Continious Random Distribution

Chapter 5 Student Lecture Notes 5-1
Business Statistics:
A Decision-Making Approach
6th Edition
Chapter 5
Discrete and Continuous
Probability Distributions
Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-1
Chapter Goals
After completing this chapter, you should be
able to:
Apply the binomial distribution to applied problems
Compute probabilities for the Poisson and

hypergeometric distributions
Find probabilities using a normal distribution table
and apply the normal distribution to business
problems
Recognize when to apply the uniform and
exponential distributions
Probability Distributions
Probability
Distributions
Discrete Continuous
Probability Probability
Distributions Distributions
Binomial Normal
Poisson Uniform
Hypergeometric Exponential
Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Discrete Probability Distributions

A discrete random variable is a variable that
can assume only a countable number of values
Many possible outcomes:
number of complaints per day
number of TV’s in a household
number of rings before the phone is answered
Only two possible outcomes:
gender: male or female
defective: yes or no
spreads peanut butter first vs. spreads jelly first
Continuous Probability Distributions
A continuous random variable is a variable that

can assume any value on a continuum (can
assume an uncountable number of values)
thickness of an item
time required to complete a task
temperature of a solution
height, in inches
These can potentially take on any value,

depending only on the ability to measure
accurately.
The Binomial Distribution

Probability
Distributions
Discrete
Probability
Distributions
Binomial
Poisson
Hypergeometric

The Binomial Distribution
Characteristics of the Binomial Distribution:

A trial has only two possible outcomes – “success” or
“failure”
There is a fixed number, n, of identical trials
The trials of the experiment are independent of each
other
The probability of a success, p, remains constant from
trial to trial
If p represents the probability of a success, then
(1-p) = q is the probability of a failure
Binomial Distribution Settings
A manufacturing plant labels items as

either defective or acceptable
A firm bidding for a contract will either get
the contract or not
A marketing research firm receives survey
responses of “yes I will buy” or “no I will
not”
New job applicants either accept the offer
or reject it
Counting Rule for Combinations

A combination is an outcome of an experiment
where x objects are selected from a group of n
objects
n!
Cnx =
x! (n − x )!
where:
n! =n(n - 1)(n - 2) . . . (2)(1)
x! = x(x - 1)(x - 2) . . . (2)(1)
0! = 1 (by definition)

Binomial Distribution Formula
n! x −x
P(x) = p qn
x ! (n − x )!
P(x) = probability of x successes in n trials,

with probability of success p on each trial Example: Flip a coin four
times, let x = # heads:
x = number of ‘successes’ in sample,
n=4
(x = 0, 1, 2, ..., n)
p = probability of “success” per trial p = 0.5
q = probability of “failure” = (1 – p) q = (1 - .5) = .5
n = number of trials (sample size) x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
Binomial Distribution
The shape of the binomial distribution depends on the
values of p and n
Mean .6
P(X) n = 5 p = 0.1
.4
.2
Here, n = 5 and p = .1
0 X
0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) n = 5 p = 0.5
.6
.4
Here, n = 5 and p = .5 .2
0 X
0 1 2 3 4 5
Binomial Distribution
Characteristics
Mean
µ = E(x) = np
Variance and Standard Deviation
σ 2 = npq
σ = npq
Where n = sample size
p = probability of success
q = (1 – p) = probability of failure

Binomial Characteristics
Examples
µ = np = (5)(.1) = 0.5
Mean P(X) n = 5 p = 0.1
.6
.4
σ = npq = (5)(.1)(1 − .1) .2
= 0.6708 0 X
0 1 2 3 4 5
µ = np = (5)(.5) = 2.5 P(X) n = 5 p = 0.5

