AGMA 917- B97

(Revision of
AGMA 370.01 (1973))

AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Design Manual for Parallel Shaft

Fine- Pitch Gearing
AGMA 917- B97

AGMA INFORMATION SHEET

(This Information Sheet is NOT an AGMA Standard)
 American Design Manual for Parallel Shaft Fine- Pitch Gearing
AGMA 917--B97
Gear
[Revision of AGMA 370.01 1973]
Manufacturers
CAUTION NOTICE: AGMA technical publications are subject to constant improvement,
Association
revision, or withdrawal as dictated by experience. Any person who refers to any AGMA
Technical Publication should be sure that the publication is the latest available from the
Association on the subject matter.
[Tables or other self--supporting sections may be quoted or extracted. Credit lines should
read: Extracted from AGMA 917--B97, Design Manual for Parallel Shaft Fine--Pitch
Gearing, with the permission of the publisher, the American Gear Manufacturers Associa-
tion, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314.]

Approved September 25, 1997

ABSTRACT
The rewritten Design Manual for Fine--Pitch Parallel Shaft Gearing is a cookbook style manual on how to design
fine--pitch spur and helical gears.
All work has been done with an eye towards computerization of the equations and the graphs.
In addition, the manual contains such specialized subjects as inspection, lubrication, gear load calculation
methods, materials, including a wide variety of plastics.

Published by

American Gear Manufacturers Association

1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314

Copyright  1997 by American Gear Manufacturers Association

Reprinted June 1999
All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic

retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 1--55589--694--4

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Contents
Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Definitions and symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4 Theory of involute gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5 Application considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6 Design synthesis and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7 Design for control of backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8 Gear drawings and specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9 Gear tooth tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10 Materials and heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
11 Manufacturing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
14 Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
15 Load rating and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Tables

1 Symbols, terms and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Profile shift coefficients for 20° profile angle spur gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Maximum outside diameter for minimum topland of 0.275/Pnd . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Figures

1 Basic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Principal reference planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Planes at a pitch point on a helical tooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Power transmission by two pulleys and a crossed belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Point on belt generates involute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6 Involute nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7 Involute action and speed ratio independent of center distance . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8 A series of small involute cams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9 Time = T1: Second pair of teeth just starting engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
10 Time = T2: First pair of teeth just leaving engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11 Time = T3: One pair of teeth in contact at pitch point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
12 Two involute curves showing differences in lengths of corresponding arcs . 12
13 Involute polar angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
14 Helix angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
15 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
16 Tooth pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
17 Principal pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
18 Base pitch relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Figures (continued)

19 Gear design flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

20 Preliminary design flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
21 Torque split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
22 Speed decreasing gear system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
23 Gear train with idler gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
24 External spur gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
25 Internal spur gear and external spur pinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
26 External helical gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
27 Spur pinion and face gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
28 Bevel gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
29 Crossed helical gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
30 Worm and wormgear set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
31 Spur rack and pinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
32 Contact ratio vs. center distance deviation for 20 degree profile angle gears 28
33 Gear tooth as a simple beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
34 Tooth load acting at inscribed parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
35 Shaft alignment deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
36 Standard pitch circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
37 Transverse pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
38 Line of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
39 Line of contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
40 Transverse backlash is arc PR -- arc PQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
41 Undercut teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
42 Effect of profile shift (addendum modification) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
43 Line of action for external gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
44 Line of action for internal gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
45 Showing angle at which load bears on tooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
46 Adjustable center distance gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
47 Spring loaded center distance gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
48 Adjustable split gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
49 Spring loaded split gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
50 Composite gearing with elastic element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
51 Tapered gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
52 Spring preloaded gearing (for limited rotation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
53 Dual path spring loaded gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
54 Contra--rotating input gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
55 Graphical representations of typical gear errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
56 Profile of 10 tooth, 20 DP, 20° PA gear tooth with undercut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Foreword
[The foreword, footnotes, and annexes, if any, in this document are provided for
informational purposes only and are not to be construed as a part of AGMA Information
Sheet 917--B97, Design Manual for Parallel Shaft Fine--Pitch Gearing.]
Although there is a great deal of information about parallel shaft fine--pitch gearing in the
literature, it is widely scattered and a considerable number of areas are not well covered. As
a result, this manual has been compiled to provide a central source of the best information
available on the design, manufacture and inspection of fine--pitch gearing.
This manual is a revision of 370.01, Design Manual for Fine Pitch Gearing, 1973. Additions
have been made to the design section to broaden the concepts of gear theory and the gear
design process. Omitted from this Manual are wormgears, bevel gearing and face gearing
which appeared in the original design manual. This information is available in other AGMA
Standards.
An important feature of this manual is the bibliography to which the user is referred for
additional data in each area.
Suggestions for improvement of this standard will be welcome. They should be sent to the
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria,
Virginia 22314.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

PERSONNEL of the AGMA Fine Pitch Gearing Committee

Chairman: D. E. Bailey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rochester Gear, Inc.

Editor: D. Castor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eastman Kodak Company

ACTIVE MEMBERS

M.K. Anwar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allied Devices Corporation

P. Dean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retired
F. R. Estabrook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retired
I. Laskin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consultant
D.A. McCarroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Gleason Works
K. Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eastman Kodak Company
D.Seger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perry Technology Corporation
L.J. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Invincible Gear Company
R.E. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R.E. Smith & Company, Inc.
S. Sundaresan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eastman Kodak Company
M. Weiby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bison Gear & Engineering Co.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS

A.F.H. Basstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crown Gear b.v.

D. Gimpert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Koepfer America Ltd.
K. Gitchel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Universal Tech. Systems, Inc. (Deceased)
G.P. Lamb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lamb & Lamb
J.R. Mihelick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rockwell Automation/Dodge
G.E. Olson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olson Engineering Services
C. Sanderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Koepfer America Ltd.
D.H. Senkfor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precision Gear Company
M. Shebelski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boeing Precision Gear, Inc.
A. Sijtstra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crown Gear b.v.
Y. Tseytlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Esterline Federal Products Corp.
F.C. Uherek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flender Corporation
A. Ulrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UFE, Inc.
F.M. Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forest City Gear Company

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

American Gear Manufacturers 1.2 Design information

Association -- Information of the following subjects is supplied as

required by the design procedure:

Design Manual for -- Analysis of tooth proportions and meshing

conditions;

Parallel Shaft Fine--Pitch -- Inspection;

-- Gear tooth tolerances;
Gearing -- Gear blank design.
1.3 Additional design related material

The following background and supplementary

information is also supplied:
1 Scope
-- Manufacturing methods;

This manual provides guidance for the design of -- Gear material and heat treatment;
fine--pitch gearing of the following types: -- Lubrication;
-- Diametral pitch from 20 to 120; -- Bearings.
-- Spur and helical (parallel axis); 1.4 Annexes
-- External, internal and rack forms.
Annex A is a bibliography.
The guidance consists of the following:
1.5 Limitations
-- Description of a design procedure in a series
of steps; The information in this manual is meant to serve
only as a guide to the designer of fine--pitch gears. It
-- Design information -- data values, equations is not intended that it be the procedure which must
and recommended practices; be followed in the design of such gears, nor is it
-- Additional design related material. implied that using the procedures and data will
necessarily result in gears that will meet the
The English system of units is used in this manual.
requirements in every application. It remains the
1.1 Design procedure responsibility of the individual designer to properly
evaluate the conditions in the particular application
The description of the design procedure covers the and to make use of prior experience or proper
following: testing to confirm the suitability of the design.
-- Establishing proportions of the gears; 1.6 Tooth form (spur and helical gearing,
-- Selecting detailed gear data; internal and external)
-- Confirming suitability of the tentative design; The tooth form of the spur and helical gearing
-- Controlling backlash; considered in this manual is involute. Unless
specifically noted, all external spur and helical
-- Meeting contact ratio and other gear mesh designs resulting from the procedures discussed in
requirements;
this manual will be conjugate with standard basic
-- Specifying gear dimensions and tolerances. racks. See ANSI/AGMA 1003--G93.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

2 References ANSI/ASME Y14.6--1978 (R1993), Screw Thread

Representation, Engineering Drawing and Related
Documentation Practice (reaffirmation and
The following documents contain provisions which, redesignation of ANSI/ASME Y14.6--1978).
through reference in this text, constitute provisions
of the manual. At the time of publication, the
editions were valid. All publications are subject to
3 Definitions and symbols
revision, and the users of this manual are encour-
aged to investigate the possibility of applying the
most recent editions of the publications listed: 3.1 Definitions

AGMA 203.03, Fine--Pitch On--Center Face Gears The terms used, wherever applicable, conform to
for 20--Degree Involute Spur Pinions. ANSI/AGMA 1012--F90.
AGMA 900--F96, Style Manual for the Preparation 3.2 Symbols and terms
of Standards, Information Sheets and Editorial
Manuals. The symbols and terms used throughout this
manual are in basic agreement with the symbols
AGMA 906--A94, Gear Tooth Surface Texture with and terms given in AGMA Information Sheet
Functional Considerations. 900--F96, Style Manual for the Preparation of
AGMA 908--B89, Geometry Factors for Determin- Standards and ANSI/AGMA Standard 1012--F90,
ing the Pitting Resistance and Bending Strength of Gear Nomenclature, Definitions of Terms with
Spur, Helical and Herringbone Gear Teeth. Symbols. In all cases, the first time that each
AGMA 910--C90, Formats for Fine--Pitch Gear symbol is introduced, it is defined and discussed in
Specification Data. detail.
NOTE: The symbols and definitions used in this stan-
ANSI/AGMA 110.04, Nomenclature of Gear Tooth
dard may differ from other AGMA standards. The user
Failure Modes.
should not assume that familiar symbols can be used
ANSI/AGMA 1003--G93, Tooth Proportions for without a careful study of their definitions.
Fine--Pitch Spur and Helical Gearing. Throughout this manual, the term pinion refers to
ANSI/AGMA 1012--F90, Gear Nomenclature, the member of the meshing pair with the smaller
Definitions of Terms with Symbols. number of teeth without regard to which member is
driving. The term gear, as part of a meshing pair,
ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88, Gear Classification and
refers to the member with the larger number of
Inspection Handbook.
teeth.
ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95, Fundamental Rating Fac-
In order to avoid confusion and to achieve consis-
tors and Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and
Helical Gear Teeth. tency, any symbol that is applicable to a specific
member, pinion or gear, is given the subscript P for
ANSI/AGMA 2002--B88, Tooth Thickness Specifi- pinion and subscript G for gear. The subscript n is
cation and Measurement. used to distinguish the normal plane from the
ANSI/AGMA 2004--B89, Gear Materials and Heat transverse plane. The subscript t is used to
Treatment Manual. distinguish the transverse plane in those situations
when confusion with the normal plane might occur.
ANSI/AGMA 2005--B88, Design Manual for Bevel
Any symbol not specifically designated by a sub-
Gears.
script n is assumed to be in the transverse plane.
ANSI/AGMA 6034--B92, Practice for Enclosed The subscripts p, i, b and o represent the terms at
Cylindrical Wormgear Speed Reducers and the operating diameter, inside diameter, base
Gearmotors. diameter and outside diameter respectively.
ANSI/AGMA 9005--D94, Industrial Gear The symbols and terms, along with the clause
Lubrication.
numbers where they are first discussed, are listed in
ANSI/ASME B46.1--1985, Surface Texture. alphabetical order by symbol in table 1.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Table 1 -- Symbols, terms and units

Symbol Terms Units Reference
ah Addendum of the cutter inches 6.8.1
B Transverse backlash (backlash in the transverse plane) inches 6.3.9.1
Bb Backlash along the line of action inches 6.3.9.3
Bc Transverse backlash due to change in center distance inches 6.3.9.1
BhT Minimum backlash for spur gears inches 7.2.1
Bn Normal backlash (backlash in the normal plane) inches 6.3.9.2
BnhT Minimum backlash for helical gears inches 7.2.1
C Operating center distance inches 6.3.1
Cn Nominal center distance inches 6.5.1
Cs Standard center distance inches 6.2.8
cG Clearance at the root of the gear inches 6.8.2
cmin Minimum clearance at the root inches 6.8.2
cP Clearance at the root of the pinion inches 6.8.2
DbG Base diameter of the gear inches 6.2.4
DbP Base diameter of the pinion inches 6.2.4
DG Standard pitch diameter of the gear inches 6.2.2
DiG Inside diameter of the gear inches 6.5.2
DoG Outside diameter of the gear inches 6.5.2
DoP Outside diameter of the pinion inches 6.5.2
DP Standard pitch diameter of the pinion inches 6.2.2
DrG Root diameter of the gear inches 6.8.1
DrP Root diameter of the pinion inches 6.8.1
dG Operating pitch diameter of the gear inches 6.3.5
dP Operating pitch diameter of the pinion inches 6.3.5
EG Young’s modulus of the gear psi 6.9.6
EP Young’s modulus of the pinion psi 6.9.6
eaG Roll angle at the start of active profile for the gear degrees 6.7.3
eaP Roll angle at the start of active profile for the pinion degrees 6.7.3
F Face width inches 6.9.5
J Geometry factor 6.9.5
Kv Dynamic factor 6.9.5
La Length of approach inches 6.7.4
Lr Length of recess inches 6.7.4
mF Face contact ratio 6.7.7
mG Gear ratio 5.3.2
mp Transverse contact ratio 6.7.6.1
N Number of teeth 5.5.1
NG Number of teeth on the gear 5.5.1
NP Number of teeth on the pinion 5.5.1
Pd Transverse diametral pitch 1/inch 6.2.1
Pnd Normal diametral pitch 1/inch 4.3
pbn Normal base pitch 1/inch 4.2.7
pb Transverse base pitch 1/inch 6.2.6
(continued)

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Table 1 (continued)
Symbol Terms Units Reference
pt Transverse circular pitch 1/inch 6.2.5
Q AGMA quality number (5 to 15) 9.3
RaG Radius at the start of active profile of the gear inches 6.7.1
RaP Radius at the start of active profile of the pinion inches 6.7.1
RbG Base radius of the gear inches 6.2.4
RbP Base radius of the pinion inches 6.2.4
RG Standard pitch radius of the gear inches 6.2.2
RiG Inside radius of the gear inches 6.5.2
RoG Outside radius of the gear inches 6.5.2
RoP Outside radius of the pinion inches 6.5.2
RP Standard pitch radius of the pinion inches 6.2.2
RrG Root radius of the gear inches 6.8.1
RrP Root radius of the pinion inches 6.8.1
T Torque lb--inch 6.9.2
tnG Normal circular tooth thickness at the standard pitch diameter of the inches 6.6.2
gear
tnP Normal circular tooth thickness at the standard pitch diameter of the inches 6.6.2
pinion
tinG Normal circular tooth thickness at the inside diameter of the gear inches 6.6.5
titG Transverse circular tooth thickness at the inside diameter of the gear inches 6.6.5
tonG Normal circular tooth thickness at the outside diameter of the gear inches 6.6.5
tonP Normal circular tooth thickness at the outside diameter of the pinion inches 6.6.5
totG Transverse circular tooth thickness at the outside diameter of the inches 6.6.5
gear
totP Transverse circular tooth thickness at the outside diameter of the inches 6.6.5
pinion
tpnG Normal circular tooth thickness at the operating pitch diameter of the inches 6.6.4
gear
tpnP Normal circular tooth thickness at the operating pitch diameter of the inches 6.6.4
pinion
tptG Transverse circular tooth thickness at the operating pitch diameter of inches 6.6.4
the gear
tptP Transverse circular tooth thickness at the operating pitch diameter of inches 6.6.4
the pinion
ttG Transverse circular tooth thickness at the standard pitch diameter of inches 6.6.3
the gear
ttP Transverse circular tooth thickness at the standard pitch diameter of inches 6.6.3
the pinion
Vcq Total composite variation inches 6.6.6
Wa Axial load (thrust load) lbs 6.9.3
Wn Normal load lbs 6.9.1
Wr Radial load lbs 6.9.4
Wt Tangential load lbs 6.9.2
X+min Minimum required amount of profile shift coefficient 6.4.4.3
X - max Maximum allowable amount of negative profile shift coefficient 6.4.4.4
XG Profile shift coefficient of the gear 6.4.4
(continued)

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Table 1 (concluded)
Symbol Terms Units Reference
XP Profile shift coefficient of the pinion 6.4.4
θ Involute polar angle radians 4.1.11
∆C Change in center distance inches 6.3.9.1
∆snG Tooth thinning coefficient of the gear 6.6.1
∆snP Tooth thinning coefficient of the pinion 6.6.1
∆t Change in tooth thickness due to total composite variation inches 6.6.6
νG Poisson’s ratio of the gear 6.9.6
νP Poisson’s ratio of the pinion 6.9.6
ÔinG Normal pressure angle at the inside diameter of the gear degrees 6.5.5
ÔitG Transverse pressure angle at the inside diameter of the gear degrees 6.5.5
Ôn Normal standard pressure angle degrees 6.2.3.2
ÔonG Normal pressure angle at the outside diameter of the gear degrees 6.5.5
ÔonP Normal pressure angle at the outside diameter of the pinion degrees 6.5.5
ÔotG Transverse pressure angle at the outside diameter of the gear degrees 6.5.5
ÔotP Transverse pressure angle at the outside diameter of the pinion degrees 6.5.5
Ôpn Normal operating pressure angle degrees 6.3.8
Ôpt Transverse operating pressure angle degrees 6.3.6
Ôt Transverse standard pressure angle degrees 6.2.3.3
π Constant, value = 3.1415927
σb Bending stress psi 6.9.5
σc Contact stress psi 6.9.6
ψ Helix angle degrees 4.1.9.2
ψb Base helix angle degrees 6.5.4
ψiG Helix angle at the inside diameter of the gear degrees 6.5.3
ψoG Helix angle at the outside diameter of the gear degrees 6.5.3
ψoP Helix angle at the outside diameter of the pinion degrees 6.5.3
ψp Operating helix angle degrees 6.3.7
HCR High contact ratio 6.7.6
LCR Low contact ratio 6.7.6
SAP Start of active profile (limit diameter) 6.7.1
TCT Total composite tolerance 8.4.5.1
TIF True involute form (form diameter) 6.4.3

4 Theory of involute gearing sions that are used to specify a gear as a machine
element.

Clause 4 presents basic background information

Clause 4 contains discussions of what an involute is which will lay the foundation for the reader to
and why it is the geometric shape of choice for gear proceed with the gear design. Other clauses of this
teeth. Simply put, involute gears transmit uniform design manual discuss the selection of gear
rotary motion from one shaft to another shaft. Gear parameters such as type of gearing to be used,
tooth flanks which transmit uniform rotary motion number of teeth, diametral pitch and gear ratio.
are said to be conjugate. Clause 4 also attempts to These parameters are the foundation blocks of a
bring together the geometric aspects of the involute gear design. Clause 6 explains how to complete the
gear with the more common mathematical expres- design, optimize and fully specify the gear system.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

4.1 Basic geometric considerations -- Center distance, operating. In parallel axis

gearing, the distance between the gear axes in
The following will clarify the concepts needed to the plane of rotation. See figure 1.
understand the many useful features and
characteristics of involute gearing. -- Gear ratio. The ratio of the rotational
speeds of the input and output shafts. See 5.3.2.
-- Axis. The axis, perpendicular to the plane of
-- Pitch point. A point on the line of centers
rotation, and lying in the axial plane, passing
which divides the center distance in the same
through the geometric center of the gear. See
proportion as the gear ratio. See 6.3.3.
figure 1.
-- Pitch line. A line lying in a plane of rotation
-- Plane of rotation. Any plane perpendicular
passing through the pitch point and
to a gear axis. Also known as a “transverse
perpendicular to the line of centers.
plane”. See figure 1.
-- Pitch plane. For a pair of gears, a plane per-
-- Gear center. The point of intersection of the
pendicular to the axial plane and tangent to the
gear axis and the plane of rotation. See figure 1.
pitch surfaces. A pitch plane in an individual gear
-- Line of centers. A line that connects the may be any plane tangent to its pitch surface.
centers of two meshing gears in the plane of The pitch plane of a rack or a crown gear is the
rotation. pitch surface. See figure 2.

