of large number of simultaneous equations became possible because of the
digital computer.
b. In 1960, Ray W. Clough first published a paper using term “Finite Element Method”.
c. In 1965, First conference on “finite elements” was held.
d. In 1967, the first book on the “Finite Element Method” was published by Zienkiewicz and
Chung.
e. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the FEM was applied to a wide variety of engineering
problems.
f. In the 1970s, most commercial FEM software packages (ABAQUS, NASTRAN, ANSYS,
etc.) originated. Interactive FE programs on supercomputer lead to rapid growth of CAD
systems.
g. In the 1980s, algorithm on electromagnetic applications, fluid flow and thermal analysis were
developed with the use of FE program.
h. Engineers can evaluate ways to control the vibrations and extend the use of flexible,
deployable structures in space using FE and other methods in the 1990s. Trends to solve fully
coupled solution of fluid flows with structural interactions, bio-mechanics related problems
with a higher level of accuracy were observed in this decade.

Page 3
 With the development of finite element method, together with tremendous increases in
computing power and convenience, today it is possible to understand structural behaviour with levels
of accuracy. This was in fact the beyond of imagination before the computer age.

Applications of FEM
S.No Area of study Analysing problems
1 Civil engineering structures - Analysis of trusses, frames, folded plates, shell
roofs, bridges and pre-stressed concrete structures,
shear walls.
2 Aircraft structures - Analysis of aircraft wings, fins, rockets, space
craft and missile structures.
3 Mechanical design - Stress analysis of pressure vessels, pistons,
composite materials, linkages and gears.
4 Heat conduction - Temperature distribution in solids and fluids.
5 Electrical machines and - Analysis of synchronous and induction machines
Electro magnetics eddy current and core losses in electric machines.
6 Hydraulics and Water - Analysis of potential flows, free surface flows,
resources engineering viscous flows. Analysis of hydraulic structures
and dams
7 Nuclear engineering - Analysis of nuclear pressure vessels and
containment structures.
8 Geo-mechanics - Stress analysis in soils, dams, layered piles and
machine foundations.
9 Bio-medical engineering - Stress analysis of eyeballs, bones and teeth,
mechanics of heart valves.
Advantages of “FEM”

Using FEM, we are able to

• Model irregular shaped bodies quite easily.
• Handle general load condition without difficulty.
• Model bodies composed of several different materials because the element equations are
evaluated individually.
• Handle unlimited numbers and kinds of boundary conditions.
• Alter the finite element model easily and cheaply.

Page 4
• Include dynamic effects.
• Handle non-linear behaviour existing with large deformations and non-linear materials.
Dis-Advantages of “FEM”
• The finite element method is a time consuming process. i.e, it requires longer time for solving.
• In order to analyse many number of smaller elements, due to human fatigue, we have to depend
on computer package.
• The result obtained using FEM will be closer to exact solution only if the system is divided into
large number of smaller elements. Other-wise there may be a considerable variation from the
exact solution.
• If we are not having sound background in mathematics, especially in matrix, algebra,
differentiation and integration, then solving problems using FEM is highly difficult.
Limitations of FEM
• Proper engineering judgment is to be exercised to interpret results.
• It requires large computer memory and computational time to obtain intend results.
• There are certain categories of problems where other methods are more effective, e.g., fluid
problems having boundaries at infinity are better treated by the boundary element method.
• For some problems, there may be a considerable amount of input data. Errors may creep up in
their preparation and the results thus obtained may also appear to be acceptable which indicates
deceptive state of affairs. It is always desirable to make a visual check of the input data.
• In the FEM, many problems lead to round-off errors. Computer works with a limited number of
digits and solving the problem with restricted number of digits may not yield the desired degree
of accuracy or it may give total erroneous results in some cases. For many problems the increase
in the number of digits for the purpose of calculation improves the accuracy.

Role of computer and software packages for “FEM”

If the required component is simple in structure and made of one kind of material like power
transmitting shaft, then designing the component will easy. On the other hand, for the component of
complicated structure like crank shaft of IC engine, the designing will be somewhat difficult. The
designing process is also some kind of analysis to determine the dimensions of the component and
induced stresses. But with the help of conventional design process, finding deformations due to
applied load in all parts of the component will be very tedious and burdensome.
By using the computer, the analyst having defined the finite element model, inputs the
information like properties of elements, locations, applied loads, boundary conditions, etc., into the

Page 5
computer. The computer then uses this information to generate and solve the equations necessary to
carry out the analysis.
The following are the some popular software packages used in FEM are,
NASTRAN, ANSYA, ASKA, DYNA, ABAQUS, COSMOS, I-DEAS, ADINA, NISA,
PAFEC, SAP, PASSFEM, FEMID, ALGOR, MAT LAB ,etc.,

Stresses and equilibrium:

For analysis, the loads (or) stresses applied from many directions are resolved into three
directions of universal system of axes as X, Y and Z axes. When a body (or) structure, which is
subjected to different types of forces, is kept in stable condition (i.e, equilibrium state), the algebraic
sum of the forces in X, Y and Z directions must be zero. That is ∑ FX = 0, ∑ FY = 0 and ∑FZ = 0.
The same rule is applied for stresses also. i.e, the stresses ∑ σX = 0, ∑ σY = 0 and ∑σZ = 0.