.6
.4
σ = npq = (5)(.5)(1 − .5) .2
= 1.118 0 X
0 1 2 3 4 5
Using Binomial Tables

n = 10
x p=.15 p=.20 p=.25 p=.30 p=.35 p=.40 p=.45 p=.50
0 0.1969 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010 10
1 0.3474 0.2684 0.1877 0.1211 0.0725 0.0403 0.0207 0.0098 9
2 0.2759 0.3020 0.2816 0.2335 0.1757 0.1209 0.0763 0.0439 8
3 0.1298 0.2013 0.2503 0.2668 0.2522 0.2150 0.1665 0.1172 7
4 0.0401 0.0881 0.1460 0.2001 0.2377 0.2508 0.2384 0.2051 6
5 0.0085 0.0264 0.0584 0.1029 0.1536 0.2007 0.2340 0.2461 5
6 0.0012 0.0055 0.0162 0.0368 0.0689 0.1115 0.1596 0.2051 4
7 0.0001 0.0008 0.0031 0.0090 0.0212 0.0425 0.0746 0.1172 3
8 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0014 0.0043 0.0106 0.0229 0.0439 2
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0016 0.0042 0.0098 1
10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0010 0
p=.85 p=.80 p=.75 p=.70 p=.65 p=.60 p=.55 p=.50 x
Examples:
n = 10, p = .35, x = 3: P(x = 3|n =10, p = .35) = .2522
n = 10, p = .75, x = 2: P(x = 2|n =10, p = .75) = .0004
Using PHStat
Select PHStat / Probability & Prob. Distributions / Binomial…

Using PHStat
Enter desired values in dialog box
Here: n = 10
p = .35
Output for x = 0
to x = 10 will be
generated by PHStat
Optional check boxes

for additional output
PHStat Output
P(x = 3 | n = 10, p = .35) = .2522
P(x > 5 | n = 10, p = .35) = .0949
The Poisson Distribution

Probability
Distributions
Discrete
Probability
Distributions
Binomial
Poisson
Hypergeometric

The Poisson Distribution
Characteristics of the Poisson Distribution:

The outcomes of interest are rare relative to the
possible outcomes
The average number of outcomes of interest per time
or space interval is λ
The number of outcomes of interest are random, and
the occurrence of one outcome does not influence the
chances of another outcome of interest
The probability of that an outcome of interest occurs
in a given segment is the same for all segments
Poisson Distribution Formula
( λ t ) x e − λt
P( x ) =
x!
where:
t = size of the segment of interest
x = number of successes in segment of interest
λ = expected number of successes in a segment of unit size
e = base of the natural logarithm system (2.71828...)
Poisson Distribution
Characteristics
Mean
µ = λt
Variance and Standard Deviation
σ 2 = λt
σ = λt
where λ = number of successes in a segment of unit size
t = the size of the segment of interest

Using Poisson Tables

λt
X 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
0 0.9048 0.8187 0.7408 0.6703 0.6065 0.5488 0.4966 0.4493 0.4066

1 0.0905 0.1637 0.2222 0.2681 0.3033 0.3293 0.3476 0.3595 0.3659
2 0.0045 0.0164 0.0333 0.0536 0.0758 0.0988 0.1217 0.1438 0.1647
3 0.0002 0.0011 0.0033 0.0072 0.0126 0.0198 0.0284 0.0383 0.0494
4 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0007 0.0016 0.0030 0.0050 0.0077 0.0111
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0004 0.0007 0.0012 0.0020
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Example: Find P(x = 2) if λ = .05 and t = 100
(λt )x e − λt (0.50)2 e −0.50

P( x = 2) = = = .0758
x! 2!
Graph of Poisson Probabilities

0.70
Graphically: 0.60
λ = .05 and t = 100 0.50
λt = 0.40
P(x)
X 0.50
0.30
0 0.6065
0.20
1 0.3033
2 0.0758 0.10
3 0.0126 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 0.0016
5 0.0002 x
6 0.0000
P(x = 2) = .0758
7 0.0000
Poisson Distribution Shape
The shape of the Poisson Distribution

depends on the parameters λ and t:
λt = 0.50 λt = 3.0
0.70 0.25
0.60
0.20
0.50
0.15
0.40
P(x)
P(x)
0.30 0.10
0.20
0.05
0.10
0.00 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
x x