Pitch circle
(operating)

Pinion axis
Pinion
center

Center
distance, C

Pitch point

Gear axis
Line of
centers
Gear
center

Axial plane
Pitch circle
(operating) 90°

Plane of rotation
(transverse plane)
Figure 1 -- Basic geometry

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

-- Axial plane. In a single gear, an axial plane pitch point, both will be tangent to each other and to
may be any plane containing the axis and a given the pitch line. These circles rolling on each other
point. See figure 2. without slipping will transmit uniform rotary motion
from one shaft to another.
Pitch plane In order to eliminate slipping of two pitch circles,
teeth may be placed on them. The purpose of this
clause is to acquaint the reader with the basic
fundamentals of geartooth interaction. The con-
cepts presented will demonstrate that when one
involute curve drives a mating involute curve, the
two curves touch at a point of contact. Moreover, all
contact takes place along a straight line called the
“line of action”.
Transverse It can also be shown that the force vector between
plane the teeth is in the direction of the line of action. The
Pitch
cylinder cylindrical nature of spur and helical gears has
fostered the notion that gears transmit force in a
Axial plane manner similar to friction disks, the teeth being
Figure 2 -- Principal reference planes present only to prevent slippage. This view of gear
tooth interaction has led to confusion for novice gear
designers. Actually gear teeth interact as two cam
-- Transverse plane. A plane perpendicular to surfaces, one driving the other. The interaction of
the axial plane and to the pitch plane. In gears the cams is accurately modeled as a pair of pulleys
with parallel axes, the transverse plane and the connected by a crossed belt.
plane of rotation coincide. See figure 3.
4.1.2 Crossed belt theory
As shown in figure 4, power and motion can be
Normal
plane Transverse transmitted from one shaft to another using two
planes pulleys and a crossed belt. (The belt is crossed to
give the same direction of rotation as meshing gears
Pitch
in the same application.) A point, P, on the belt
plane generates a curve in space as the pulleys rotate and
the belt moves. The pulley is shown in four selected
positions, 20 degrees apart. The curve generated
by the point on the belt is an involute. The involute
has several unique properties that have made it the
Line normal to
tooth surface in curve of choice for gear teeth.
normal plane Pitch point 4.1.3 Involute cams
Figure 3 -- Planes at a pitch point on a helical Figure 5 shows the resulting system if a point on the
tooth same belt is used to generate an involute starting
from the surface of the other pulley. The first useful
-- Normal plane. A normal plane is, in general, property of involute curves is that they transmit
normal to a tooth surface at a pitch point and uniform rotary motion. That is, if the input shaft
perpendicular to the pitch plane. See figure 3. rotates with uniform rotary motion, its involute curve
driving the involute of the output shaft, the output
4.1.1 Involute geartooth interaction
shaft will also turn with uniform rotary motion. The
If two circles are drawn, one about each of the gear relative speeds of the two shafts will be determined
centers and each with a radius from its center to the by the ratio of the diameters of the pulleys.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Pulley Pulley
C2 Belt pulled C2 Belt pulled
at this end at this end

Involute
P
P Involute

B1 B1
Rb Rb
C1 C1
Base circle disc Base circle disc

Time = T1 Time = T2

Pulley C2 Pulley C2
Belt pulled Belt pulled
at this end at this end
Involute Involute P
P

B1 B1
Rb Rb
C1 C1
Base circle disc Base circle disc
Time = T3 Time = T4
Figure 4 -- Power transmission by two pulleys and a crossed belt

4.1.4 Involute nomenclature

Pulley 1 Figure 6 shows the system being discussed after
(Pinion)
Rb1 Base circle disc 1 the line of centers, the operating pitch circles, and
the pitch line have been constructed. The point at
which the line of centers intersects the line of action
is the pitch point. The circles from which the
involutes emanate (represented by the pulleys) are
Involute 2
Involute 1 the base circles. The shape of an involute curve is
(Gear)
(Pinion) P dependent upon the diameter of its base circle.
Line of action The operating pitch circles have been drawn
(belt) centered on the pulley centers, passing through the
pitch point. Thus, they are tangent to one another at
the pitch point. The ratio of the diameters of the
operating pitch circles is the same as the ratio of the
Rb2
Base circle base circle diameters.
disc 2 The pitch line has been constructed perpendicular
to the line of centers, passing through the pitch
Pulley 2 point. The angle between the pitch line and the line
(Gear) of action is called the operating pressure angle.
Operating pressure angle, pressure angle and
profile angle will be discussed in more detail later in
Figure 5 -- Point on belt generates involute this information sheet. See 6.2.3.

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 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Pulley 1
Base circle 1
(Pinion)
Operating pitch
circle, dP
Operating pressure
angle, φpt Rb1 R b2 d
= G
R b1 dP
Pitch
point Involute 1
Pitch line (Pinion)
P

Involute Line of
2 (Gear) action (belt)

Line of
centers
Rb2
Operating pitch
circle, dG

Pulley 2
(Gear) Base circle 2

Figure 6 -- Involute nomenclature

Involute action is not dependent upon center accordingly. Changing the center distance of the
distance. Figure 7 shows the effect of changing system changes the diameters of the operating
center distance. The base circles and involutes are pitch circles; however, it does not alter their ratio.
the same in both examples. When the center Uniform rotary motion is still transmitted and the
distance is changed, the angle that the line of action speed ratio remains the ratio of the base circles.
(the belt) makes with the line of centers will change
Pinion Pinion
dP1 dP2

RbP RbP
Involute Involute
Ôpt1 (Pinion) Ôpt2 (Pinion)

P P
C1 C2
Involute Line of Involute Line of
(Gear) Action (Gear) Action
(Belt) (Belt)

RbG dG1 RbG dG2

R bG d d
= G1 = G2
RbP d P1 dP2
Gear Gear
Figure 7 -- Involute action and speed ratio independent of center distance

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

4.1.5 Involute gears leaving contact. Figure 11 shows the gears rotated
to a position where only one pair is in contact.
One large, single involute cam driving another
Contact ratio is discussed in 6.7.
single involute cam has functional limitations, such
as being limited to less than one revolution. Figure 8
demonstrates how multiple, smaller involute cams,
Time = T1
spaced evenly around the circumference of the
pulleys, may be used to transmit motion in a
continuous manner as the driver is rotated. These
multi--cammed machine elements are usually
referred to by a more common name ... involute
gears. Point of contact
(T1=T)
Base pitch
Pitch point
Involute 2 Line of centers
cam surfaces Point of contact
Line of action
(T1=T)

Base circle
Base circle Base circle

Direction of
force vector

Base circle Figure 9 -- Time = T1: Second pair of teeth

Involute 1
cam surfaces just starting engagement

Figure 8 -- A series of small involute cams

Not every pulley can be used as the basis for a gear. Time = T2
Certain criteria must be met. The circumference of
the base circle must be divisible into an integer
number of segments, so that an integer number of
teeth can be constructed around it. With very few
exceptions, gears contain integer numbers of teeth
Point of contact
in order to rotate continuously. This division of the (T2 = T)
circumference defines another useful gearing con-
Base pitch
cept. The length of each equal segment of the
circumference of the base circle is called the base Line of centers
pitch (see 4.2.6). Physically, the base pitch is the Pitch point
distance between successive teeth around the gear Point of cont
and along the line of action. Two involute gears will (T2 = T)
mesh together if they possess equal base pitches. Base circle

4.1.6 Contact ratio Base c

Figure 9 shows that the base pitch is the distance

along the line of action between successive involute Direction of
force vector
flanks. In figure 9, one pair of teeth is in contact and
the next pair is just beginning contact. Figure 10 Figure 10 -- Time = T2: First pair of teeth just
shows the gears rotated until the initial pair is just leaving engagement

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

theoretically vary as subsequent tooth pairs roll

Time = T3
through mesh. However, the loading on a given
tooth will vary depending on whether the load is
carried by a single pair or by multiple pairs. Later
discussion will show that the actual forces on the
flanks vary because of frictional effects due to the
Point of contact rolling and sliding nature of involute action.
(T2 = T) Base pitch
4.1.8 Rolling and sliding of involute gears

Line of centers Figure 12 shows two involute curves divided into

Pitch point corresponding lengths of arc which will pass
through mesh at the same time. Notice that the
length of the segment along an involute is short near
Base circle the base circle and gets progressively longer farther
out the involute. As two external involute teeth enter
Base circle mesh, contact is near the root of the tooth on the
driver and near the tip on the driven. The driver
involute section is much shorter than the driven, yet
Direction of
force vector both pass through mesh in the same amount of
time. There is relative sliding between the tooth
Figure 11 -- Time = T3: One pair of teeth in flanks.
contact at pitch point As the pair approach the pitch point, (in arc 12) the
lengths of their respective involute arcs approach
Contact ratio can be thought of as the average equality. Sliding is much less and at the pitch point
number of teeth in contact during one mesh cycle. It pure rolling exists. Near the end of a mesh cycle,
is very important to have a contact ratio greater than the situation is the reverse of the beginning, short
one, ensuring that a driving pair comes into mesh segments on the driven and long on the driver. The
before the previous pair leave mesh. If contact ratio result, however, is the same ---- significant relative
is less than one, the action between the gears is not sliding. Skilled gear designers attempt to minimize
occurring on involute flanks. Contact ratio less than the sliding in gear meshes in order to increase
one can result in non--uniform rotary motion being efficiency and prolong the life of the gears.
transmitted, noise and high stresses in the gears 4.1.9 Base pitch, diametral pitch and standard
and other components of the system. Contact ratio pitch diameter
is a key parameter in most gear designs and will be
In general, the spacing of the driving surfaces of the
discussed in depth in subsequent clauses (see
teeth on a gear is called the “pitch” (see 4.2). This
6.7.5).
spacing may be measured on any circle, but one
4.1.7 Properties of involute gear action selected must be specified. Prior to the introduction
of involute gearing, cog wheels, cycloidal and other
Figures 9, 10 and 11 show an involute gear pair in
tooth forms were used for clocks and machines.
mesh. The three positions shown demonstrate how
The nomenclature already in use for these early
the point of contact between the flanks of the gear
forms of gearing, terms such as pitch diameter and
teeth follows the straight line path of the line of
circular pitch, remained after involute gearing
action. It can be shown that the direction of the force
became more popular. Over time, the mathematics
vector between the two flanks is also in the direction
of the base pitch system of gear specification was
of the line of action.
almost completely replaced by the mathematically
This force is equal to and in the same direction as simpler “diametral pitch” system that is used today
the force that will be transmitted in the crossed belt in the United States. The nomenclature of the
that comprised the first model of the system. Note diametral pitch system contains many of the same
the transmitted torque in the system does not terms as the preinvolute systems, a fact that can

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

provide confusion for novice gear designers. The the following:

remainder of this design manual uses the diametral
π cosprofile angle
pitch system to design gears. The mathematical Diametral Pitch =
Base Pitch
link between the two methods (base pitch and
diametral pitch) that describes the involute gear is

Position of minimum sliding is the one shown here where arc 12 equals arc 12′. For rotation in either
direction, sliding action will increase until the contact point reaches the base circle.
Figure 12 -- Two involute curves showing differences in lengths of corresponding arcs

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

It is clear that both a diametral pitch and a profile diametral pitch system and demonstrate its use.
angle (see 4.1.9.1) must be specified in order to The user should always remember, despite numer-
determine a unique base pitch. ous references to circles and diameters, that
involute gears operate along a line of action, not
The prior discussion of involute theory has been around a circle!
based upon two dimensional geometries. The
4.1.9.1 Pressure angle, operating pressure
above expression is true for geometry in the
transverse plane (see figures 1 and 2). A spur gear angle and profile angle
is a two dimensional profile projected into the third Many terms in common usage possess multiple
dimension just as a circle is projected to create a meanings. Pressure angle is one of those terms.
cylinder. A helical gear (see 4.1.9.2) is a two
dimensional geometry that is rotated about its Figure 13 shows one usage of pressure angle, as a
center as it is projected, forming a gear in the shape variable angle related to an arbitrary point on an
of a spiral. With the concept of helical gears comes involute curve. The pressure angle in this case is
the concept of a normal plane, a plane perpendicu- different for each point on an involute curve. This
lar to the flanks of the involute teeth (see figure 3), meaning is useful only when describing the
that is not the same plane as the transverse plane. geometric aspects of a single involute gear tooth.
In spur gearing, the normal plane and the
transverse plane are the same. Normal diametral
Point
pitch is related to transverse diametral pitch by the P Involute
expression presented in 6.2.1.

In order to control the cost of gear cutting tooling, r

the industry standardized on the list of fine--pitch Pressure
normal diametral pitches that appears in 4.3 as well A angle
as a very few standard normal profile angles.
Normal diametral pitch hobs can be used to cut both
Polar θ
spur and helical gears simply and inexpensively. It angle
is important to understand that the design process Ô
that follows in this manual involves selecting a B
normal diametral pitch and normal profile angle,
usually based upon performance criteria. Usually rb
the specifications that appear on gear drawings
contain only parameters in the normal plane O
because they relate to the cutter used to make the
gear. However, the true gear action occurs in the Figure 13 -- Involute polar angle
transverse plane and therefore accurate analysis of
a gear design requires analysis of the motion in the Figure 6 illustrates that the term operating pressure
transverse plane. A thorough analysis clearly angle, Ôpt , is the angle between the line of action
contains the elements of the base pitch system that and perpendicular to the line connecting the centers
is the root of involute gearing as described in the of two meshed gears.
beginning of this manual.
Figure 7 demonstrates that the operating pressure
Dividing the number of teeth in the full circumfer- angle changes when the center distance changes
ence of a gear by its transverse diametral pitch for the same pair of base circles.
results in a quantity called the standard pitch
diameter (see 6.2.2). The standard pitch circle As was previously noted, a pressure angle must be
intersects the involute at the point where the normal specified in conjunction with a diametral pitch in
pressure angle is equal to the normal profile angle of order to uniquely specify the base pitch of an
the cutter used to generate the tooth (see 4.1.9.1). involute gear system. Confusion sometimes ac-
The tooth thickness (see 6.6) is generally specified companies this seemingly contradictory concept of
at the standard pitch diameter. The following a specified constant pressure angle that changes
clauses of this design manual will explain the with center distance.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

The AGMA has attempted to reduce the confusion profile. This is primarily because normal profile
by introducing the term profile angle to gearing dimensions correspond directly to the hob used to
nomenclature. In general, the profile angle is the manufacture the gear. However, during the design
angle between a line tangent to an involute gear of the gear, much attention is paid to the proportions
tooth at the point of intersection between the of the gear measured in the transverse plane. The
involute and the standard pitch diameter and a transverse plane is the plane perpendicular to the
radial line emanating from the center of the gear. axis of the gear.
This profile angle can be found elsewhere in gear
geometry. Referring again to figure 13, the profile
angle has the same magnitude as the pressure Helix
angle if the point on the involute is the intersection of
the standard pitch diameter and a radial line from Helix angle
Tooth
the center of the base circle. The profile angle at the Axis
standard pitch diameter has the same magnitude as
the flank angle of a rack type cutter used to make a
gear by the generating process. See Colbourne [1]
for a description of gear generating.
Figure 14 -- Helix angle
As was noted previously, a gear generating hob
specification must include both a diametral pitch
and a pressure angle. This usage of pressure angle Clause 6 presents the equations necessary to
is where employing the term profile angle is calculate gear parameters for both spur and helical
encouraged. Profile angle should be used to gears. It is clear from the equations presented that
describe individual gears, gears not in mesh. a spur gear is mathematically a helical gear with
Pressure angle should be used to describe the zero helix angle.
angle of the line of action when gears are in mesh. 4.1.10 The involute and the rack
The pressure angle is equal to the profile angle
A driving involute can also drive a rack. Note that as
when gears are operating in mesh on their standard
the diameter of a base circle grows, the curvature of
center distance. If they are mounted at a center
the involute described by it increases in radius. A
distance different from standard, then their operat-
rack may be considered a sector of a gear of infinite
ing pressure angle is numerically different from the
radius. Thus the rack teeth of the involute system of
profile angle to which they were manufactured.
gearing have straight line profile elements,
4.1.9.2 Helix angle and helical gears (straight--sided teeth). This has great advantages
in the manufacture of gears in that many of the types
A helical gear has the appearance of a spur gear of tools used to cut and finish gear teeth can employ
that has been twisted about its axis. In actual straight line elements. Some hobs, rack cutters and
manufacture, helical gears can be cut on hobbing grinding wheels are examples. Such straight--line
machines just as are spur gears. The same normal elements can be more accurately formed and
diametral pitch hobs are used. The hobbing inspected than can complex curves. A single hob
machine is set up with a specific feed rate in relation can be used to cut gears of any number of teeth, all
to the index ratio of the work spindle in order to cut of which will mesh properly with each other.
the desired spiral (see Townsend [5] for more
information on the hobbing process). 4.1.11 The involute function
Figure 13 shows the geometric features of the
The helix angle, ψ, of a helical gear is the angle
involute curve. Previous portions of clause 4
between the axis of the gear and the element of the
described the involute as the path of a point on a belt
flank that intersects the standard pitch cylinder, see
as it is transported around a pulley system. The
figure 14.
involute is also the curve produced, as a trace on a
Helical gears are normally specified by proportions fixed background, by a point (knot) in a taut string
measured in the plane normal to the gear tooth unwound from a circle. The circle is the base circle

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

of the involute, just as was the pulley in the previous 4.2.4 Normal circular pitch
visualization.
Normal circular pitch is the circular pitch in the
The equation of the involute function is: normal plane and also the length of arc along the
θ = inv Ô = tan Ô -- Ô ...(1) normal pitch helix between helical teeth. See figure
16.
where
4.2.5 Axial pitch
Ô is pressure angle at a given radius
measured in radians. Axial pitch is the linear pitch in an axial plane and in a
4.2 Pitch pitch surface. In helical gears, axial pitch has the
same value at all diameters. The term axial pitch is
Pitch is the distance between a point on one tooth preferred to the term linear pitch.
and the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth. It
is a dimension measured along a curve in the
transverse, normal or axial directions. The use of
the single word “pitch” without qualification may be
confusing, and for this reason specific designations
are preferred, e.g., transverse circular pitch, normal
Transverse
base pitch, axial pitch. See figure 15. circular pitch