Page 6
 Now consider a three dimensional body of volume ‘V’ and outer surface ‘S’ as shown in
above fig. In this body, the point load ‘Fi’, surface force ‘T’ has been applied. Some portion of the
body in the outer surface called boundary has been constrained, i.e, fixed.

Here,

V - volume of the body

S – surface

SI – constrained portion of surface

Fi – point load applied at the point ‘I’

T – traction (i.e, surface force)

δ – displacement

P1 – location of point P before loading

P1I – location of point P after loading

W – body force (i.e, weight)

dv – elementary volume

For correct analysis, the points, forces, displacements etc., must be specified in terms of
global axes system (i.e, X, Y and Z axes).

That is, point P must be specified as P(x,y,z)

Force F must be specified as F = (Fx,Fy,Fz)

Distributed force per unit volume as f = (fx,fy,fz)

Body force like weight W = (Wx,Wy,Wz)

Displacement δ = (u,v,w) where u,v,w are the displacements produced by δ in X, Y and Z

directions.

Consider any elementary volume dv, induced stress can be represented by its six independent
components as

σ = ( σx,σy,σz,τxy,τyz,τzx)

Page 7
Whereσx,σy,σzare normal stresses and

τxy,τyz,τzxare shear stresses.

The element of size dx X dy X dz. Face abcd may be called as negative face of x and the face
efgh as the negitive face of y and bfgc is positive face of y. Negative and positive face of z are dhgc
and aefb.

In a stressed body, the values of stresses change from face to face of an element. Hence on
positive face the various stresses acting are as shown in fig with superscript ‘+’.

All these forces are listed in table.

Page 8
 Note that stress on positive face is equal to the stress on negative face plus rate of change of
that stress multiplied by the distance between the faces.

Face Stress on –ve face Stresses on +ve face

𝜕𝜎𝑥
σx+ = σx + dx
σx 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦
x τxy τxy+ = τxy + dx
𝜕𝑥
τxz 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧
τxz+ = τxz + dx
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜎𝑦
σy+ = σx + dy
σy 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥
y τyx τyx+ = τyx + dy
𝜕𝑦
τyz 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧
τyz + = τyz + dy
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜎𝑧
σz+ = σz + dz
σz 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥
z τzx τzx+ = τzx + dz
𝜕𝑧
τzy 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦
τzy + = τzy + dz
𝜕𝑧

Let the intensity of body forces acting on the element in X, Y and Z directions be X, Y and Z
respectively

I. X.dx.dy.dz in X-direction
II. Y.dx.dy.dz in Y-direction
III. Z.dx.dy.dz in Z-direction

Equations of equilibrium

Considering all the forces acting, we can write equations of equlibrium for the element.

∑ FX = 0

σx+ .dy.dz - σx.dy.dz + τyx+.dx.dz - τyx.dx.dz + τzx+.dx.dy - τzx+.dx.dy + X.dx.dy.dz = 0

by substituting the σx+,τyx+ and τzx+ values in the above equation and simplifying then
dividing throught by “dx.dy.dz”, we get

∂σx ∂τxy ∂τxz

+ + +X=0
∂x ∂y ∂z

Page 9
 Similarly ∑ FY = 0 and ∑ FZ = 0 equilibrium conditions give,

∂τyx ∂σy ∂τyz

+ + +Y=0
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂τzx ∂τzy ∂zx

+ + +Z=0
∂x ∂y ∂z

And

Now, ∑ moments about X-axis = 0 through centroid of the element gives

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
τyz +.dx.dz. 2 + τyz.dx.dz. 2 − [τzy +.dx.dz. 2 + τzy.dx.dz. 2 ] =0

by substituting the τyz+ and τzy+ values in the above equation and neglecting the small
quantity of higher 4th order and dividing throught by ‘dx.dy.dz’, we get

τyz = τzy

Similarly the moment equilibrium conditions about Y-axis and Z-axis result into

τxz= τzxand τyx = τxy

Thus the stress vector is

[ σ ]T = [ σxσyσzτxyτyzτzx]

And the equations of equlibrium are

∂σx ∂τxy ∂τxz

+ + +X=0
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂τyx ∂σy ∂τyz

∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
+Y=0 and

∂τzx ∂τzy ∂zx

+ + +Z=0
∂x ∂y ∂z

And note that τyz = τzy, τxz= τzxand τyx = τxy.