The Hypergeometric Distribution

Probability
Distributions
Discrete
Probability
Distributions
Binomial
Poisson
Hypergeometric
The Hypergeometric Distribution
“n” trials in a sample taken from a finite

population of size N
Sample taken without replacement
Trials are dependent
Concerned with finding the probability of “x”
successes in the sample where there are “X”
successes in the population
Hypergeometric Distribution
Formula
(Two possible outcomes per trial)
CNn−−xX . C xX
P( x ) =
CNn
Where
N = Population size
X = number of successes in the population
n = sample size
x = number of successes in the sample
n – x = number of failures in the sample

Formula
■ Example: 3 Light bulbs were selected from 10. Of the
10 there were 4 defective. What is the probability that 2
of the 3 selected are defective?
N = 10 n=3
X=4 x=2
CNn−−xX C xX C16 C24 (6)(6)

P(x = 2) = = = = 0.3
CNn C103 120
in PHStat
Select:
PHStat / Probability & Prob. Distributions / Hypergeometric …
in PHStat
(continued)
Complete dialog box entries and get output …
N = 10 n=3
X=4 x=2

P(x = 2) = 0.3 Chap 5-30

The Normal Distribution

Probability
Distributions
Continuous
Probability
Distributions
Normal
Uniform
Exponential
The Normal Distribution

‘Bell Shaped’
Symmetrical f(x)
Mean, Median and Mode
are Equal
Location is determined by the σ
mean, µ x
Spread is determined by the µ
standard deviation, σ
Mean
The random variable has an = Median
infinite theoretical range: = Mode
+ ∞ to − ∞
Many Normal Distributions
By varying the parameters µ and σ, we obtain

different normal distributions

The Normal Distribution Shape
f(x) Changing µ shifts the

distribution left or right.
Changing σ increases
or decreases the
σ spread.
µ x
Finding Normal Probabilities
Probability is the
Probability is measured by the area
area under the
curve! under the curve
f(x) P (a ≤ x ≤ b)
a b x
Probability as
Area Under the Curve
The total area under the curve is 1.0, and the curve is
symmetric, so half is above the mean, half is below
f(x) P( −∞ < x < µ) = 0.5 P(µ < x < ∞ ) = 0.5
0.5 0.5
µ x
P(−∞ < x < ∞) = 1.0

Empirical Rules
What can we say about the distribution of values

around the mean? There are some general rules:
f(x)
µ ± 1σ encloses about
68% of x’s
σ σ
x
µ−1σ µ µ+1σ
68.26%
The Empirical Rule

(continued)
µ ± 2σ covers about 95% of x’s

µ ± 3σ covers about 99.7% of x’s
2σ 2σ 3σ 3σ
µ x µ x
95.44% 99.72%
Importance of the Rule
If a value is about 2 or more standard

deviations away from the mean in a normal
distribution, then it is far from the mean
The chance that a value that far or farther

away from the mean is highly unlikely, given
that particular mean and standard deviation

The Standard Normal Distribution

Also known as the “z” distribution
Mean is defined to be 0
Standard Deviation is 1
f(z)
0 z
Values above the mean have positive z-values,

values below the mean have negative z-values
The Standard Normal
Any normal distribution (with any mean and

standard deviation combination) can be
transformed into the standard normal
distribution (z)
Need to transform x units into z units
Translation to the Standard

Normal Distribution
Translate from x to the standard normal (the

“z” distribution) by subtracting the mean of x
and dividing by its standard deviation:
x −µ
z=
σ

Example
If x is distributed normally with mean of 100

and standard deviation of 50, the z value for
x = 250 is
x − µ 250 − 100
z= = = 3.0
σ 50
This says that x = 250 is three standard
deviations (3 increments of 50 units) above
the mean of 100.
Comparing x and z units
µ = 100
σ = 50
100 250 x
0 3.0 z
Note that the distribution is the same, only the
scale has changed. We can express the problem in
original units (x) or in standardized units (z)
The Standard Normal Table
The Standard Normal table in the textbook