Axial pitch
Pitch Axis
Normal
circular pitch

Circular pitch
Figure 16 -- Tooth pitches

4.2.6 Base pitch

Base pitch in an involute gear is the pitch on the

Figure 15 -- Pitch base circle or along the line of action. Correspond-
ing sides of involute gear teeth are parallel curves
and the base pitch is the constant and fundamental
4.2.1 Circular pitch distance between them along a common normal in a
Circular pitch is the arc distance along the pitch plane of rotation, (transverse plane). See figures 17
circle between corresponding profiles of adjacent and 18.
teeth. See figure 15.
4.2.2 Transverse circular pitch Base pitch

Transverse circular pitch is the circular pitch in the

transverse plane. See figure 16.
Circular pitch
4.2.3 Transverse operating circular pitch
Transverse operating circular pitch is the arc Base pitch
distance along the operating pitch circle between
Base circle
corresponding profiles of adjacent teeth. This
parameter is used to calculate backlash because Base tangent
backlash is defined on the operating pitch
diameters. Figure 17 -- Principal pitches

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

4.2.7 Normal base pitch and racks, have a basic tooth form which, when
cutting a gear on a generating machine, produces
Normal base pitch in an involute helical gear is the
involute gear teeth. Although a hob, for example,
base pitch in the normal plane. It is the normal
can generate gears having any desired number of
distance between parallel helical involute surfaces
teeth, it can only produce a single normal diametral
on the plane of action in the normal plane, and it is
pitch and normal profile angle. Since several tools
the length of arc on the normal base helix. It is a
may be needed to produce a job lot of gears, it is
constant distance in any helical involute gear. See
generally desirable to select a diametral pitch for
figure 18.
which most gear shops are likely to have tooling.
This may avoid the need to purchase special
Helical rack tooling. Thus the following have become recom-
Base
pitch mended normal diametral pitches, Pnd .
20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64, 72, 80, 96, 120
4.4 Center distance
The center distance, the distance between two gear
axes, is a basic dimension for meshing a pair of
gears. It is controlled by the frame (casing or gear
box) and the bearings that support the gears. Two
values are of particular interest: the minimum
Normal operating center distance which can occur when the
base pitch sum of all tolerances accumulates to the minimum
functional value, and the maximum operating
center distance which occurs when all tolerances
Axial base pitch act in the opposite sense. Items that comprise the
Figure 18 -- Base pitch relationships center distance tolerance in designs using rolling
element bearings include such factors as:
4.2.8 Axial base pitch -- The maximum and minimum bearing center
distances;
Axial base pitch is the base pitch of helical involute
tooth surfaces in an axial plane. See figure 18. -- The clearances between the outer races and
the bores;
4.3 Diametral pitch -- Outer race concentricity;
Diametral pitch is not a pitch in the same sense as -- Bearing internal clearance;
the preceding pitches. It represents the size of the -- Eccentricity of the inner race;
tooth. The larger the numeric value of the diametral
-- Concentricity between race journals and the
pitch, the smaller the size of the gear tooth.
gear bores;
Diametral pitch is related to circular pitch by the -- Clearance between inner races and shafts.
following:
A common error committed by the novice designer
Diametral pitch = π is to underestimate the buildup of tolerances and
Circular Pitch
the effect the resulting change in center distance
It is customary to discuss the size of a given gear in
has on the operation of gearing. This effect can be
terms of its diametral pitch rather than its circular
significant in fine--pitch gearing. For example, a
pitch.
total center distance tolerance of 0.010” may be
Many fine--pitch gears are produced by means of trivial in a system using 20 diametral pitch gearing
generating tooling. Even gears produced by and completely unacceptable in a system using 64
molding, casting or stamping are intended to have diametral pitch gears. Careful analysis and control
teeth which are the same as if they were generated. of center distance variation is imperative in fine--
Gear generating tools, such as hobs, shaper cutters pitch gear design.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

An outstanding advantage of the involute as a the designer to a set of gears that meet the load
profile shape is its ability to transmit uniform motion requirements (bending strength and surface
independently of center distance (see 4.1.1.). It is strength) and the contact ratio requirements of the
the only curve suitable for gearing that has this system. In the detailed design stage, the tooth
characteristic. This gives the designer great geometry is determined in order to optimize the gear
freedom in creating a spur or helical gear design. system for its application. The specific tooth
Center distance is generally categorized as stan- modifications will vary depending upon the type of
dard, enlarged or reduced. Enlarged and reduced gear system being designed. At this level of the
center distance designs are achieved by making design, it is helpful to consult an experienced gear
design adjustments to tooth proportions. See designer and/or the gear design references listed at
clause 6 for a detailed discussion of center distance. the end of this information sheet.
5.2 Limitations
The information in this design manual is meant to
5 Application considerations serve only as a guide to the designer of fine--pitch
gear systems. It is not implied that using the
5.1 Principal gear functions procedures will necessarily result in gears that will
meet the requirements in every application. It
Gears are used to transmit power and/or motion remains the responsibility of the individual designer
from one shaft to another. If their principal function to properly evaluate the conditions in the particular
is to transmit power, they are called power gears. If application and to make use of prior experience
their principal function is to transmit smooth motion, and/or proper testing to confirm the suitability of the
they are called smooth motion gears. If their design.
principal function requires minimal backlash, they 5.3 Design parameters
are called zero backlash gears. Since there are Gear design is a decidedly iterative process of
usually major differences in the basic requirements estimation, followed by calculation of gear parame-
of each of these systems, the design emphasis will ters, followed by analysis to assure no engineering
usually be different for each system. It is, however, rules have been violated. The initial estimate is
quite possible that each of these systems may have usually difficult for the novice gear designer. Flow
some design requirements that are common to charts (figures 19 and 20) attempt to provide insight
each other (example: must be quiet and have into the complexity of how to choose diametral
adequate load capacity). pitch, number of teeth, and number of stages in the
gear system.
A gear design flow chart is shown in figure 19. This
flowchart should help guide the designer through The designer must determine the external bound-
ary conditions before the type of gears (spur,
the various steps of the design process. It is not
helical, worm etc.) can be determined. This clause
intended to be a detailed road map for every gear
lists some of the external boundary conditions that
application, but rather a general overview of some
should be considered for gear applications. It is the
of the important things to consider when designing
responsibility of the designer to consider any other
gear systems. As shown in the flowchart, at the first boundary conditions that may be relevant to the
step of the design process the functional require- particular application.
ments of the system should be determined. This will
5.3.1 Loads
establish a “perspective” as one proceeds through
the rest of the steps. Many design decisions will To determine the loading conditions on the gear
have to be made as one proceeds through the system, consideration should be given to the
different phases of design. Realizing the functional following:
requirements of the system early will help in making -- The power rating of the prime mover, its
those decisions. After determining the type of gear overload potential, and the uniformity of its output
system that is required, one proceeds down through torque. The overload potential is especially
the column on the flowchart. The steps up to and important if there is a possibility of a lockup in the
including the preliminary design analysis help guide system which could cause the motor to stall.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

-- The output load requirement, including the -- Frequency of severe loading or stalling;
following: -- Inertia loads arising from acceleration or
-- Normal output load; deceleration of the complete system.
-- Peak loads and their duration;

Determine
functional
requirements
Design parameters
• Loads
• Space constraints
• Life requirements
• Speed ratio
• Operating environment

Preliminary
estimate of gears
• Number of teeth
• Diametral pitch
• Face width
• Helix angle
• Material/heat treat
• Quality class

Bending stress
Contact stress False
Pitting resistance Is analysis OK
Fatigue strength
Lubrication

True
Gear Assembly
• Mounting/alignment
• Housing strength/deflection
• Environment

Power gear Smooth motion Position control

systems gear systems gear systems

Detailed design Detailed design Detailed design

optimize considering: optimize considering: optimize considering:
• Minimum volume • Transmission error • Total angular backlash
• Fatigue strength • Contact ratio • Contact ratio
• Pitting resistance • Tooth modification • Transmission error
• Noise • Minimum volume • Tooth modification
• Cost • Fatigue strength • Minimum volume
• Noise • Fatigue strength
• Cost • Noise
• Cost

Gear specifications Gear specifications Gear specifications

• Data block • Data block • Data block
• Blank design • Blank design • Blank design

Figure 19 -- Gear design flowchart

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Determine gear train ratio Determine preliminary estimate of:

Given: from speed requirements
• Speed requirements • Number of teeth in pinion
• Center distance • Number of teeth in gear
• Assume 20 deg. profile angle • Diametral pitch
Add another stage to • Helix angle
at this stage the gear train if possible
• Torque requirement • Face width
Is stage ratio > 5 yes

no
Calculate operating pitch diameters
from center distance & gear ratio Refer to clause 6.3.5

Calculate tangential force from torque

and operating pitch diameter

Spur gears: assume geometry factor = 0.4

Helical gears: assume geometry factor = 0.45 Refer to clause 6.9.5

Preliminary estimate of material based on:

Duty cycle
Cost considerations
Lubrication requirements
Noise considerations

Determine failure criteria and the appropriate

mechanical properties based on application Refer to clause 5.3

If space constraints permit

F = 0.5 DP
can be used for a starting point

Spur gear: Helix angle = 0.0

Helical gear: Initial choice for helix angle = 15 -- 20 deg.

Pd min. (Coarsest) Pd max. (Finest)

Determine limits for diametral pitch Pd

Calculate Pd (coarsest) from Calculate Pd (max., finest) using Change material

operating pitch diameter such that See clause 6.9.5 Lewis Form approximation for and/or
pinion gear has min. of 9 teeth bending stress heat treatment

False
Is Pd max < Pd min

True

Pd min Pd max

20 24 32 40 48 64 72 80 96 120
Coarsest Finest
Advantages Advantages
Lowest bending stress Highest contact ratio at nominal center
Fewest teeth in pinion & gear distance
Min. change in contact ratio as center distance
deviates from nominal
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Lowest contact ratio at nominal center distance Highest bending stress
Addendum modifications should be done to pinions Max. change in contact ratio as center distance
with fewer than 24 teeth to eliminate undercutting deviates from normal
Lowest tooth mesh frequency Highest tooth mesh frequency
Select a diametral pitch between the maximum and mimimum limits based on the specific
application and the general guidelines previously mentioned

Calculate NP and NG from operating pitch diameter and diametral pitch

refer to clause 6

Figure 20 -- Preliminary design flowchart

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

-- The additional loads induced by couplings or 5.3.2 Gear train ratio

other interconnections between the prime
The gear train ratio is the ratio of the angular speed
mover, gear train and driven load;
of the first (driving) shaft to the last (driven) shaft. A
gear train may consist of several pairs of meshing
-- Some gear systems have multiple outputs
gears. Each meshing gear pair consists of a driver
driven by a common input. In these cases, the
torque required at each output is determined first. and a driven gear. The ratio of the speed of the
Torque requirements at each stage are then cal- driver to the driven gear, of any pair, is called the
culated being careful to add together the torques stage ratio. Since there must be an integer number
at the gear interfaces where the torque path of teeth on each gear, the achievable stage ratios
splits. In this way, the torque is determined for are limited to ratios of integer numbers. The gear
each gear in the path back to the prime mover. train ratio is equal to the product of the individual
An example of a torque split system can be seen stage ratios. The required gear ratio will often
in figure 21. influence the selection of the type of gearing, since
each type of gearing has its own stage ratio
From this analysis, a basic design load for the gear limitations.
system as well as suitable overload factors can be -- When designing parallel axis spur or helical
determined. Factors to account for desired life and gear systems, a stage ratio limitation of 5:1
other safety factors will also result from this should be considered for the following reasons:
analysis. The actual loads may vary from the
-- To minimize the specific sliding ratios;
predicted loads due to inefficiencies of the system.
It is recommended that torque measurements be -- To increase the mesh efficiency;
made to verify actual loads before the design is -- To achieve more balanced strength
finalized. Clause 15 provides more information on between pinion and gear;
recommended testing procedures. -- To minimize the size of the gear.

Torque required
output 1
Torque required
output 2

n
Gear Ratio : (m Gt) = n 1
L
where:
n1 is rotation speed of first shaft; Motor
nL is rotation speed of last shaft. pinion
mGt = (mGs1) (mGs2) (mGs3) (mGs4)...(mGs(L-- 1) )

Figure 21 -- Torque split

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

The 5:1 stage ratio limitation is a general “rule of Idler gears, which are both driver and driven
thumb”, not an exact design criterion. Addendum gears, do not affect the overall gear train ratio.
modifications (profile shift modifications) can be They do, however, change the direction of rota-
made to the pinion to improve its strength and tion. See figure 23 for an illustration of a gear
reduce its specific sliding ratio. If the gear system with an idler gear.
designer/engineer requires stage ratios greater
than 5:1, more detailed information can be found 5.3.3 Space constraints
in gear texts such as “On the Geometry of Space constraints can also limit the type of gear that
External Spur Gears” by T.W. Khiralla [2]. An ex- can be used. Some design parameters that can be
perienced gear engineer should be consulted if considered as space constraints are listed below.
the required stage ratio is significantly higher The examples listed are not meant to be limiting or
than 5:1. all inclusive.
-- A speed decreasing gear train should consist -- The dimensions of the design volume;
of only speed decreasing gear stages when pos-
sible. (The driven gear has more teeth than the -- Existing center distance specifications (for
driver.) An example can be seen in figure 22. example: several gear systems that can be
assembled into a common gear box to provide
-- A speed increasing gear train should consist different gear ratios);
of only speed increasing gear stages when pos-
sible. (The driven gear has less teeth than the -- Making use of the same gear in more than
driver.) Care must be taken when designing one location in the gear system;
speed increasing drives for maximum recess -- Reverted gear trains, where the output shaft
action. The driven gear should have a sufficient and input shaft are co--linear;
number of teeth so that it can be modified (re-
duced) without causing excessive undercutting. -- The shaft angle orientation. The possibilities
Reference [2] contains more information about are parallel, nonparallel and intersecting, and
recess action gearing. nonparallel and nonintersecting. Each of these
NOTE: It is sometimes necessary to mix speed de-
conditions will determine the type of gearing that
creasing and speed increasing gear stages to achieve can be used. The type of gearing that is appropri-
an exact ratio. However, this will usually result in larger ate for each of these conditions is discussed in
gears and/or more gear stages. 5.4.

60T
60T

20T 20T

Driver
n1, rpm ccw
Stage Ratio
m Gs nn1 = N 2 cw
2 N1
where: Driven
n1 is speed of driving shaft, rpm; n2, rpm ccw
n2 is speed of driven shaft, rpm;
N1 is number of teeth in driving gear of stage;
N2 is number of teeth in driven gear of stage.
Figure 22 -- Speed decreasing gear system

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

60T

40T

20T

Driver
n1 rpm ccw

Idler Gear

Gear Train Ratio = 40 × 60 = 60 = 3 Driven

20 40 20
nL rpm ccw

Figure 23 -- Gear train with idler gear

5.3.4 Operating environment backlash to allow space for the debris. It is

recommended that gear systems operate in an
The operating environment may affect the enclosure if the possibility of outside
performance of the gear system. It is extremely contamination exists;
important that the gear system be designed to
operate in the environment in which it will be used. -- Operating temperature of the gears.
Overlooking or underestimating the effect of
Some types of gears have advantages over others
temperature on a gear system can have disas-
in certain operating environments. Some important
trous consequences. Aircraft gearing must often
considerations of the operating environment are:
function from --50°F to +300°F. In general, it is
-- Enclosed gear system. The gears are good practice to consider the possibility of lu-
mounted in an enclosed gearbox. They are usu- brication and cooling for any gear system.
ally protected from external contamination and Elevated temperatures can contribute to prema-
can often be oil lubricated and cooled. This is an ture failure, especially when the gears are made
ideal situation for gears to operate; from plastics.
-- Open gear system. The gears are mounted The mechanical properties of plastics (tensile
on shafts in the open. They often experience out- strength, flexural modulus, fatigue strength,
side contamination such as: etc.), vary with temperature and in some plastics
are significantly lower at elevated temperatures.
-- Moisture;
When plastic gears are operated at elevated
-- Corrosive environment; temperatures, the designer must account for the
-- Abrasive wear debris; effects the elevated temperatures have on the
mechanical properties. In many applications
-- Dirt, dust, etc. plastic gears are run without external lubrication.
It is important to understand the type of The higher coefficient of friction of unlubricated
contamination that can be present so that the plastic gear mesh combinations, combined with
proper lubrication can be specified. Lubrication high speed operation can generate enough heat
is often a necessity, but occasionally, in open to significantly increase the operating mesh
gear system applications, external oils or grease temperature. Additionally, thermal expansion
can actually increase the wear rate by trapping coefficients of plastics (K¢10--5), are typically an
contamination or wear debris in the gear mesh. It order of magnitude higher than of steels
is often necessary to increase the operating (K¢10--6). Therefore, adequate backlash must