Strains
Corresponding to the six stress components given equations, the state of strain at a point may
be divided into six strain components as follows

Page 10
Strain-Displacement Relations
Taking displacement components in X, Y and Z directions as u, v and w respectively, the
relations among components of strains and components of displacements are

Page 11
 and

The above equations are expressed upto the accuracy of second order. These equations may
be simplified to the first order the relations may give as

The above equations are used in small deflection theories. These are known as Von-Karman
strain displacement equation. The above equation can be expressed in a matrix form as given below.

Linear constitutive equations

The constitutive law expresses the relationship among stresses and strains. In theory of
elasticity, usually it is considered as linear. In one dimensional stress analysis, the linear constitutive
law is stress is directly proportional to strain and the constant of proportionality is called young’s

Page 12
modulus. It is very well known as Hooke’s law. The similar relation expressed among the six
components of stresses and strain is called “Generalized Hooke’s law”. This may stated as:

[σ] = [D] [ε]

Where D is 6 x 6 matrix of constants of elasticity to be determined by experimental

investigation for each materials. As D is symmetric matrix [Dij= Dji], there are 21 material
properties for linear elastic Anisotropic Materials.

Certain materials exhibit symmetry with respect to planes within the body. Such materials are
called Ortho tropic materials. Hence for orthotropic materials, the number of material constants
reduce to 9 as shown below:

Using the Young’s Modulii and Poisons ratio terms the above relation may be expressed as:

Page 13
 Note that there are 12 material properties in above equations. However only nine of these are
independent because the following relations exist

For Isotropic Materials the above set of equations are further simplified. An isotropic
material is the one that has same material property in all directions. In other word for isotropic
materials,

Hence for a three dimensional problem, the strain stress relation for isotropic material is,

Page 14
Plane stress problems
The thin plates subject to forces in their plane only, fall under this category of the problems. Fig.
shows atypical plane stress problem. In this, there is no force in the z-direction and no variation of
any forces in z-direction.

Hence
σz = τzx = τzy= 0

The conditions τzx = τzy= 0 give and the condition σz= 0 gives,

i.e,

Page 15
If this is substituted in the constitutive law reduces to

Plane strain problems

A long body subject to significant lateral forces but very little longitudinal forces falls under this
category of problems. Examples of such problems are pipes, long strip footings, retaining walls,
gravity dams; tunnels, etc. (refer Fig.). In these problems, except for a small distance at the ends,
state of stress is represented by any small longitudinal strip. The displacement in longitudinal
direction (z-direction) is zero in typical strip. Hence the strain components,

Page 16
i.e

,
Hence when applied to plane strains problems in the constitutive law reduces to

Axi-symmetric problems
Axi-symmetric structures are those which can be generated by rotating a line or curve about
an axis. Cylinders (refer Fig.) are the common examples of axisymmetric structures. If such
structures are subjected to axisymmetric loadings like uniform internal or external pressures, uniform
self-weight or live load uniform over the surface, there exist symmetry about any axis. The
advantage of symmetry may be made use to simplify the analysis. In these problems cylindrical
coordinates can be used advantageously. Because of symmetry, the stress components are
independent of the angular (θ) coordinate. Hence all derivatives with respect to θ vanish i.e. in these
cases.

Hence there are only four nonzero components. The strain displacement relations for these
components are

Page 17
In these cases stress-strain relation is

FEM vs FDM
1. FDM makes point wise approximation to the governing equations i.e. it ensures continuity
only at the node points. Continuity along the sides of grid lines is not ensured.
2. FEM make piecewise approximation i.e. it ensures the continuity at node points as well as
along the sides of the element.
3. FDM do not give the values at any point except at node points. It do not give any
approximating function to evaluate the basic values (deflections, in case of solid mechanics)
using the nodal values.
4. FEM can give the values at any point. However the values obtained at points other than nodes
are by using suitable interpolation formulae.
5. FDM makes stair type approximation to sloping and curved boundaries.
6. FEM can consider the sloping boundaries exactly. If curved elements are used, even the
curved boundaries can be handled exactly.
7. FDM needs larger number of nodes to get good results while FEM needs fewer nodes.
8. With FDM fairly complicated problems can be handled whereas FEM can handle all
complicated problems.

Comparison of FEM with other methods of analysis

1. In FEM method, the whole domain can be divided into number of smaller elements of
convenient sizes and shapes and behaviour of elements are analysed due to the applied load
and other boundary conditions and through these elements the properties of hole domain can

Page 18
 be decided where as in other methods , the entire system is analysed by taking it as a single
product.
2. Division of big sized and complicated system into smaller and simple shaped elements,
solving the problem became easy which cannot expect in other methods of analysis.
3. The main drawback of finite element method is, due to the information many number of
elements, the solution procedure will be lengthier and finding solution will require lot of
calculations which cannot be done manually and hence we have to depend on a computer for
solution.

Page 19