(Appendix D)
gives the probability from the mean (zero)
up to a desired value for z
.4772
Example:
P(0 < z < 2.00) = .4772
0 2.00 z

The Standard Normal Table

(continued)
The column gives the value of

z to the second decimal point
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 …
0.1
The row shows
the value of z 0.2
to the first . The value within the
.
decimal point . table gives the
2.0 .4772
probability from z = 0
up to the desired z
P(0 < z < 2.00)2.0
= .4772 value
General Procedure for

Finding Probabilities
To find P(a < x < b) when x is distributed

normally:
Draw the normal curve for the problem in

terms of x
Translate x-values to z-values
Use the Standard Normal Table
Z Table example
Suppose x is normal with mean 8.0 and
standard deviation 5.0. Find P(8 < x < 8.6)
Calculate z-values:
x −µ 8−8
z= = =0
σ 5
8 8.6 x
x − µ 8.6 − 8 0 0.12 Z
z= = = 0.12
σ 5 P(8 < x < 8.6)
= P(0 < z < 0.12)

Z Table example
(continued)
Suppose x is normal with mean 8.0 and
standard deviation 5.0. Find P(8 < x < 8.6)
µ=8 µ=0
σ=5 σ=1
8 8.6 x 0 0.12 z
P(8 < x < 8.6) P(0 < z < 0.12)
Solution: Finding P(0 < z < 0.12)
Standard Normal Probability P(8 < x < 8.6)

Table (Portion) = P(0 < z < 0.12)
z .00 .01 .02 .0478
0.0 .0000 .0040 .0080
0.1 .0398 .0438 .0478

0.2 .0793 .0832 .0871
Z
0.00
0.3 .1179 .1217 .1255
0.12
Suppose x is normal with mean 8.0

and standard deviation 5.0.
Now Find P(x < 8.6)
Z
8.0
8.6


(continued)

Now Find P(x < 8.6)
.5000 .0478
P(x < 8.6)
= P(z < 0.12)
= P(z < 0) + P(0 < z < 0.12)
= .5 + .0478 = .5478 Z
0.00
Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 0.12 Chap 5-52
Upper Tail Probabilities

Now Find P(x > 8.6)
Z
8.0
8.6
Upper Tail Probabilities

(continued)
Now Find P(x > 8.6)…

P(x > 8.6) = P(z > 0.12) = P(z > 0) - P(0 < z < 0.12)
= .5 - .0478 = .4522
.0478
.5000 .50 - .0478
= .4522
Z Z
0 0
0.12 0.12

Lower Tail Probabilities

Now Find P(7.4 < x < 8)
Z
8.0
7.4
Lower Tail Probabilities

(continued)
Now Find P(7.4 < x < 8)…
The Normal distribution is

symmetric, so we use the .0478
same table even if z-values
are negative:
P(7.4 < x < 8)
= P(-0.12 < z < 0)
Z
= .0478 8.0
7.4
Normal Probabilities in PHStat
We can use Excel and PHStat to quickly

generate probabilities for any normal
distribution
We will find P(8 < x < 8.6) when x is

normally distributed with mean 8 and
standard deviation 5

PHStat Dialogue Box
Select desired options

and enter values
PHStat Output
The Uniform Distribution

Probability
Distributions
Continuous
Probability
Distributions
Normal
Uniform
Exponential

The uniform distribution is a

probability distribution that has
equal probabilities for all possible
outcomes of the random variable

(continued)
The Continuous Uniform Distribution:
1
if a ≤ x ≤ b
b−a
f(x) =
0 otherwise
where
f(x) = value of the density function at any x value
a = lower limit of the interval
b = upper limit of the interval
Uniform Distribution
Example: Uniform Probability Distribution
Over the range 2 ≤ x ≤ 6:
1
f(x) = 6 - 2 = .25 for 2 ≤ x ≤ 6
f(x)
.25
2 6 x