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

be provided to compensate for the increased -- Operating temperature. The operating

tooth thickness at elevated temperature. Some temperature can affect the life of a gear system
applications require special tooth compensation by reducing the tensile strength and fatigue
when manufactured at ambient temperature to strength of the material. The relationship be-
ensure the tooth form will be correct at the tween temperature and mechanical properties
elevated operating temperature. need to be known for the specific material being
used. This information should be obtained from
The gear designer is advised to fully research the the material supplier when possible. Testing
mechanical properties of any plastic considered should be done prior to finalizing the design;
for a gear design, particularly with respect to the
plastics performance at elevated or reduced -- Miscellaneous effects. Many other factors
temperature. can affect the life of the gear system. For exam-
ple, the type and accuracy of the mounting could
5.3.5 Life requirements affect the load distribution across the gear face,
which may increase the bending stress. The
The life requirements of the gear system will designer must consider any other factors which
determine the allowable bending stress (fatigue), may adversely affect the life of the gear system.
and surface stress (pitting) of each of the gears in
the system. Some factors that can affect the 5.3.6 Lubrication requirements
allowable stresses are:
The method of lubrication depends on the
-- Number of load cycles. This will be used to environment in which the gears will operate. Some
determine the bending fatigue and surface designs provide an oil--tight enclosure with suitable
fatigue endurance limits for the material being shaft seals. This is generally a very desirable way to
used. Note that non--ferrous materials, such as provide lubrication for gears. In other designs the
plastics, bronze, etc., do not have true endur- surrounding equipment may be absolutely intoler-
ance limits. The designer must know the ant of external lubrication in any form. Gears in this
allowable stress for the number of cycles
type of design must be designed to operate in a
required. Note that the number of load cycles is
non--lubricated condition. The lubrication require-
not always the same as the number of revolu-
ments of the gear system need to be understood
tions; an idler gear is an example;
before the type of gear and gear material can be
-- Reliability of the gear system. The higher determined. There are three general categories of
the required reliability of the system, the lower gear lubricants: liquids (oils), semisolids
the allowable stresses. Note that the reliability of (grease), and solids (graphite, molybdenum
the system includes the reliability of the gear disulphide, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)). Oil
train, which is the product of the reliabilities of the and grease are applied externally; however, some
successive gear stages. The reliabilities of the solid lubricants such as PTFE can be molded into a
stages need not be equal, and in general are not plastic gear at the time of manufacture.
equal; e.g., the reliability of a very low speed
stage could be higher than that of a very high Oil lubrication of gears has the following
speed stage; advantages over grease:
-- One--way vs. reversing drive. The endur-
ance limit for a reversing drive is lower than for a -- Oil has a greater range of operating speeds
one--way drive because the root of the tooth and temperatures;
experiences complete stress reversals. Com-
-- Oil is more effective in conducting heat from
plete stress reversals also occur in idler gears, the gear teeth to the housing;
even when they are driven in one direction,
because opposite tooth flanks transmit the load. -- Oil will saturate all areas of contact and is
The designer can obtain more information about more effective in removing wear debris;
the effect of complete stress reversals on fatigue
life by consulting various machine design texts; -- Easier to fill and drain a reservoir using oil.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Grease lubrication of gears has the following

advantages over oil:
Pinion
-- Under heavy loads and slow speeds, grease
can provide a lubricating film whereas under the
same conditions oil cannot;
-- Grease has much slower spreading and
evaporation rates than oil;
-- Grease is easier to seal from leakage in Gear
enclosed gear drives.
Some features of solid lubricants that make
them suitable for special applications are:
-- Solids can be used in open gearing where oil Rack
or grease would collect contaminates;
-- Solids resist being squeezed out of gear
teeth under high pressure;
Figure 24 -- External spur gears
-- Solids do not evaporate;
-- Solids can be used in applications where oil
or grease contamination can not be tolerated.
Refer to clause 13 of this Design Manual and
ANSI/AGMA 9005--D94 for more information on
lubrication of gear systems.
5.4 Types of gearing
After the external boundary conditions are known,
the selection of the type of gearing can be made.
Each type of gearing has unique features that make
it more suitable for some applications and less
suitable for others. The following paragraphs give a
summary of each and list some advantages and
disadvantages. Several references, such as “Ana-
lytical Mechanics of Gears”, by Earle Buckingham
[3], contain more detailed information about the
various types of gearing. Brief descriptions are
given for each type of gearing in this clause, but only
spur and helical gear systems are covered in this
Design Manual.
5.4.1 Gearing on parallel axes
Figure 25 -- Internal spur gear and external
5.4.1.1 Spur gears spur pinion
A spur gear is a gear cut from a cylindrical blank,
with teeth parallel to the gear axis. Spur gears can
Advantages of spur gears:
be either external, with the teeth projecting away
from the center, or internal, with the teeth projecting -- Transmit no axial (thrust) force;
toward the center. A set of external spur gears can
-- Relatively low manufacturing cost;
be seen in figure 24. An internal spur gear with an
external spur pinion can be seen in figure 25. -- Relatively low assembly costs.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Disadvantages of spur gears: Disadvantages of helical gears:

-- Lower load carrying capacity than helical -- Transmit axial (thrust) forces;
gears of same size; -- Somewhat higher manufacturing cost.
-- Relatively low contact ratio (usually less than 5.4.2 Gearing on nonparallel shafts
2.0);
5.4.2.1 Face gearing
-- Larger change in mesh stiffness during a
complete mesh cycle; Face gearing consists of a spur or helical pinion and
a disk--like gear. The axes are usually at right
-- Often noisier than helical gears.
angles and may be intersecting or nonintersecting.
5.4.1.2 Helical gears The face gear resembles a rack wrapped into a
circle. Figure 27 shows a spur pinion and face gear
A helical gear is a gear cut from a cylindrical blank,
with right angle intersecting axes. There are some
with teeth that are on helices about the axis of the
practical limitations to the allowable stage ratios
gear. The twist direction of the helix is designated when using face gears. Generally ratios less than
as right hand if it twists clockwise when viewed
1.5:1 should not be attempted with face gears. This
along its axis. The twist direction is designated as
type of gearing is not included in this Design
left hand if it twists counter--clockwise when viewed
Manual. For further information, see AGMA
along its axis. External helical gear pairs are of
203.03, Fine--Pitch On--Center Face Gears for
opposite hands, while external -- internal helical 20--Degree Involute Spur Pinions.
gear pairs are of the same hand. Figure 26 shows a
set of external helical gears.
Offset

Pinion on center Pinion off center

Figure 27 -- Spur pinion and face gear

Figure 26 -- External helical gears

5.4.2.2 Bevel gearing
Bevel gearing is conical in form. Bevel gears can
Advantages of helical gears:
carry higher loads than crossed helical gears and
-- Higher load carrying capacity than spur face gears of the same size. The center distance
gears of same size; and shaft alignments in two directions must be very
accurate to ensure proper load distribution across
-- Higher contact ratio can be obtained;
the tooth. The following tooth element shapes can
-- Less change in mesh stiffness during a be used:
complete mesh cycle;
-- Straight tooth elements which if extended,
-- Generally quieter than spur gears if the would pass through the intersection point of the
active face width is greater than one axial pitch. axes (see figure 28a);

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

-- ZEROLR curved tooth elements which fol- These types of gearing are not included in this
low the same general direction as straight teeth Design Manual. For further information, see
(see figure 28b). ANSI/AGMA 2005--B88, Design Manual for Bevel
-- Spiral tooth elements, which are curved Gears.
and oblique (see figure 28c). 5.4.3 Gearing on nonparallel, nonintersecting
shafts
5.4.3.1 Crossed--axis helical gearing (formerly
called spiral gearing)
Crossed helical gears are helical gears mounted on
axes which are skewed. The teeth may be of the
same or opposite hands, and the helix angles can
be equal or unequal. The use of crossed helical
gears should be limited to low torque applications
because the teeth make point contact with each
Straight bevel gears Skew bevel gears other. It is recommended that an experienced gear
(a) -- Straight tooth bevel elements designer be consulted when designing gear sys-
tems using crossed helical gears. Crossed--axes
gearing is not included in this Design Manual.
Figure 29 shows a set of crossed helical gears.

Spiral bevel ZEROL bevel

gears gears
(b) -- Curved tooth bevel elements

Figure 29 -- Crossed helical gears

Left--hand
Right--hand 5.4.3.2 Worm gearing
This type of gearing uses a worm to drive a
wormgear. The worm is cylindrical in form with the
teeth shaped like screw threads. The worm can
Spiral bevel gears Spiral bevel pinions have one or more teeth (also called starts). The
designer should be aware that the torque ratio is not
equal to the reduction ratio in worm gearing, as it is
Left--hand
in parallel axis spur and helical gear systems. This
is because the pitch diameters are not in the same
Right--hand
ratio as the number of teeth. The efficiencies of
worm drives are dependent upon the coefficient of
friction between the worm and wormgear as well as
(c) -- Spiral tooth bevel elements the lead angle of the worm (helix angle of wormgear
Figure 28 -- Bevel gearnig for 90 degree shaft angles). This type of gearing is

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

not covered by this Design Manual. Information on 5.5 Preliminary estimate of gears
fine--pitch wormgearing may be found in ANSI/
After the external boundary conditions are known
AGMA 6034--B92. Figure 30 shows a worm and
and the type of gearing has been determined, a
wormgear set.
preliminary estimate of the size of the gears can be
Cylindrical made. The amount of power or torque that a gear
worm can transmit is a function of the size of the gears,
their type and the materials from which they are
made. The size of each gear is defined by its
diametral pitch, number of teeth and face width.
The preliminary design is only the first step of the
total design process. A design should not be
considered complete until it has been analyzed and
tested. In some design problems, a preliminary
design is needed in order to establish some size
requirements for the complete equipment. Such a
preliminary design may not have the benefit of
adequate knowledge of loads or other constraints
Enveloping Cylindrical imposed by the final design of the equipment. In
wormgear (non--enveloping) these cases, the preliminary design must be
wormgear reviewed and revised in light of new information.
Figure 30 -- Worm and wormgear set
5.5.1 Number of teeth
5.4.3.3 Rotary to linear motion gearing
The number of teeth selected for each member
This type of gearing is made up of a rack and pinion (pinion and gear) will have a considerable effect on
and is used to convert rotary motion into linear the performance of the gears in service. The
motion, or vice--versa. When two gears mesh, the following should be considered when selecting the
smaller of the two is referred to as the pinion, and numbers of teeth:
the larger is usually referred to as the gear. Any
-- Integers. The number of teeth in each gear
gear meshed with a rack is considered smaller than
must be an integer. This restricts the actual ratio
the rack, since the rack is part of a gear with an
that a given pair of gears may have;
infinite number of teeth (it has an infinite pitch
diameter). Therefore, it is common to speak of a -- Undercutting. Gears with less than 24
rack and pinion. A spur rack, which has its teeth at teeth (for 20 degree profile angles) usually
right angles to the direction of its motion, is used require addendum modifications (profile shift) to
with a spur pinion (see figure 31). A helical rack, avoid undercut or undesirable contact close to
which has its teeth oblique to the direction of its the base circle. Undercutting reduces the tooth’s
motion, is used with a helical pinion. strength and often reduces the contact ratio. See
clause 6 for additional information on calculating
contact ratio for gears with undercut. Contact
close to the base circle increases the ratio of slid-
ing to rolling which reduces the efficiency of the
mesh;
-- Hunting tooth action. In some gear ap-
plications, it may be desirable to provide hunting
tooth action; i.e., using gears whose tooth
numbers have a greatest common factor of 1.
This technique minimizes the number of times a
specific pair of teeth mesh with each other. This
is done to reduce repeatability of individual
Figure 31-- Spur rack and pinion meshes and promote uniform wear.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

5.5.2 Diametral pitch lowers the highest point of single tooth

contact so that when a single tooth is
There are several factors which need to be carrying the load it occurs lower on the tooth
considered when selecting the diametral pitch for flank. This reduces the bending moment on
gear systems. Some of these factors are listed the tooth which reduces the deflection.
below: -- Contact ratio.
NOTE: These comparisons are valid for gears of a -- The contact ratio increases as the
constant base diameter (i.e., if the diametral pitch is diametral pitch increases (at the nominal
doubled, the number of teeth is doubled so that the center distance);
base circle diameter remains the same).
-- The tolerance on the center distance, to
-- Load carrying capacity (beam strength). maintain an acceptable contact ratio, must
It is important to remember that a gear tooth acts decrease as the diametral pitch increases to
maintain the same contact ratio. Figure 32
as a cantilever beam. It has a decidedly non--
also shows contact ratio as a function of
uniform cross section and its load point varies,
center distance deviation for various
but when loaded it deflects like a cantilever diametral pitches.
beam;
-- To fit the design envelope (pitch diameters
-- The bending stress in the root area of the of gears).
tooth is approximately proportional to diame-
tral pitch (e.g., if the diametral pitch is After the number of teeth have been chosen to
doubled, the bending stress is doubled). The give the required ratio, the diametral pitch can be
reason it is not exactly proportional to determined by knowing the allowable size of the
diametral pitch is that a change in contact pitch diameters. The designer must ensure that
ratio also changes the radius of the highest the gears have adequate load carrying capacity
point of single tooth contact; when determining diametral pitch in this way.
-- Even though the mesh stiffness The gear industry has standardized on several
equation shows that the mesh stiffness is diametral pitches. Although it is sometimes
independent of diametral pitch, the mesh necessary to design gears with nonstandard di-
stiffness actually increases slightly as the ametral pitches, it is usually recommended that
diametral pitch is increased. This occurs standard diametral pitches be used when
because the contact ratio is slightly higher for possible because tooling and inspection gears
the finer pitch gears. The higher contact ratio are readily available.

2.0

1:1 Ratio
5:1 Ratio
Transverse contact ratio

20 DP
40 DP
80 DP
120 DP

1.0
Center distance deviation
NOTE: The numbers on the chart were generated for a specific center distance.
Figure 32 -- Contact ratio vs. center distance deviation for 20 degree profile angle gears

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

The standard fine--pitch normal diametral pitches contact ratio be at least 2.0 to achieve good
are: helical overlap.
20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64, 72, 80, 96, 120 -- The transverse contact ratio is defined
the same as for spur gears, using
5.5.3 Face width transverse dimensions;
Face width is the length of the teeth in the axial -- The face contact ratio is a measure-
plane. The following factors should be considered ment of the helical overlap and is equal to
when determining the face width of gears: the face width divided by the axial pitch.
NOTE: The following comparisons are made assum- The helical overlap is proportional to the face
ing there is uniform load distribution across the face width for a given diametral pitch and helix angle
width. (axial pitch). In some applications, it is advanta-
-- Load carrying capacity. The bending geous to design face width and helix angle
stress is inversely proportional to face width. combinations which result in integer face contact
Therefore, when everything else is held ratios. The resulting contact lines are of constant
constant, as the face width is doubled the bend- length, yielding more uniform mesh stiffness.
ing stress is halved. Note that when calculating Uniform mesh stiffness may reduce vibration
load carrying capacity the active face width which would result in smoother operation of the
should be used. The active face width is the gears.
actual face overlap between the pinion and gear. 5.5.4 Helix angle
Axial misalignment of the gears and rounding or
chamfering of the tooth may reduce the active The following factors should be considered before
face width to a value less than the minimum face choosing a helix angle for a gear system:
width of the pair. Usually the face width of one of -- The higher the helix angle the higher the axial
the gears is made wider to allow for axial component (thrust) that is transmitted;
misalignment and still maintain full face contact.
The increase in face width is usually made to the -- The maximum strength of a helical gear oc-
pinion because it requires less additional materi- curs between a helix angle of 10 to 20 degrees.
al. For additional information on the load rating of See AGMA 908--B89;
gear teeth, refer to ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95, -- The higher the helix angle, the higher the
Fundamental Rating Factors and Calculation face contact ratio, for a given face width;
Methods for Involute Spur and Helical Gear
-- The higher the helix angle, the larger the
Teeth;
pitch diameter of the gear, for a given number of
-- Face width--to--diameter ratio. To achieve teeth and normal diametral pitch;
more uniform tooth contact along the face, the ra-
-- Index gearing for machine tools. Consult
tio of face width to diameter should usually be
gear manufacturer for manufacturability;
held to below 2.0. If the alignment of the pinion
and gear teeth cannot be closely controlled, the -- Availability of cutter and helix guide for gear
ratio should be held well below this limiting value. shaping.
The alignment is influenced by gear accuracy, 5.5.5 Profile angle
housing accuracy, shaft deflections, gear blank
rigidity and the accuracy and rigidity of the gear The fine--pitch gear industry has standardized on 20
mounting features; degree profile angles for most applications. The
-- Contact ratio. use of 14.5 degree profile angle gears has declined
in the past several years due in large part to the
-- Spur Gears: Face width does not affect increased strength and reduced sliding
the contact ratio of spur gears;
characteristic of 20 degree profile angle gears.
-- Helical Gears: The total contact ratio is
the sum of the transverse contact ratio and The contact ratio is higher for 14.5 degree profile
the face contact ratio. If face contact ratio is angle gears than for 20 degree profile angle gears of
less than 1, no advantage is gained from the same diametral pitch and numbers of teeth. In
helical action. It is suggested that the face some applications this increase in contact ratio

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

could allow enough additional center distance has unique design requirements. Refer to clause 11
deviation to allow for assembly tolerances. for more information about the various manufactur-
ing processes.
5.5.6 Material and heat treatment
It is important for the gear designer to understand
In order to make a preliminary estimate of the size that correct gear blank design is essential to gear
required for a set of gearing, it is necessary to quality. A precision gear blank is required to make a
establish the general type of material to be used, precision gear. See clause 8 for a detailed
such as steel, aluminum, bronze or plastics. In discussion of gear blanks.
power gearing, where strength and pitting resis-
tance is of major importance, steel is often selected 5.6 Engineering analysis of preliminary design
because it can be heat treated. In position control Once the preliminary design has been determined,
gearing, wear resistance is of prime importance. it is necessary to analyze the design to ensure that it
The material combinations are chosen to minimize will meet the load capacity and contact ratio
tooth wear. In some applications there is an added requirements. Refer to clause 6 for the equations
constraint of operation without lubrication. In these for calculating bending stress, contact stress and
applications the selection of the materials is very contact ratio. If the analysis of the preliminary
critical to the reliability of the system. Depending on design reveals that it would not be adequate for the
the required loads, plastics may be a better choice application, the designer should revise the original
than steel when the gears must operate without design. The cycle of design followed by analysis
external lubricants. For power gear systems, or any should be repeated until the preliminary analysis
gear system that is transmitting high loads, the heat verifies that the design is adequate.
treatment is vital to the performance of the system. This clause contains a brief synopsis of some of the
The following four general ranges of tooth hardness types of engineering analysis that should be done at
may be considered when making a preliminary the preliminary design stage. The primary objective
design: of the preliminary design analysis is to ensure that
-- low through hardened (150 -- 210 BHN); the gears have adequate strength for the applica-
tion. More detailed analysis will be done later during
-- medium through hardened (210 -- 420 BHN);
the detailed design stage (refer to clause 6). At the
-- surface hardened (50 -- 62 Rc); detailed design stage the specific tooth geometry
-- through hardened to 40--62 Rc when em- and meshing parameters will be determined to
ploying alloy or tool steels, martensitic stainless, optimize the design for its particular application.
etc. The reader is also referred to the publications in
annex A for additional information.
NOTE: For very fine--pitch gears, care should be taken
so that the case depth from the heat treatment does not 5.6.1 Bending stress
go through the entire tooth. See also clause 10.
Bending stress can be determined using a variety of
5.5.7 Manufacturing method techniques. Each method has some advantages
There are many processes available to manufac- and disadvantages.
ture gears. There are many factors which collec- -- Lewis form factor. This method treats a
tively determine the manufacturing process that gear tooth as a stubby cantilever beam. Figure
should be used. Some of these factors are: 33 maps the geometry of the gear tooth to that of
a cantilever beam. This method usually predicts
-- Process must be capable of meeting design conservative (higher) than actual bending stress
quality parameters.
for unmodified gears. This method evaluates a
-- Process must make parts for acceptable normalized measure called the Lewis form
cost. equation based on the dimensions of the beam.
Machine design text books give a detailed ex-
-- Process must be capable of meeting the
planation of this method. This method does not
schedule demands of the part.
account for load sharing and evaluates stresses
It is important to consider the process to be used at the root by applying the load at the tip of the
early in the design process because each process gear tooth.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

W
W

F
l

t
rf a

l x

t
(a) (b)
Figure 33 -- Gear tooth as a simple beam

-- AGMA geometry factor method. This gear tooth geometry. This method will provide
method is also based on construction. However, more accurate results than the Lewis form factor,
the load is applied at the highest point of single especially for modified gear tooth geometry. The
tooth contact for spur gears and inscribes a pa- effects of thin rim gears can also be analyzed us-
rabola inside the gear tooth. Figure 34 illustrates ing this method. The tooth model is usually
the construction. The point where the parabola is loaded at the highest point of single tooth contact
tangent to the tooth profile is called the critical (HPSTC).
point and is where the maximum stress occurs. -- Boundary element model. This method,
This method evaluates a normalized measure like the finite element method, will provide more
called the geometry factor which accounts for the accurate results than the Lewis form factor,
stress concentration at the root of the gear tooth especially for modified gear tooth geometry.
and the load sharing between the mating gears.
For helical gears, the load is applied at the tip of 5.6.2 Contact stress
the gear tooth. Clause 6 uses this technique to
Contact stress occurs when two bodies come in
evaluate bending stresses at the root of the gear
contact under a force. The involutes of external
tooth.
gear pairs can be approximated as a cylinder on a
cylinder. The involutes of internal--external gear
C
L Gear tooth pairs can be approximated as a cylinder inside a
cylinder. The Hertzian (contact) stress can be
Vertex Load calculated at any point of contact by knowing the
Inscribed radius of curvature of each involute at the point of
parabola contact.
Critical
The two most common places to calculate contact
point
stresses are:
-- Pitch diameter. At the pitch diameter the
contact stress is less than the maximum, but it is
the point where pitting usually occurs. Pitting is a
Figure 34 -- Tooth load acting at inscribed
surface fatigue failure due to repetitions of high
parabola
contact stress. Pitting occurs near the pitch di-
ameter because the relative sliding between the
-- Finite element model. This method uses pinion and gear changes direction as the contact
the finite element method to model the actual passes through the pitch point. This change in

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

sliding creates frictional subsurface shear indicates what is important and what is not impor-
stresses which can eventually remove material tant, in designing to avoid fatigue failure. Many
and form the surface cavities known as pitting; materials, such as plastics, aluminum and bronze
do not have true endurance limits so they cannot be
-- Lowest point of single tooth contact.
designed to have infinite life. Fatigue curve
This is the point where the contact stress is at its
maximum. It occurs here because the radii of information must be obtained from the material
curvature of the involutes are at their most supplier and verified by testing in order to design the
opposite extremes, when the tooth is under its gears to meet life requirements. It is extremely
maximum load (when there is only one pair of important to confirm the design by conducting a
teeth carrying the load). For external gear pairs, testing program on the materials that will be used.
the contact on the driver is near its root, (relative- Heat treatment of ferrous materials will increase
ly small radius of curvature) and the contact on fatigue strength. Refer to clause 15 for more
the driven gear is near its tip (relatively large ra- information on load rating and testing procedures.
dius of curvature). If the contact stresses exceed
the surface endurance strength of the material, 5.6.5 Surface durability
surface failure will result.
Surface durability, also known as pitting resistance,
5.6.3 Contact ratio is the capacity to resist the kind of failure which
results from repeated surface or subsurface
Contact ratio can be visualized as the average stresses. See ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95 for more
number of tooth pairs in contact during the mesh information on surface durability ratings for spur and
cycle. For example, if the contact ratio for a gear helical gears. These rating methods assume the
mesh is 1.75, then two tooth pairs will be in contact design provides adequate lubrication. Inadequate
75% of the time and only one tooth pair will be in lubrication can lead to other modes of surface
contact 25% of the time. In general, gear meshes failure (wear), which are not covered by these rating
with more tooth pairs in contact exhibit smoother methods. The load rating procedure in ANSI/AGMA
operation. For most applications, it is recom- 2001--C95 is not suitable for every fine--pitch
mended that the contact ratio be at least 1.4. application. The rating procedure is based primarily
Contact ratio is a function of center distance. on experience with coarse pitch gears. As with
Contact ratio decreases as the center distance fatigue strength, available data on material
increases from the nominal center distance. It is properties are limited to the more traditional gear
important to determine the allowable deviation from materials. Heat treatment of ferrous materials will
the nominal center distance that will maintain an increase surface durability. Material property
acceptable contact ratio for the application. Finer information should be obtained from the material
diametral pitch gears have a smaller allowable supplier and testing should be done to confirm the
center distance deviation. It is important to consider design.
the expected center distance tolerance stack up, of
the entire system, early in the design process. The 5.6.6 Gear system assembly
designer should then design the system so the Before the detailed design can be performed, the
contact ratio is acceptable throughout the complete designer must consider the method of mounting to
center distance tolerance zone. be used. Proper installation of the gear system is
essential for achieving good performance. Some
5.6.4 Fatigue strength
items of consideration should be:
Many machine design texts, such as “Mechanical -- Mounting of gears on the shafts. There
Engineering Design” by J.E. Shigley [6], contain are several methods used to mount gears to
information on how to determine fatigue strengths, shafts. Many designs offer various degrees of
or endurance limits, for ferrous materials. It is precision, cost, reliability and ease of assembly.
important to realize that the analytical approaches The designs can be classified into two main
do not yield absolutely accurate results. The results types: removable fastenings and permanent
should only be used as a guide, as something that fastenings.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Removable fastenings -- Gear--box housing. The housing must be

designed to remain sufficiently rigid during oper-
pinning key way
ating conditions. It is possible to encounter a
clamping spline
resonant condition, where the natural frequency
set screws taper and screw
of the complete system assembly coincides with
Permanent fastenings: an operating frequency.
press fit staking It is beyond the scope of this Information Sheet to
shrink fit pegging provide detailed information on vibration control
molded assembly riveting and analysis. It is suggested that the designer
cementing compounds spinning consult someone experienced in this field or a
text on the subject.
For more information on mounting gears refer to
“Precision Gearing, Theory and Practice” by 5.7 Application considerations
Michalec [7]; The preliminary design step helped to determine the
-- Shaft alignment. A deviation in the estimated values for parameters such as number of
alignment of shafts is composed of two compo- teeth, diametral pitch, pressure angle and helix
nents: in--plane deviation and out--of--plane angle. The detailed design step, that will be
deviation. The in--plane deviation is measured in discussed in clause 6, will optimize the specific
the common plane of axes and out--of--plane tooth geometry in order to meet the functional
deviation is measured in the plane (skew plane) requirements. As mentioned previously, the three
perpendicular to the common plane of axes. Fig- main types of gear systems are power gears,
ure 35 shows the in--plane and out--of--plane smooth motion gears and zero backlash gears.
deviations for two shafts A and B; This clause will discuss some of the specific
requirements of each of these systems. It is
important to keep in mind that many applications
Shaft A have requirements that overlap into more than one
Shaft B
of these classifications.
5.7.1 Design emphasis for power gear systems
As the name suggests, the primary function of
power gear systems is to transmit power (speed
Plane of axes and torque). This does not mean that the gears
In--plane deviation transmit only heavy loads, but that greater impor-
tance is given to transmitting power than to
Shaft A transmitting uniform motion. The design process
Shaft B for power gears emphasizes adequate size, suit-
able materials, appropriate heat treat procedures
Out--of--plane and proper lubrication to maximize gear life.
deviation Designers usually evaluate the resistance of the
gears to pitting and bending fatigue. It is important
Plane of axes to note that the designers must also recognize
Figure 35 -- Shaft alignment deviations life--cycle costs, noise and other related parameters
during the design process.
5.7.2 Design emphasis for smooth motion
-- Couplings. The coupling must have some
degree of flexibility to accommodate the types of gears
misalignment mentioned previously. It must be In addition to the requirements of power gear
able to transmit torque, yet limit the forces on ma- systems, smooth motion gears are designed to
chine components such as shafts and bearings have low transmission error. Transmission error is
that result from misalignment. However, it is im- defined as the deviation of the position of the driven
portant to understand the effects the coupling gear, for a given angular position of the driving gear,
has on smooth motion when misalignment is from the position that the driven gear would occupy
present; if the gears were geometrically perfect and infinitely

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

stiff. Transmission error is usually measured as a -- Runout in the gear blank mounting arbor or
linear error along the line of action. tool arbor or both;
Generally, transmission error in gear meshes has -- Variations in the hob;
the following two components: -- Tooth--spacing error in the shaper cutter;
-- Once per revolution of the gear(or pinion) -- Position errors in the gear generator’s
variation; indexing gear train;

-- Once per tooth variation. -- Effect of approximating the involute profile

with generated straight cuts;
The once per revolution variation is due to accumu- -- Vibration and chatter of the machine tool;
lated pitch variation. The once per tooth variations
are due to variations in profile, pitch, tooth thickness -- Deflection due to the work mass and cutting
and tooth alignment. The above two components forces;
affect the positional accuracy of the drive train. In -- Deformations of the gear blank;
addition, the once per tooth component is related to -- Non--homogeneous gear blank material;
the noise and vibration characteristics of the gear
train. -- Differential temperature effects;
-- Slippage of the blank on the arbor;
The main sources of transmission error can be
classified into the two following categories: -- Errors in the dressing of the wheel profile for
profile ground gears.
-- Variations during manufacturing and
5.7.2.2 Assembly variation
mounting;
Shaft misalignment causes uneven load distribution
-- Deflections of gear teeth, shafts, bearings
and higher tooth fillet stresses in gears. Uneven
and housing.
load distribution results in larger transmission error.
Parameters such as transverse contact ratio and Misalignment between shafts can cause the shaft
face contact ratio influence load sharing between couplings to transmit non--uniform motion. Another
the gear teeth and thus affect the deflections of the contributor of transmission error comes from
gear teeth. Deflections of shafts, bearings and mounting runout that causes the gear true center to
housings can cause an uneven load distribution be displaced from the center of rotation. Some of
across the face of the gear tooth. Calculating the sources of runout are:
transmission error based on the above gear param-
-- Clearance between gear bore and shaft;
eters is beyond the scope of this design manual.
However, this clause will discuss those variations -- Runout of the shaft;
that contribute to transmission error. -- Eccentricity of the rotating race in the ball
bearing.
Total transmission error for a gear train can be
calculated by assuming that the total transmission 5.7.2.3 Minimizing transmission error
error is the sum of the transmission error of each
Minimizing the once per revolution component of
mesh. However, such a technique yields very high
transmission error is best achieved by minimizing
transmission error values. Multi--mesh gear trains
accumulated pitch error. Minimizing the once per
should be analyzed using statistical techniques to
tooth component is achieved by controlling tooth
determine a more realistic value.
form. Gear meshes with larger contact ratios exhibit
The sources of transmission error are discussed in lower tooth to tooth transmission error because they
5.7.2.1 and 5.7.2.2, and techniques for minimizing have more tooth pairs sharing the load. Hence it is
transmission error are briefly discussed in 5.7.2.3. recommended that gear designers maximize con-
tact ratio when designing gears for smooth motion.
5.7.2.1 Manufacturing variation Tooth modifications (tip relief and root relief) and
tooth lead modifications (crowning) are techniques
Some of the possible sources of these errors are:
that have been applied successfully under certain
-- Eccentric mounting of the gear blank or the conditions to minimize transmission error. When
generating tool or both; designed for a specific load condition, these are

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

suitable for only that load condition. It is recom- The information presented in clause 6 is rigorous
mended that an experienced gear designer be mathematically and may be somewhat intimidating
consulted when designing gears with profile and to the novice gear designer. It may be beneficial to
lead modifications. remember that an involute gear tooth is a combina-
tion of four geometric sections: top land, flanks,
5.7.3 Zero backlash gears trochoid or root fillet and root circle. Within certain
limits, these sections are independent of one
In addition to the requirements of power gear
another and each can be varied without necessarily
systems, zero backlash gear meshes are designed
affecting the others. For example, within certain
to have low backlash. Backlash is necessary to
limits, the tip diameter can be made larger or smaller
prevent tight mesh and interference due to
without changing the tooth thickness. Standards,
manufacturing and assembly variations in a gear. In
such as ANSI/AGMA 1003--G93, Tooth Proportions
some applications, backlash needs to be controlled
for Fine--Pitch Spur and Helical Gearing, define
to achieve accurate angular positioning of machine
relationships between the tooth sections based
components. Many techniques have been devel-
upon the concept of a basic rack. However, without
oped to control backlash in a gear mesh. Clause 7
violating the precepts of the standard, the designer
of this Design Manual deals with those techniques
has freedom to optimize the design by specifying
for controlling backlash in a gear mesh.
gear parameters.

The specifics of tip diameter, tooth thickness and

root diameter are what gear optimization is all
6 Design synthesis and analysis about. Clause 6 presents the procedure for
accomplishing that optimization. The procedure is
presented in a logical order for making the calcula-
6.1 Introduction tions, i.e., the inputs needed for a given calculation
have been calculated previously. Most gear
Clause 5 introduced the gear designer to basic practitioners use a form of spreadsheet to perform
considerations for the early conceptualization of a these calculations, and the sequence of clause 6
gear design. The selection of type of gearing and will make constructing a spreadsheet a relatively
preliminary values for number of teeth, diametral simple undertaking.
pitch, helix angle and number of stages may be very
simple or exceedingly complex. The function of the 6.2 Standard gear parameters
design and the size of the design space influence 6.2.1 Transverse diametral pitch (Pd )
the options available to the designer. Clause 5
presented general guidelines and the most basic This is a measure of the size of a gear tooth in the
procedures but could not offer a complete cookbook plane of rotation. It is the number of gear teeth in
approach because the number of options available one inch of standard pitch diameter. The larger this
at the preliminary stage is far too large. Therefore, it value, the smaller is the size of the gear tooth.
is assumed that first estimates of number of teeth, Transverse diametral pitch is given by:
diametral pitch, pressure angle, helix angle and Pd = Pnd cos ψ ...(2)
number of stages will be made using clause 5 as
well as other sound mechanical engineering 6.2.2 Standard pitch diameter for pinion and
gear (DP, DG )
practices.
This diameter is equal to the ratio of the number of
Clause 6 presents procedures by which the design-
teeth to the transverse diametral pitch. The circle
er can determine, refine and analyze the details that
with this diameter is called the standard pitch circle.
comprise a complete gear design. This optimization
Figure 36 illustrates the standard pitch circle.
of the design may result in only minute modifications
to the original concept or it may identify the need for NP N
major redesign. In either case, the proper function DP = = P
P nd cos ψ Pd
and life of the gear system depends upon the ...(3)
NG N
optimization being done with knowledge and DG = = G
thoroughness. P nd cos ψ Pd

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

6.2.4 Base diameter (DbP, DbG )

Base diameter is the diameter of the base circle
associated with the involute profile (figure 36). It is
equal to the standard pitch circle diameter multiplied
by the cosine of the transverse pressure angle at
Standard the standard pitch diameter.
pitch radius DbP = DP cos Ôt
DbG = DG cos Ôt ...(5)
Base radius A discussion on the base diameter and
Outside radius involutometry can be found in clause 4.
Root radius
6.2.5 Transverse circular pitch (pt )
This is the circular arc distance measured along the
standard pitch circle between two corresponding
points of adjacent teeth. It is equal to the
circumference of the standard pitch circle divided by
number of teeth. It is also equal to the distance
between corresponding points of two adjacent teeth
Figure 36 -- Standard pitch circle in the cutter at its pitch line.
pt = π ...(6)
6.2.3 Profile angle and pressure angle Pd

The term profile angle is used in conjunction with 6.2.6 Transverse base pitch (pb )
the cutter used to manufacture the gear by a This is the circular arc distance measured along the
generating process. The term pressure angle is base circle diameter between two corresponding
used in conjunction with the operating points of the adjacent teeth. It is equal to the base
considerations of the meshing gears. See 4.1.9.1. circle circumference divided by the number of teeth.
6.2.3.1 Profile angle pb = pt cos Ôt ...(7)
The profile angle of a rack--type cutter (hob) is the Figure 37 illustrates the transverse standard
angle between a line perpendicular to a pitch line of circular pitch and transverse base pitch.
the rack and the profile of a rack tooth.
Transverse Transverse
For a pinion--type cutter (shaper cutter), at the point circular base
of intersection of the pitch circle and the tooth pitch pitch
profile, the angle between a line normal to the pitch B
circle and a line tangent to a tooth profile is defined A
as the profile angle. D
C
6.2.3.2 Normal standard pressure angle (Ôn )
Normal standard pressure angle is the profile angle Base radius
of the cutter used to manufacture the gear by the Standard
generation process. pitch radius
6.2.3.3 Transverse standard pressure angle (Ôt )
Figure 37 -- Transverse pitch
Transverse standard pressure angle is the angle
between a line in the transverse plane tangent to the 6.2.7 Normal base pitch (pbn )
involute at the standard pitch diameter and a line
passing through the center of the gear and the Normal base pitch in an involute helical gear is the
tangency point. The transverse standard pressure base pitch in the normal plane. In order for two
angle is given by: helical gears to mesh without interference, the two
gears must have the same normal base pitch.
tan Ô n
Ô t = tan−1 cos ψ  ...(4) Normal base pitch is the normal distance between
parallel helical involute surfaces on the plane of

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

action in the normal plane or in the length of the arc at the pitch point. At all other contact points along
on the normal base helix. the line of action, both sliding and rolling occur. In
pbn = pt cos ψ cos Ôn ...(8) figure 38, point P is the pitch point.
6.2.8 Standard center distance (Cs ) 6.3.4 Line of contact
Standard center distance is the sum of the standard Line of contact is the line or curve along which the
pitch circle radii of the pinion and the gear and is two mating tooth surfaces are tangent to each other
given by: at any instant of time. For spur gears, the line of
contact is parallel to the axis of rotation whereas in
DP + DG
Cs = ...(9) helical gears, the line of contact is inclined to the
2
axis of rotation. Figure 39 shows the line of contact.
6.3 Gear mesh related parameters
6.3.1 Operating center distance (C)
Operating center distance (C) is the distance
between the axis of the pinion and the axis of the
gear. The operating center distance is controlled by
the frame (casing or gear box) and the bearings that
support the gears. Clause 5 presented a brief
Tangent plane
discussion on the geometric parameters that influ-
ence center distance tolerance. One of the main
advantages of the involute profile is its ability to Helical line of contact
transmit uniform rotary motion independently of the
changes in center distance.
6.3.2 Line of action
The line tangent to base circles of the pinion and the
gear in the transverse plane is called the line of
action or the base tangent line. It is the locus of Spur line of contact
points in the transverse plane where the pinion tooth Figure 39 -- Line of contact
makes contact with the gear tooth. Figure 38
illustrates the line of action. 6.3.5 Operating pitch diameter (dP, dG )
The diameter of the circle in the transverse plane
passing through the pitch point with its center at the
Base circle center of the gear or pinion is called the operating
(pinion) Driver
pitch diameter.
Operating
2N PC
pressure dP = (external gears)
Line of action P angle NP + NG
...(10a)
2N GC
Line of centers

dG =
NP + NG
Base circle Driven
(gear) 2N PC
dP = (internal gears)
NG − NP
...(10b)
2N GC
dG =
Figure 38 -- Line of action NG − NP
The operating pitch radii of the pinion (rP ) and of the
6.3.3 Pitch point
gear (rG ) are equal to one half of the corresponding
Pitch point is a function of the actual operating operating pitch diameter. The operating pitch
center distance and not a function of the standard diameter is used to calculate the tangential load on
center distance. It is the point where the line joining the gear. For a given mesh, the operating pitch
the center of the pinion to the center of the gear diameters of the pinion and the gear are tangent to
intersects the line of action. Pure rolling occurs only each other. Note that the standard pitch diameters