The Exponential Distribution

Probability
Distributions
Continuous
Probability
Distributions
Normal
Uniform
Exponential
Used to measure the time that elapses

between two occurrences of an event (the
time between arrivals)
Examples:
Time between trucks arriving at an unloading
dock
Time between transactions at an ATM Machine
Time between phone calls to the main operator
The probability that an arrival time is equal to or

less than some specified time a is
P(0 ≤ x ≤ a) = 1 − e − λa
where 1/λ is the mean time between events
Note that if the number of occurrences per time period is Poisson

with mean λ, then the time between occurrences is exponential
with mean time 1/ λ

Exponential Distribution
(continued)
Shape of the exponential distribution
f(x)
λ = 3.0
(mean = .333)
λ = 1.0
(mean = 1.0)
λ= 0.5
(mean = 2.0)
Example
Example: Customers arrive at the claims counter at

the rate of 15 per hour (Poisson distributed). What
is the probability that the arrival time between
consecutive customers is less than five minutes?
Time between arrivals is exponentially distributed

with mean time between arrivals of 4 minutes (15
per 60 minutes, on average)
1/λ = 4.0, so λ = .25
P(x < 5) = 1 - e-λa = 1 – e-(.25)(5) = .7135
Chapter Summary
Reviewed key discrete distributions

binomial, poisson, hypergeometric
Reviewed key continuous distributions

normal, uniform, exponential
Found probabilities using formulas and tables

Recognized when to apply different distributions
Applied distributions to decision problems

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Chapter 5 Student Lecture Notes 5-1

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-1

 Compute probabilities for the Poisson and

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Discrete Probability Distributions

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-4

Continuous Probability Distributions

 A continuous random variable is a variable that

 These can potentially take on any value,

The Binomial Distribution

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

The Binomial Distribution

 Characteristics of the Binomial Distribution:

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-7

Binomial Distribution Settings

 A manufacturing plant labels items as

Counting Rule for Combinations

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-9

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Binomial Distribution Formula

P(x) = probability of x successes in n trials,

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-10

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

µ = np = (5)(.5) = 2.5 P(X) n = 5 p = 0.5

Using Binomial Tables

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-15

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Optional check boxes

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-16

P(x = 3 | n = 10, p = .35) = .2522

P(x > 5 | n = 10, p = .35) = .0949

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-17

The Poisson Distribution

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

The Poisson Distribution

 Characteristics of the Poisson Distribution:

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-19

Poisson Distribution Formula

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-20

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-21

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Using Poisson Tables

X 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90

0 0.9048 0.8187 0.7408 0.6703 0.6065 0.5488 0.4966 0.4493 0.4066

Example: Find P(x = 2) if λ = .05 and t = 100

(λt )x e − λt (0.50)2 e −0.50

Graph of Poisson Probabilities

λ = .05 and t = 100 0.50

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-23

Poisson Distribution Shape

 The shape of the Poisson Distribution

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-24

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

The Hypergeometric Distribution

The Hypergeometric Distribution

 “n” trials in a sample taken from a finite

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-26

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-27

Business Statistics: A Decision-Making Approach, 6e © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

CNn−−xX C xX C16 C24 (6)(6)

Compute probabilities for the Poisson and

A continuous random variable is a variable that

These can potentially take on any value,

Characteristics of the Binomial Distribution:

A manufacturing plant labels items as

Characteristics of the Poisson Distribution:

The shape of the Poisson Distribution

“n” trials in a sample taken from a finite

Complete dialog box entries and get output …

µ ± 2σ covers about 95% of x’s

If a value is about 2 or more standard

The chance that a value that far or farther

Any normal distribution (with any mean and

Need to transform x units into z units

Translate from x to the standard normal (the

If x is distributed normally with mean of 100

The Standard Normal table in the textbook

Draw the normal curve for the problem in

Translate x-values to z-values

Use the Standard Normal Table

Suppose x is normal with mean 8.0

Suppose x is normal with mean 8.0

Now Find P(x > 8.6)…