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

of the pinion and the gear are not necessarily Backlash can be observed by holding one of the
tangent to each other and they are tangent to each mating gears fixed and moving the other gear from a
other only when they are equal to the corresponding contact on one side of a tooth to a contact on the
operating pitch diameters. other side. One can measure backlash in a gear
mesh in the following three ways:
6.3.6 Operating transverse pressure angle (Ôpt )
-- Transverse backlash;
The angle between the line of action and the line
joining the center of the pinion and the center of the -- Normal backlash;
gear is called the operating pressure angle. This is -- Backlash along the line of action.
equal to the arc cosine of the ratio between the base
diameter and the operating pitch diameter. Figure Even though the values for the backlash measured
38 shows the operating transverse pressure angle. in the above three ways are different, they are all
related to each other mathematically.
φ pt=cos –1 Dd  (external and internal gears)
bP
P
6.3.9.1 Transverse backlash
....(11)
Transverse backlash (B) is defined as the difference
6.3.7 Operating helix angle (ψp ) between the transverse circular tooth space of the
gear measured at its operating pitch circle and the
The operating helix angle is used to calculate the
transverse circular tooth thickness of the pinion
component of the transmitted force in the axial
measured at its operating pitch circle. In figure 40,
direction. The operating helix angle is the helix
arc PQ is the transverse circular tooth thickness of
angle at the operating pitch radius and is given by:
the pinion at the operating pitch circle and arc PR is

ψ p = tan−1 d Dtan ψ
P
P
(external and internal gears)
the transverse circular tooth space of the gear. The
difference between the arcs PR and PQ is the
...(12) transverse backlash for the given mesh. Backlash
is usually achieved by decreasing the circular tooth
6.3.8 Operating normal pressure angle (Ôpn )
thickness of the two mating gears. During machin-
This is the operating pressure angle in the normal ing, the cutter is fed deeper into the gear blank to
plane and is given by: decrease gear circular tooth thickness. Transverse
backlash for both external and internal gears is
Ôpn = tan - 1 (tan Ôpt cos ψp )
(external and internal gears) ...(13) given by the following equation:

The operating normal pressure angle describes the πd P πd

B= − t ptP − t ptG = G − t ptP − t ptG
direction of the force transmitted between the NP NG
contacting gear tooth surfaces. In a given design, ...(14)
an increase in the operating pressure angle leads to
an increase in the separating force.
Pinion Operating pitch
6.3.9 Backlash circle (pinion)

Backlash is a property of the gear mesh and not of

an individual gear. It is the clearance between the Q
meshing teeth. In most applications, it is not
R P
detrimental to have backlash in a gear mesh. On
the other hand, backlash is necessary to accommo-
date manufacturing variations in gears and the
Operating
relative change in size of gears and their casings
pitch circle Gear
due to the thermal and other environmental effects. (gear)
In gears used in position control systems, backlash
may be detrimental. For controlling backlash in Figure 40 -- Transverse backlash is
such systems, refer to clause 7 of this manual. arc PR -- arc PQ

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Equations for evaluating the tooth thickness at the profile. Its shape and size depend upon the
operating pitch circle of the pinion (tptP ) and the gear manufacturing method employed.
(tptG ) are given in 6.6.4. 6.4.1.1 Generated fillet
The amount of backlash should meet the require- In gears that are manufactured by a generation
ments of the application. This amount should process, the fillet curve is called a trochoid. During
enable gears to run freely when the mesh is the generation process, the tip corner of the cutter
operating under worst case conditions (at the tooth generates the trochoid and the flank of the
shortest possible operating center distance, worst tooth generates the involute profile. The trochoid is
condition of humidity, temperature and geometrical always tangent to the root circle and in gear teeth
tooth variations). without undercut, tangent to the involute.
Backlash is also a function of center distance. The 6.4.1.2 Formed fillet
amount of transverse backlash (Bc ) due to a change In some gear manufacturing processes, such as
in center distance (∆C) is approximated by the form milling, form grinding or injection molding, the
following equation: fillet shape is transferred directly from the tool. It is
Bc = 2 ∆C tan Ôpt (external and internal gears) often most convenient to make the fillet portion of
...(15) the tool in the shape of a circular arc. This arc is
When two gears mesh at their low points of total generally made tangent to the root circle and the
composite variation, the change in center distance involute profile. The radius of the arc is usually
(∆C) is equal to half the sum of the total composite selected to provide the maximum tooth bending
variation of the gear and the pinion. For gears with strength without the risk of interference with the tip
significant total composite variation, the increase in of the mating tooth. In gears that must have
the amount of backlash due to this change in center undercut profiles to provide sufficient clearance, it
distance is quite significant. The total transverse may not be possible to approximate the undercut
backlash is equal to the sum (B + Bc ). profile with a single arc. In such cases, a series of
arcs can be used, but only after checking for
6.3.9.2 Normal backlash (Bn ) possible interference.
Normal backlash is the difference between the 6.4.2 Undercutting
normal circular tooth space of the gear measured at A gear tooth is said to be an undercut tooth when
its operating pitch circle and the normal circular any part of the trochoid lies inside a line drawn
tooth thickness of the pinion measured at its tangent to the involute profile at the point of
operating pitch circle. The relation between the intersection of the involute and the trochoid. In
normal backlash and the transverse backlash is figure 41, the gear tooth profile shown is that of an
given by: undercut tooth as the trochoid lies inside a line
Bn = B cos ψp (external and internal gears) drawn tangent to the involute at True Involute Form
...(16) (TIF). One needs to be concerned about undercut
6.3.9.3 Backlash along line of action (Bb ) when the pinion or the gear has a small number of
teeth. In most applications, some amount of
Backlash along the line of action is the component undercut can be tolerated. In some cases,
of the transverse backlash measured along the line designers intentionally choose gear cutters that
of action and is given by: produce an undercut gear tooth to provide relief in
Bb = B cos Ôpt (external and internal gears) the root of the gear tooth for the grinding or the
...(17) shaving process. Severe undercutting can result in
considerable weakening of the tooth and loss of
6.4 Tooth fillet based geometric parameters
tooth action.
6.4.1 Tooth fillet 6.4.3 Radius at true involute form (RtifP, RtifG )
Tooth fillet refers to the portion of the gear tooth TIF represents the point of intersection of the fillet
profile that connects the root circle to the involute and the involute. Radius at TIF is the radial distance

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

from the center of the gear to the point of gear pair must be changed in order to accommo-
intersection of the fillet and involute. Figure 41 date the modified gear. The profile shift coefficient
illustrates the radius at TIF. Non--conjugate action is the product of the profile shift and the normal
and interference is seen when tooth contact occurs diametral pitch. Unmodified (or standard) gears
below TIF. Khiralla [2] presents a method to have a nominal center distance that is equal to
evaluate the radius at TIF for gears manufactured one--half the sum of their standard pitch diameters.
by hobbing and shaping methods. Standard gears are said to have zero profile shift.
Gears with positive profile shift (called enlarged
Tangent to gears) result when the generating pitch line (hob
involute
tool) or pitch diameter (shaper cutter) is held at a
at point G
larger radius than standard when machining the
G
gear. Gears with negative profile shift (called
reduced gears) result when this generating radius is
less than standard. Figure 42 shows the change in
the gear tooth form due to a positive profile shift
Radius at TIF coefficient of 0.5, resulting in enlarged teeth, for two
profile angles on a 10--tooth pinion. Note that the
Figure 41 -- Undercut teeth enlarged tooth form shows little or no undercut,
which is one of the primary justifications for profile
6.4.4 Profile shift (addendum modification) shift in gear designs.

Figure 42 illustrates another useful characteristic of

involute gear teeth. It is possible, using a cutter of The addendum of a gear is the radial distance from
given diametral pitch and profile angle, to cut the the standard pitch diameter to the outside diameter.
same number of teeth into gear blanks of various Since the outside radius of the gear is usually
outside diameters. The resulting gears, despite the increased by the same amount as the profile shift,
fact that they appear to be of different sizes, all have the addendum increases for an enlarged gear. For
the same base pitch and therefore will transmit a time, it was common to refer to enlarged gears
uniform rotary motion if run together, providing and reduced gears as long and short addendum
contact ratios and clearances are adequate. This gears respectively. Hence, the term addendum
blank diameter modification is called profile shift or modification is used to describe this process of
addendum modification. enlargement and reduction. However, because it is
not necessary to make the outside diameter any
6.4.4.1 Definitions specific dimension, the amount of change in the
The numerical value of profile shift is equal to the outside diameter may or may not correspond
amount by which the nominal center distance of a exactly to the amount of the profile shift.

X = 0.5 X = 0.5
X = 0.0 X = 0.0

10 tooth 10 tooth
20¥ PA 14.5¥ PA

Figure 42 -- Effect of profile shift (addendum modification)

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

The cutter may be fed in or held out with respect to balanced sliding and recess action in speed
the gear blank in order to cut less or greater tooth increasing gear meshes. Khiralla [2] presents a
thickness. Some gear experts have proposed that detailed discussion on the specific sliding
an additional term called rack shift be introduced to calculations for external gears.
define the amount of cutter feed in or hold out
6.4.4.3 Minimum positive profile shift
associated with profile shift coupled with tooth
thickness change for backlash alteration. Since this The minimum amount of positive profile shift is
proposal was not adopted at the time of this writing, based upon the following two criteria:
this Design Manual will use the most rigorous and -- When engaged with any mating external
simple definition for profile shift. Modification of gear or rack, the lowest contact point on the pin-
tooth thickness is considered a separate topic (see ion profile should be above any undercutting of
6.6). the involute by the generating action of a
6.4.4.2 Reasons for using profile shift standard tool;
-- When engaged with any standard mating
Avoiding undercut. Pinions with small number of external rack, the lowest contact point on the
teeth are usually enlarged to avoid undercut. For 20 pinion profile should be located above an initial
degree profile angle gears, gears with fewer than 24 portion of the involute. The initial portion is
teeth should be designed with positive profile shift. avoided because it is often difficult to manufac-
However, note that there is a maximum limit to ture accurately. The initial portion corresponds to
which the gear tooth can be enlarged before the top the first five degrees of roll.
land thickness (tooth thickness of the gear at its
Based upon the above two criteria, the minimum
outside diameter) becomes zero. The top land
value for a positive profile shift coefficient (enlarge-
thickness should be at least 0.275/Pnd .
ment) is given by:
Balancing bending strength. When the shape of X +min =
the trochoid of the pinion is considerably different
from that of the gear, the pinion tooth may be
weaker than the gear tooth. In using this to balance

MAX 0.0, 1.05 −
2 cos ψ

N sin Ô tsin Ô t − cos Ô t tan 5°

the bending strength of the two mating members, ...(18)

positive profile shift is applied to the pinion and 6.4.4.4 Maximum negative profile shift
negative profile shift to the gear. This makes the
The teeth of a gear containing a large number of
pinion tooth stronger and gear tooth weaker result-
teeth, mating with a pinion with profile--shifted
ing in balanced bending strength. In some cases,
enlarged teeth, can be reduced to increase the
designers balance bending fatigue strength instead
percentage of recess action in the mesh. The
of the bending strength because the pinion tooth
amount of negative profile shift should be chosen
experiences more load cycles than the gear tooth.
carefully and mesh contact below 5 degrees of roll
Balanced specific sliding. Specific sliding is the should be avoided. The maximum value for a
ratio of gear tooth sliding velocity to its rolling negative profile shift coefficient (tooth reduction) is
velocity. The amount of specific sliding influences given by:
the amount of wear on the tooth surface of the X – max =
pinion and the gear. The extreme specific sliding at
each end of the path of contact should be balanced 
MIN 0.0, 1.05 −
N sin Ô t(sin Ô t − cos Ô t tan 5°)
2 cos ψ

in order to minimize wear of the gear teeth. In speed
reducing external gears, balanced specific sliding is ...(19)
achieved by enlarging the pinion and mating it with Table 2 is the result of charting equations 18 and 19
either a reduced or standard gear. In speed as a function of number of teeth for 20 degree profile
increasing external gear meshes, balancing the angle gears. It is clear that when the gear has 24 or
specific sliding by enlarging the pinion usually more teeth, the lowest point of contact with a
results in a lower percentage of recess action (see standard rack is above 5 degrees of roll with no
6.7.4). It is necessary to compromise between tooth enlargement required. In fact, in a gear with a

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

large number of teeth, a significantly high value of distance. The actual operating center distance
negative profile shift coefficient (tooth reduction) should be greater than or equal to the nominal
may be used without contact occurring below 5 center distance. Operating the gears at center
degrees of roll. However, use of the maximum distances smaller than the nominal value could lead
allowable reduction may produce a tooth that has to a tight mesh condition and interference.
unacceptably low bending strength. Therefore, it is
recommended that less than 50% of the negative 6.5.2 Outside and inside diameter
profile shift allowed in table 2 be used for most The outside diameter on the external gears and the
designs. When reducing gears with large numbers inside diameter on the internal gears are normally
of teeth, engineers normally choose to reduce the related to the dedendum of the cutter when
gear by the same amount the pinion was enlarged. generation cutters of topping variety (one that cuts
If more than 50% of the reduction in table 2 is the outside and the inside diameter) are used.
thought to be appropriate, the design must be However, when such tooling is not used, the outside
carefully analyzed for bending strength, specific and inside diameter can be made without any
sliding ratio and contact ratio. The amount of relation to the dedendum of the cutter. The
negative profile shift should never exceed that standard outside diameter and standard inside
indicated in table 2. In all cases, tool data and diameter are given by:
clearances with mate must be evaluated.
2X P
Remember that it is not necessary to reduce gears D oP = DP + + 2 ...(21a)
P nd P nd
with large numbers of teeth. In fact, it is detrimental
2X G
to reduce gears in speed increasing drives as it D oG = DG + + 2 (for external gears)
P nd P nd
increases the percentage of approach action (see ...(21b)
6.7.4). 2X G
D iG = DG + – 2 (for internal gears)
P nd P nd
6.5 Additional gear parameters ...(21c)

6.5.1 Nominal center distance For spur pinions with small numbers of teeth (9 to
In applications where it is necessary to design for a 12), one would have to design gears with an outside
diameter smaller than the value given by the above
fixed value of standard center distance, if one
enlarges the pinion by applying a positive profile equations because the opposite involute profiles of
shift, then one has to reduce the gear by applying an a gear tooth intersect inside of, or too close to, this
value (low top land thickness). In such cases, the
equal but negative profile shift. Such designs are
called Long and Short Addendum Designs (for outside diameter must be reduced to a size such
enlarged pinions and reduced gears). In applica- that there is sufficient top land. The top land
tions where there is no need to maintain standard thickness of the gear should be at least 0.275/Pnd .
center distances, one can enlarge the pinion without Table 3 gives the maximum outside diameter for
pinions with fewer than 15 teeth for 20 degree profile
reducing the gear. Such gear designs are called
designs with spread centers (enlarged center angle gears. For 20 degree profile angle spur
distance system). gears, table 3 shows that maximum outside diame-
ter for pinions with fewer than 13 teeth is lower than
The nominal center distance for a gear mesh is the standard value. 20 degree profile angle spur
given by: gears with 13 teeth or more can be designed with
standard value for the outside diameter.
NP + NG X + X G (external gear
Cn = + P
2P nd cos ψ P nd meshes) ...(20a) The standard value for the addendum coefficient of
NG − NP X − X P (internal gear the cutting tools is 1.2 + (0.002)(Pnd ). In order to
Cn = + G maintain sufficient clearance at the root of the gear
2P nd cos ψ P nd meshes) ...(20b)
tooth, designers are not encouraged to choose
Note that for external gears when XP = - XG , the outside diameters greater than the standard value
nominal center distance equals standard center given by equations (21 a, b and c).

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Table 2 -- Profile shift coefficients for 20° profile angle spur gears1)

Profile shift coefficient2) Profile shift coefficient

Number Minimum Maximum Number Minimum Maximum
of teeth enlargement reduction of teeth enlargement reduction
9 0.6501 0.0000 49 0.0000 --1.1271
10 0.6057 0.0000 50 0.0000 --1.1715
11 0.5613 0.0000 51 0.0000 --1.2159
12 0.5168 0.0000 52 0.0000 --1.2603
13 0.4724 0.0000 53 0.0000 --1.3048
14 0.4280 0.0000 54 0.0000 --1.3492
15 0.3836 0.0000 55 0.0000 --1.3936
16 0.3391 0.0000 56 0.0000 --1.4381
17 0.2947 0.0000 57 0.0000 --1.4825
18 0.2503 0.0000 58 0.0000 --1.5269
19 0.2058 0.0000 59 0.0000 --1.5714
20 0.1614 0.0000 60 0.0000 --1.6158
21 0.1170 0.0000 61 0.0000 --1.6602
22 0.0725 0.0000 62 0.0000 --1.7046
23 0.0281 0.0000 63 0.0000 --1.7491
24 0.0000 --0.0163 64 0.0000 --1.7935
25 0.0000 --0.0607 65 0.0000 --1.8379
26 0.0000 --0.1052 66 0.0000 --1.8824
27 0.0000 --0.1496 67 0.0000 --1.9268
28 0.0000 --0.1940 68 0.0000 --1.9712
29 0.0000 --0.2385 69 0.0000 --2.0157
30 0.0000 --0.2829 70 0.0000 --2.0601
31 0.0000 --0.3273 71 0.0000 --2.1045
32 0.0000 --0.3718 72 0.0000 --2.1489
33 0.0000 --0.4162 73 0.0000 --2.1934
34 0.0000 --0.4606 74 0.0000 --2.2378
35 0.0000 --0.5050 75 0.0000 --2.2822
36 0.0000 --0.5495 76 0.0000 --2.3267
37 0.0000 --0.5939 77 0.0000 --2.3711
38 0.0000 --0.6383 78 0.0000 --2.4155
39 0.0000 --0.6828 79 0.0000 --2.4599
40 0.0000 --0.7272 80 0.0000 --2.5044
41 0.0000 --0.7716 NOTES:
1) This table gives the minimum required positive pro-
42 0.0000 --0.8160
file shift coefficient (enlargement) and the maximum al-
43 0.0000 --0.8605 lowable reduction for 20 degree profile angle gears.
Equations 18 and 19 may be used to generate similar
44 0.0000 --0.9049 tables for gears having profile angles other than 20
45 0.0000 --0.9493 degrees. A thorough understanding of 6.4.4 is
recommended before using this table.
46 0.0000 --0.9938 2) Profile shift coefficients are dimensionless. Divide
47 0.0000 --1.0382 values by normal diametral pitch to obtain profile shift in
48 0.0000 --1.0826 inch units.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Table 3 -- Maximum outside diameter for minimum topland of 0.275/Pnd

Pressure angle = 20 degrees
Number of teeth Profile shift coefficient Max OD1) Comments
9 0.6501 12.0144 <Std
10 0.6057 13.0256 <Std
11 0.5613 14.0304 <Std
12 0.5168 15.0296 <Std
13 0.4724 15.9448 Std
14 0.4280 16.8560 Std
15 0.3836 17.7672 Std
NOTE:
1) Max OD column is dimensionless. Divide values by diametral pitch for inch units.

In internal gears, the inside diameter should not 6.5.5 Pressure angle at outside or inside
extend below the base circle. For internal gears diameter
with fewer than 34 teeth, one should either apply
The transverse pressure angle at the outside or
positive profile shift or increase the inside diameter
inside diameter is given by:
such that roll angle at the inside diameter is at least
5 degrees.
Ô otP = cos−1 DD 
bP
oP
...(24a)
6.5.3 Helix angle at the outside and inside
diameter Ô otG = cos−1 DD  (external gears) ...(24b)
bG
oG
The lead of the helical gear tooth is the same at all
diameters and hence helix angle will be different at Ô itG = cos−1 DD  (internal gears) ...(24c)
bG
iG
different diameters. The helix angle at the outside
diameter of the pinion is given by: The normal pressure angle at the outside or inside
diameter is given by:

ψ oP = tan−1 D Dtan ψ
oP
P
...(22a) ÔonP = tan--1 (tan ÔotP cos ψoG )
--1
...(25a)
ÔonG = tan (tan ÔotG cos ψoG ) (external gears)
...(25b)
The helix angle at the outside or inside diameter of -
-1
ÔinG = tan (tan ÔitG cos ψiG ) (internal gears)
the gear is given by:
...(25c)

ψ oG = tan−1 D Dtan ψ (external gears)

oG
G
These parameters are needed to evaluate the tooth
thickness at the outside and the inside diameters of
...(22b) the external and internal gears respectively.

ψ iG = tan−1 D Dtan ψ (internal gears)...(22c)

iG
G
6.6 Tooth thickness calculations

The tooth thickness is a key dimension in defining

the gear tooth proportions. ANSI/AGMA 2002--B88
6.5.4 Base helix angle
gives a detailed description on how one should
specify and measure tooth thickness. Throughout
The base helix angle is the helix angle at the base
this document, tooth thickness will be defined as a
diameter and is given by:
circular arc distance. The standard value of tooth
thickness for a spur gear with zero profile shift is
ψ b = tan−1 D Dtan ψ = tan D Dtan ψ
bP
P
−1 bG
G
one--half of the standard circular pitch. Usually, the
tooth thickness of a gear is reduced from its
...(23) standard value to make allowance for backlash.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

The parameter that accounts for this allowance 2X tan Ô n ∆s nP

t nP = π + P − ...(27a)
made for backlash is called the tooth thinning 2P nd P nd P nd
coefficient.
t nG = π + 2XG tan Ô n − ∆s nG (external gears)
2P nd Pnd Pnd
6.6.1 Tooth thinning coefficient ...(27b)
2X tan Ô n ∆s nG
Tooth thinning coefficient is a normalized measure t nG = π − G − (internal gears)
2P nd P nd P nd
of the amount by which the tooth thickness of a ...(27c)
pinion or gear is reduced from its nominal value at 6.6.3 Transverse circular tooth thickness at
the standard pitch diameter. The tooth thicknesses standard pitch diameter
are reduced by feeding the cutter deeper into the
gear blank. The tooth thinning coefficients are Transverse circular tooth thickness at the standard
considered independent of the profile shift in order pitch diameter is given by:
to have the outside diameter independent of tooth t nP
t tP = ...(28a)
thinning for backlash. For a required normal cos ψ
backlash (Bn ), the tooth thinning coefficients should t nG
t tG = ...(28b)
sum to: cos ψ
DP + DG 6.6.4 Transverse circular tooth thickness at
∆s nP + ∆s nG = B n P nd ...(26)
2C operating pitch diameter

A positive value for tooth thinning coefficient The transverse circular tooth thickness at the
indicates that the gear tooth has been thinned for operating pitch diameter is given by:
backlash. Suggested values for tooth thinning
coefficients are 0.015 to 0.08. In most cases, when t ptP = dP Dt tP
P
+ invÔ t − invÔ pt  ..(29a)
pinions have small numbers of teeth, tooth thinning
to allow for backlash is applied only on the gear. In
some cases, one can increase the tooth thickness
t ptG = d G  t tG
DG

+ invÔ t − invÔ pt (external gears)
...(29b)
of the pinion by choosing a negative value for tooth
thinning coefficient. But in such cases, the gear
designer should be sure that the gear mesh has
t ptG = d G  t tG
DG

− invÔ t + invÔ pt (internal gears)
...(29c)
positive backlash by using equation 14. When the
sum of the tooth thinning coefficients (∆snP + ∆snG ) The normal circular tooth thickness at the operating
is positive, the gear mesh will have positive pitch diameter is given by:
backlash. tpnP = tptP cos ψp ...(30)
6.6.5 Circular tooth thickness at outside or
When using generating cutters of topping variety,
inside diameter
the outside diameter will be affected if the cutter is
fed deeper into the blank to make allowance for The transverse circular tooth thickness at the
backlash. In such cases, one can reduce tooth outside or inside diameter (top land) is given by:
thickness by side trimming or by increasing the
tooth thickness of the cutter. t otP = DoP Dt tP
P
+ invÔ t − invÔ otP  ....(31a)

6.6.2 Normal circular tooth thickness at

standard pitch diameter
totG = D oG Dt tG
G

+ invÔ t − invÔ otG (external gears)
...(31b)
The normal circular tooth thickness for a gear with
zero profile shift and no tooth thinning for backlash
titG = D iG Dt tG
G

− invÔ t + invÔ itG (internal gears)
...(31c)
will be equal to one--half of the normal circular pitch.
The normal circular tooth thickness at the standard The normal circular tooth thickness at the outside or
pitch diameter for the pinion and the gear are given inside diameter is given by:
by: tonP = totP cos ψoP ...(32a)

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

tonG = totG cos ψoG (for external gears) ...(32b) total composite variation, then the gear mesh will
tinG = titG cos ψiG (for internal gears) ...(32c) interfere during operation. For more details on the
effect of total composite variation on gear tooth
When the above equations for the tooth thickness at thickness, refer to ANSI/AGMA 2002--B88.
the outside or inside diameter give negative values,
it means that the two opposite involutes of a tooth 6.7 Contact ratio calculations
have intersected below the outside diameter for an
6.7.1 Start of active profile for external gear
external gear or above the inside diameter for an
meshes
internal gear. This situation can occur when gears
with small numbers of teeth are enlarged to avoid The start of active profile (SAP) represents a point
undercut. In such cases, it is recommended that the near the root of the gear tooth where the tip circle of
outside diameter be decreased such that the tooth the mating gear makes contact. Points A and B in
thickness at the outside diameter is at least figure 43 represent the start of active profile for the
0.275/Pnd . For internal gears, one would increase pinion and the external gear respectively. The
the inside diameter such that the tooth thickness at radius at SAP represents the radial distance from
the inside diameter is at least 0.275/Pnd . the center of the pinion or the gear to its SAP.

6.6.6 Effect of total composite variation

R aP =  C sin Ôpt − R 2oG − R 2bG 
2
+ R 2bP
In coarse pitch gears, the change in circular tooth ...(34a)


thickness due to total composite variation is small 2
when compared to change in tooth thickness due to R aG = 
C sin Ôpt − R 2oP − R 2bP + R 2bG
tooth thinning for backlash. However, in fine--pitch
...(34b)
gearing, the effect of total composite variation is
significant. The change in tooth thickness from the The above two formulae are valid only when the
nominal tooth thickness (equation 27) at the following two constraints are satisfied:
standard pitch diameter due to total composite
C sin Ô pt − R 2oG − R 2bG > 0.0 ...(35a)
variation (Vcq ) is given by:
∆t = ¦ Vcq tan Ôn ...(33) C sin Ô pt − R 2oP − R 2bP > 0.0 ...(35b)

If the tooth thinning allowance for backlash is If equation 35a is not satisfied, then RaP = RbP .
smaller than this change in tooth thickness due to If equation 35b is not satisfied, then RaG = RbG .

Base circle
(pinion)
Outside circle D
(pinion)
A
P
Outside circle B
(gear)
E
Base circle Line of action
(gear)

Line of centers

Figure 43 -- Line of action for external gears

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

These constraints ensure that the tip of one gear 6.7.3 Roll angle at the start of active profile
tooth does not contact the mating gear tooth below
Roll angle at a point on the involute is a good
its base circle. If the first constraint (equation 35a) is
measure of how far that point is away from the base
not satisfied, the tip of the gear mates with the pinion
circle. Roll angle at the base diameter is zero
below the base diameter of the pinion. In such
degrees. Roll angle at the start of active profile in
cases, the designer should increase the profile shift
degrees is given by:
of the pinion or decrease the outside diameter of the
gear such that these constraints are satisfied.
Since the gear is larger than the pinion, it is very rare
that the second constraint will be violated. If the
e aP = 180
π
  R aP
R bP
2
 − 1.0 ...(38a)

second constraint (equation 35b) is not satisfied,

 
2
the designer should increase the profile shift of the
gear or decrease the outside diameter of the pinion

e aG = 180
π
R aG
R bG
 − 1.0 ...(38b)
such that these constraints are satisfied. When (external and internal gears)
suggested values for minimum required profile shift
are used, this situation will not occur. See table 2. As it is difficult to manufacture gears with accurate
involute profile near the base circle, it is recom-
6.7.2 Start of active profile for internal gear mended that the roll angle at the start of active
meshes profile for the pinion and the gear be at least 5
degrees. If the profile shift coefficients for the pinion
The points where the outside diameter of the pinion
and the gear are more than the minimum required
and the inside diameter of the gear intersect the line
given in table 2 and if the pinion and the gear have
of action represent the contact points where the
standard outside diameters, then the roll angle at
gear teeth come into contact and leave contact. In
the start of active profile will be greater than 5
internal gears, non--conjugate contact and interfer-
ence occur when the inside diameter of the gear degrees.
contacts the mating pinion below the base diameter 6.7.4 Approach and recess action
of the pinion. In order to avoid interference, the
following constraint should be satisfied: In figure 43, the pinion is shown as the driver and
point A represents the first point of contact. Since
R 2iG − R 2bG > RbG − RbP tan Ôpt ...(36) mesh contact between points A and P along the line
of action approaches the pitch point, gear mesh
When suggested values for minimum required action between these points is termed approach
profile shift are used, the above constraint will be action and for similar reasons, gear mesh action
satisfied. For internal gears, the radius at the start between points P and B is termed recess action.
of active profile for the pinion and the gear are given During approach action, the frictional forces oppose
by: the rotation of the driven gear, whereas during
recess action, the frictional forces aid the rotation of
the driven gear. It is for this reason that involute

R aP = R 2bP + R 2
iG − R 2bG action during recess is favorable. Gear meshes that
have a higher percentage of recess action are more
1∕2 ...(37a)
− R bG − R bP tan Ô pt
2
 efficient and have longer life.

The distance between points A and P is called the

length of approach and is given by:


R aG = R 2bG + R 2 – R 2bP 2

L a = 1 D2oG − D2bG − d2G − D 2bG  ...(39a)
oP
1∕2 ...(37b) (external gears)
+ R bG − R bP tan Ô pt
2
 The distance between points B and P is called the
length of recess and is given by:

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION


L r = 1 D2oP − D2bP − d2P − D 2bP
2
 ...(39b)
6.7.6 Transverse contact ratio

(external gears) Spur gear meshes have transverse contact ratios

typically between 1.0 and 3.1. Spur gear meshes
Figure 44 shows the internal gear mesh. The pinion
with transverse contact ratios between 1.0 and 2.0
is assumed to be driving the internal gear. The
are called low contact ratio (LCR) spur gear meshes
distance between points A and P is called the length
and those with contact ratios greater than 2.0 are
of approach and is given by:
called high contact ratio (HCR) spur gear meshes.

2

L a = 1 d2G − D2bG − D2iG − D 2bG  ...(40a)
When gears can be made and mounted with
sufficient accuracy such that the transmitted load is
(internal gears) shared between tooth pairs in contact, it is advanta-
The distance between points B and P is called the geous to design spur gear meshes with a contact
length of recess and is given by: ratio greater than 2.0 because they have a greater
load carrying capacity and their action is smoother.
2

L r = 1 D2oP − D2bP − d2P − D 2bP ...(40b)
However, an individual tooth in a HCR design is
(internal gears) generally weaker than a tooth in a LCR design.
Thus, gear accuracy sufficiently high to ensure load
6.7.5 Contact ratio sharing between tooth pairs is essential.
Contact ratio is the average number of tooth pairs in 6.7.6.1 External gears
contact as the gear teeth come into mesh and leave
mesh. This is also known as total contact ratio. The points where the outside diameters of the
Contact ratio consists of two parameters: trans- pinion and the gear intersect the line of action
verse contact ratio and face contact ratio. Trans- represent the contact points where the gear teeth
verse contact ratio is applicable to spur and helical come into contact and leave contact. The active
gears, whereas face contact ratio is only applicable length of the line of action is equal to the distance
to helical gears. If the total contact ratio for gear between these two intersection points. The trans-
mesh is 1.7, then two tooth pairs will be in contact verse contact ratio is equal to the length of the active
70% of the time and only one tooth pair will be in line of action (distance AB in figure 43) divided by
contact 30% of the time. the transverse base pitch.

Line of action Pinion outside circle

Transverse operating B
pressure angle P
A
D E
RbP
RoP

RiG
RbG
O

C
Figure 44 -- Line of action for internal gears

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

The transverse contact ratio is given by: When the inequality in equation 36 is satisfied, the
transverse contact ratio is given by:
D2oP − D2bP + D2oG − D2bG − 2C sin Ô pt
mp = RbG − R bP tan Ô pt+R2oP − R2bP −R2iG − R2bG
2pb m p=
...(41) pb
...(43)
It is important to note that this formula for transverse 6.7.7 Face contact ratio
contact ratio is valid only for gear meshes where the
This is applicable only to helical gears. Face
radius at the true involute form (RtifP, RtifG ) is smaller
contact ratio for spur gears is zero. In spur gears,
than the radius at start of active profile (RaP, RaG ). It
the lines of contact are parallel to the axis of rotation
is not uncommon for designers to make this mistake
whereas in helical gears the lines of contact are
and design gear meshes whose contact ratio is near
inclined to the axis of rotation. This helical action
1.4 based on the above formula but in actual gear
leads to a parameter called face contact ratio. Face
action, the contact ratio is near 0.9 due to loss of
contact ratio can be viewed as a measure of
involute profile near the root of the gear tooth. This
average number of teeth in contact in the axial
situation may occur in gear designs with low
plane. Face contact ratio is given by:
numbers of teeth (< 20) and zero profile shift. When
suggested values for profile shift are used, this F tan ψb
mF = pb ...(44)
situation will not occur. See table 2.
Face contact ratio is directly proportional to helix
The transverse contact ratio can also be expressed angle and face width. One cannot achieve higher
in terms of radius at SAP and is given by equation face contact ratios when gears have very narrow
42. face width. Gear meshes should be designed with
face contact ratio of at least 1.0. This is because
C sin Ôpt − R2aP − R2bP − R 2aG − R 2bG
gear meshes with face contact ratio less than 1.0
mp = pb perform more like spur gears and hence provide no
...(42) advantage. In gears with face contact ratio less
than 1.0, the disadvantage of experiencing an axial
Equation 42 can be used even when constraints in
thrust outweighs all the advantages of designing a
equation 35 are not satisfied by substituting
helical gear mesh.
RaP = RbP if equation 35a is not satisfied or RaG = RbG
if equation 35b is not satisfied. Gear meshes with integral face contact ratios (face
contact ratio = 1.0 or 2.0 or an integer value) have
From the above formula, the transverse contact the following important property:
ratio is a function of center distance. Contact ratio
decreases with an increase in the center distance. The sum of the length of contact lines for gear
Designers should design gears with transverse meshes with integral face contact ratios does not
contact ratio of 1.3 or greater and should specify a vary when the gears rotate.
tolerance on center distance such that the trans- Since the gear mesh stiffness is approximately
verse contact ratio is at least 1.1 at the maximum proportional to sum of the length of contact lines,
center distance. The higher the contact ratio, the gear mesh stiffness does not vary with gear
smoother the gear mesh. rotation. Gears with constant mesh stiffness exhibit
smoother motion with low vibration and noise.
6.7.6.2 Internal gears
Hence it is recommended that gear designers
The points where the outside diameter of the pinion design helical gears with integral face contact ratio.
and the inside diameter of the gear intersect the line The designer should be aware that manufacturing
of action represent the contact points where the and/or assembly variations will cause a reduction in
gear teeth come into contact and leave contact. face contact ratio.
The active length of line of action is equal to the 6.8 Root diameter and clearance
distance between these two intersection points.
Transverse contact ratio is equal to the length of 6.8.1 Root diameter
active line of action (distance AB in figure 43) Root diameter is the diameter of the circle passing
divided by the transverse base pitch. through the deepest point of the gear tooth fillet.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

The root diameter depends on the addendum of the 6.9 Load and stress calculations
cutter used. The standard value for the addendum
6.9.1 Normal load (Wn )
of the cutter in inches is given by:
This is the force that acts normal to the gear tooth in
a h = 1.2 + 0.002 ...(45) the normal plane along the line of action, as shown
P nd
in figure 45. In most cases, gears are designed for a
The root diameters are given by: given value of transmitted torque. As it is easier to
calculate the tangential load from a given value of

D rP = DP − 2 ah −
XP
+
∆s nP
P nd 2P nd tan Ôn
 torque, normal load is often expressed in terms of
...(46a) tangential load.


D rG = DG − 2 ah −
XG
+
∆s nG
P nd 2P nd tan Ôn
 Wn =
Wt
cos Ôpn cos ψ p
...(50)

(for external gears) ...(46b) Taken from [9].


D rG = DG + 2 ah +
XG
+
∆s nG
P nd 2P nd tan Ôn
 6.9.2 Tangential load (Wt )
The tangential load is the component of the normal
(for internal gears) ...(46c)
force that acts tangentially to the operating pitch
6.8.2 Root clearance circle of the gear. It is given by:
The root clearance is the radial separation between W t = 2T
dP ...(51)
the root circle of a gear and the outside or inside
circle of the mating gear. 6.9.3 Axial load (Wa )
The root clearance at the root of the pinion is given
The axial load is the component of the normal force
by:
that acts along the axis of the gear. For spur gears,
D rP + D oG the axial load is zero. For helical gears the axial load
cP = C − (for external gears) is:
2
...(47a)
Wa = Wt tan ψp ...(52)
DiG − DrP 6.9.4 Radial load (Wr )
cP = − C (for internal gears)
2
...(47b) The radial load is the component of the normal force
The root clearance at the root of the gear is given by: that acts toward the axis of the gear. It is the
separating force between the two gears. It is given
D oP + D rG by:
cG = C − (for external gears)
2 ...(48a) Wr = Wt tan Ôpt ...(53)
DrG − DoP It is important to note that radial loads on the
cG = − C (for internal gears) bearings should be calculated based on the normal
2 ...(48b) load along the line of action and not based on the
radial load that tries to separate the two gears.
The minimum root clearance required for normal
successful operation is equal to the clearance in the 6.9.5 Calculation of bending stress
cutter and is given by:
The evaluation of bending stress at the root of the
c min = 0.2 + 0.002 ...(49) gear tooth is based on the AGMA geometry factor
P nd
method presented in ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95. It
If standard outside diameters are used and the gives a detailed discussion of the method which is
gears are operated at nominal center distance, based upon inscribing a parabola within a gear
sufficient root clearance will be present. However, if tooth. The bending stress in pounds per square
the gears are to be operated at closer than nominal inch at the fillet of the gear tooth is given by:
center distance, the root clearance should be
verified to be equal to or greater than the minimum Wt P d
σb = ...(54)
value. F Kv J

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Ôn

Wr
Ôt Wa
ψ

Wt Tooth element

Pitch
cylinder

Figure 45 -- Showing angle at which load bears on tooth

where Note that ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95 contains a differ-

ent definition for Kv than that which appears above.
F is face width;
The definition of Kv used in this Design Manual is an
Kv is dynamic factor; older, less sophisticated approximation of the
dynamic factor and is considered completely
J is geometry factor.
appropriate for a majority of fine--pitch designs.
The J factor accounts for load sharing and stress
It is recommended that geometry factor, J, be
concentration at the root of the gear tooth and Kv
determined by AGMA 908--B89, Information Sheet,
accounts for the dynamic effects.
Geometry Factors for Determining the Pitting
The dynamic factor is given by: Resistance and Bending Strength for Spur, Helical
and Herringbone Gear Teeth. It includes tables for
Kv = 50
...(55) some common tooth forms and the analytical
50 + V
method for involute gears with generated root fillets.
where Computer programs are available commercially to
evaluate geometry factor for spur and helical gears
V is the pitch line velocity in feet per minute.
that have profile shift. One can also use analytical
The pitch line velocity for the pinion can be techniques like Finite Element Method (FEM) and
calculated by multiplying rotational speed in revolu- Boundary Element Method (BEM) to evaluate
tions per second by the circumference of the stresses at the root of the gear tooth. However, to
operating pitch circle in feet. get an approximate value of bending stresses at the

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

tooth fillet, the following geometry factor values are

suggested: 0.35 for low contact ratio spur gears;
0.7979 cos ψ
 Wt m G+1
Fdp mG
0.4 for high contact ratio spur gears or helical gears σc =
with face contact ratio less than 1.0; and a value of
0.45 for helical gears with face contact ratio greater
mp cos Ô pn sin Ôpn

1−ν 2P 1−ν 2G
EP
+
EG
than 1.0. ...(57)
The bending stresses should not be greater than the Contact stresses are usually higher for pinions with
allowable limit for the chosen material. If the small numbers of teeth. If the contact stress is
calculated bending stress is greater than the larger than the allowable calculated contact stress,
calculated allowable limit, the designer should increasing the number of teeth on the pinion and
choose a coarser diametral pitch and recalculate all increasing the diametral pitch will reduce the
the parameters starting with those given in 6.2. contact stress for constant pitch diameter. Contact
stresses are low in plastics as they have low
6.9.6 Calculation of contact stress
modulus of elasticity. In steel, hardening the
The contact stress depends upon the modulus of material by heat treatment increases the maximum
elasticity. The gear mesh contact stress is based allowable contact stress. ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95
upon the Hertzian formula for compressive stress gives a detailed description of the allowable contact
between two cylinders in contact at the pitch point. stress for various steels.
For spur gears, the contact stress at the pitch point 6.10 Special topics
is given by: 6.10.1 Internal gear tooth tip interference

0.7979
 W t mG+1
Fd p m G
An internal gear in engagement with a pinion is
subjected to special requirements that do not apply
σc = ...(56) to external gears. These requirements concern
cos Ôpt sin Ô pt

1−ν2P 1−ν 2G
EP
+
EG
avoiding interference between portions of tooth
profiles of the internal gear and those of the mating
pinion or the generation tool. Some of the
where interferences can be corrected by increasing the
EP and EG are the moduli of elasticity of the inside diameter of the gear without significant loss in
pinion material and the gear material contact ratio. Other interferences require changes
respectively; in tooth thickness and numbers of teeth in the pinion
νP and νG are Poisson’s ratios of the pinion and the internal gear. Internal gears are usually
material and the gear material manufactured using pinion--shaped (shaper) cut-
respectively. ting tools. Design of pinion--shaped cutting tools
plays an important role in the design of internal
In low contact ratio spur gears, maximum contact gears. The equations that describe the conditions
stress occurs when contact takes place at the for interference are given in Colbourne [1] and they
lowest point of single tooth contact. The above are beyond the scope of this document. This clause
formula evaluates the contact stress at the pitch briefly describes some recommendations useful in
point and not at the lowest point of single tooth avoiding interference between portions of the tooth
contact. In most designs, error in evaluating the profiles of internal gears.
contact stress at the pitch point is small but when
The recommendations are as follows:
the contact stress is near the maximum allowable
stress value for the material chosen, one needs to -- No part of the internal gear tooth profile
evaluate the contact stress at the lowest point of should extend inside its base diameter. This im-
single tooth contact. Details on evaluating contact plies that the inside diameter should be greater
stresses at the lowest point of single tooth contact than the base diameter. The gear tooth profile is
are beyond the scope of this manual and it is not an involute below the base diameter and
hence contact below the base diameter could
recommended that the gear designers refer to
lead to non--conjugate action or interference with
ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95 and Colbourne [1].
the mating pinion. It is recommended that the roll
For helical gears, contact stress is measured at the angle at the inside diameter be at least 5 de-
pitch point and is given by: grees. In order to have at least 5 degrees of roll at

52
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

the inside diameter, 20 degree pressure angle diameter of the pinion and pressure angle. It is
internal gears with fewer than 36 teeth should be recommended that designers check whether the
designed with either positive profile shift gear mesh can be assembled radially when the
coefficient or with an inside diameter larger than difference in the number of teeth is smaller than
the standard inside diameter. Similarly, in order or close to 17. This requirement is very important
to have at least 5 degrees of roll at the inside during machining an internal gear with a pinion--
diameter, 14.5 degree pressure angle internal shaped generating cutter. The cutter is fed
gears with fewer than 72 teeth should be de- radially into the blank and when this requirement
signed with either positive profile shift coefficient is not satisfied, the cutter removes part of the
or an inside diameter larger than the standard involute tooth profile near the inside diameter.
inside diameter. Designers are encouraged to refer to the analytical
-- The tip of the internal gear tooth should not equations that define the limits to avoid interference
mate with the pinion below or near the pinion given in the references. When analytical equations
base diameter. This condition is called involute are not available, individual designs can be tested
interference. The roll angle at the start of active for all of these requirements by studying enlarged
profile on the pinion should be greater than 5 de- scale drawings of the two gears in engagement,
grees. Increasing the inside diameter or applying both during assembly and during rotation.
a positive profile shift coefficient for the internal
gear will generally be sufficient to avoid involute 6.10.2 Tip rounds and chamfers
interference. When the internal gear mates with The tips of gear teeth are sometimes rounded or
enlarged pinions, it is recommended that positive chamfered. This may be due to the burr removal
profile shift also be applied to the internal gear. process or minimum corner radius (wire radius) in
-- The tips of the internal gear teeth should not molds and dies made by EDM process. In some
interfere with the tips of the pinion teeth as the cases, gear teeth are chamfered to avoid damage
teeth are rotated into and out of their contacting to the tooth surface of the mating gear by a sharp
positions. This phenomenon is called fouling. corner at the tip of the gear tooth. Rounding and
When the internal gear has at least 10 teeth more chamfering at the tooth tip lead to a decrease in the
than the pinion, there is sufficient clearance effective outside diameter or an increase in the
between the tip of the pinion and the tip of the in- effective inside diameter. Any decrease in outside
ternal gears. However, it is recommended that diameter or increase in inside diameter results in
designers refer to Colbourne [1] and check for reduced contact ratio and hence gear designers are
the occurrence of interference when the differ- requested to evaluate contact ratio using effective
ence in the number of teeth is smaller than or outside and inside diameters. It is important to note
close to 10. In some cases when fouling occurs, that this effect is significant in fine--pitch gears.
it can be avoided by increasing the inside diame-
ter of the internal gear or decreasing the outside
diameter of the pinion or both. But, in most
7 Design for control of backlash
cases, it may be necessary to make extensive
design changes to avoid fouling.
7.1 Design procedure
-- Usually, if the first three recommendations
are satisfied, then the gear mesh can be This clause describes a design procedure to ensure
assembled axially. There are some instances proper backlash in the operating set of gears. It also
when axial assembly may be impossible due to serves to correlate manufacturing, inspection and
geometry of the gear blank. The tips of the inter- assembly requirements, dimensional specification
nal gear teeth must not interfere with the tips of of tooth thickness, measurement over wires and
the pinion teeth as the pinion is assembled radial- test radius without ambiguity or conflict of data.
ly into engagement with the internal gear. For 20
7.1.1 Place in the complete design process
degree pressure angle gears, when the number
of teeth in the gear exceeds the number of teeth This procedure is concerned only with the geometry
in the pinion by 17 or more, radial assembly may of the meshing gears. It is used after the selection of
be possible. The position of the gear tooth pro- materials and general sizes of the two gears, as
files depends on the tooth thickness values, described in clauses 5 and 6. It also follows the
inside diameter of the internal gear, the outside selection of the mounting design and gear manufac-

53
AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

turing processes, all of which determine the ex- effects not considered elsewhere in the design
pected dimensional variations in the gear set. The procedure.
procedure shows whether the assigned tolerances
An interference condition, or negative calculated
ensure that all meshing requirements will be met. If
backlash, should be avoided. Even when it does not
tolerances cannot be met and changes must be
prevent assembly of the gears, the interference will
made to the general design, such as in pitch,
cause deflections of the gear teeth and of the shafts,
numbers of teeth or center distance, then this
bearings and other supporting members. Such
procedure is reapplied to the new design. If the
deflections often result in unpredictability high
design is acceptable, the procedure will have
forces, greater than the forces from the design load,
supplied the specifications needed to manufacture
and lead to reduced efficiency and premature
and inspect the gears.
failure.
7.1.2 Types of gears covered The value for minimum backlash is used as input
The procedure is sufficiently general that, with data in the design calculations. It should be
appropriate selection of equations, it can be applied selected after review of the above considerations
to any set of external spur or helical gears and, with and their importance to the application.
proper precautions, to sets of external--internal 7.2.2 Maximum backlash
gears.
In most power applications, those with a steady
7.1.3 Basic rules driving action and a steady load, there is no need for
a maximum backlash requirement. As long as tooth
This design procedure follows these basic rules:
contact occurs on the same side of the tooth and
-- Allowances for backlash and gear and adequate contact ratio is maintained, large
mounting tolerances are made by reductions in amounts of backlash are not harmful, assuming
nominal tooth thickness (tooth thinning); tooth strength is adequate. However, if the rotation
is reversed during operation or if the driven member
-- The combined effect of tolerance is found by changes from resisting the driving torque to aiding
direct addition of effects of individual tolerances the driving torque, tooth contact abruptly shifts from
(worst--case tolerance analysis). one side of the tooth to the other. The resulting
7.2 Backlash shock and vibration often increase with greater
backlash. For such operating considerations, a
7.2.1 Minimum backlash, BhT (spur gears) or maximum backlash limit is advisable. The value for
BnhT (helical gears) this limit is usually selected from prior experience.
The maintaining of a desired minimum backlash at If the gear set is used for accurate position control
the tightest point of mesh is the first objective of this and operates in both directions of rotation, the
design procedure. This minimum backlash is backlash will contribute to the position error. This is
desirable for one or more of the following reasons: another condition which calls for a maximum
backlash requirement. The value of this require-
-- To provide room for the fluid lubricant film
ment is usually selected after making an analysis of
that separates the loaded surfaces of the gear
the cumulative effect of gear variations and back-
teeth;
lash and relating it to the specified position
-- To provide a flow channel for the fluid accuracy.
lubricant trapped in the root areas, especially in In many designs, a maximum backlash requirement
high--speed, wide--face spur gears, thereby re- will translate into very tight gear tolerances. When
lieving the pressure that adds load to the shaft such tight tolerances are economically unfeasible, it
and bearings and reduces efficiency; may be necessary to consider other methods for
-- To permit the passage of small dirt particles backlash control (see 7.5).
carried by the lubricant; 7.3 Maximum backlash computation
-- To provide additional clearance between the AGMA Paper 239.14 [8] provides a complete
gears as an allowance for possible gear and procedure for correlating data for manufacturing,
mounting dimensional variations and thermal inspection and assembly.

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7.4 Test radius

See ANSI/AGMA 2002--B88 for a detailed descrip-
tion of test radius.
7.5 Other methods of backlash control

Some design applications call for severe limits on

the maximum backlash at the point of loosest mesh.
These limits cannot be met using the foregoing
design procedure even if the tolerances are made
as small as practical. Some applications may even
require zero backlash. To meet such conditions, the
designer can use some special methods of back- Figure 46 -- Adjustable center distance
lash control, of which a number of examples using gearing
spur and helical gears are described here.
7.5.2.2 Spring loading
7.5.1 Selective assembly
In this method, the bearings supporting one of the
Selective assembly is one way of meeting gears are free to move under the influence of spring
maximum backlash requirements without further forces so as to tighten the gear center distance.
reducing center distance and tooth thickness Except for this movement, the bearings are fully
tolerances. Usually one gear in the gear set is constrained (see figure 47). This results in zero
manufactured in a range of sizes and, at assembly, backlash for all rotational positions of the gears.
The spring forces must be kept greater than the
the proper size is selected to give the desired
opposing bearing forces developed by the gear
minimum backlash at the point of tightest mesh.
loads and other applied loads. This condition
With this method, it is still necessary to limit the total
causes wedging of the gear teeth and increased
composite tolerances to achieve small enough
gear and bearing friction. Because of the total
backlash at the point of loosest mesh. composite variations in the gears, there is vibration
7.5.2 Center distance control of the spring loaded bearings and further friction
losses. This method of backlash control is not
Controlling backlash by change in center distance suitable for applications with high loads or high
can be accomplished either by adjustment or by a speeds.
spring forcing the gears together. In either case, the
center distance tolerance and the tooth thickness
tolerances no longer influence the backlash.
However, the total composite tolerances are still
important.
7.5.2.1 Adjustment
In this method, the bearings supporting one of the
gears can be moved to obtain the desired minimum
backlash at the point of tightest mesh. One such
arrangement is shown in figure 46. Another
possible arrangement uses eccentric bushings in
fixed housings. After adjustment, the bushings
must be clamped tight enough to resist the forces
developed by the applied loads. Adjustment has a
relative disadvantage. Due to the total composite
variations of the two gears, the backlash for other
rotated positions of the gears will be greater than the Figure 47 -- Spring loaded center distance
adjusted tightest mesh value. gearing

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

7.5.3 Split gearing The spring forces must be kept great enough to
withstand the transmitted gear loads in the direction
In split gearing, one of the gears in the mating pair is that opposes the spring. If the transmitted gear
constructed of two half--gears side--by--side (see loads are the same in both directions of rotation, the
figures 48 and 49). Only one half is directly fastened resulting total gear tooth contact faces are in excess
to its shaft. Rotation of one half relative to the other of three times those for simple gears. The
has the effect of changing their combined tooth combined total composite variations of the gears
thickness and thereby controls the backlash. This require some relative motion of the split gear
relative rotation may be used in the form of an sections in order to keep the zero backlash
adjustment during assembly or it may be left as a condition. These extra loads and relative motion all
continuing action under spring loading. In either add to the friction losses and make this method of
case, the center distance tolerance and the tooth backlash control not suitable for applications other
thickness tolerances no longer influence the back- than those with light loads and low speeds.
lash. Split gearing has the disadvantage of its more
complex construction and the added space it needs
and the added inertia it introduces. If the gears must
transmit the same load in both directions, the split
design means the doubling or tripling of the overall
size of the split gear and a corresponding increase
in the face width of the one--piece mating gear.

7.5.3.1 Adjustable

In this method, the two half gears are adjusted and

clamped, as in figure 48, to give the desired
minimum backlash at the point of tightest mesh with
the mating gear. The clamping must be tight
Figure 49 -- Spring loaded split gearing
enough to resist the operating gear loads. The total
composite variations of all the gears will be reflected
in some increase in backlash during their rotational
cycle. 7.5.4 Composite gearing with elastic element

One of the gears of the mating pair is constructed

with an elastic element inserted. This type of
gearing consists of a metallic gear with a plastic
element running through the central portion of all of
the teeth. See figure 50.

When this gear is assembled with its mate of

conventional design, the metallic parts of the teeth
will have normal backlash. However, the oversize
plastic section will take up the backlash for all but
the heaviest loads.

This type will not transmit angular motion accu-

Figure 48 -- Adjustable split gearing rately, except under light loads, since the plastic
tends to center the composite gear in the center of
7.5.3.2 Spring loaded the mating gear tooth space. This centering varies
with the amount of load applied. Consideration
The spring loaded design gives zero backlash for all should be given to the increased bearing loads and
rotational positions of the gears. A common friction resulting from the contact of the deformed
construction for such gearing is shown in figure 49. plastic.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

Figure 50 -- Composite gearing with elastic element

7.5.5 Tapered gearing only one side of each tooth. This may be done by
preloading the gear train with a spring or weight
It is possible to manufacture a spur or helical gear
acting on the last driven gear, as in figure 52. Such
with its tooth thickness tapering slightly from one
preloading is possible only if the total rotation is
side of its face width to the other. If two such gears
limited to the range of the spring or weight
are made with matching tapers and assembled so
arrangement. Unlike some other spring--loaded
that the tapered teeth fit each other, as in figure 51,
methods, this one does not cause wedging of the
the gears will run together just as well as gears with
gear teeth. However, it does still add to the system
uniform tooth thickness. With
friction and to the load on the gears.
such tapered gears, it is possible to adjust their
relative axial position so as to control backlash.

Figure 51 -- Tapered gearing

Figure 52 -- Spring preloaded gearing (for
The use of spring loading as a means of continually limited rotation)
adjusting the tapered gears for zero backlash is not
recommended. If a small taper angle is used, there 7.5.7 Dual path
may be wedging of the teeth and increased friction. It is possible to achieve the results of the preload
method in a continuously rotating gear train by the
7.5.6 Preload
use of the dual path design. In this design, there are
The effect of backlash in a drive train can be two similar gear trains, a primary train to transmit
controlled by keeping the gear teeth contacting on the operating loads and a secondary train to

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

eliminate the backlash. Both are driven by the same 8 Gear drawings and specifications
pinion. Their final gears are both on the output shaft
with the primary final gear rigidly connected and 8.1 General
secondary gear spring connected, as shown in
figure 53. As in the preload method, there is no The gear drawing should clearly depict the end
wedging of the gear teeth but there is still the added product configuration and quality level without
friction and added gear loading. actually describing manufacturing methods. The
drawing may become part of a contract between
gear manufacturer and buyer. Therefore, no design
detail essential to the operation of the gears should
be omitted or assumed. In fairness to both parties,
the drawing should be specific and complete.
See ANSI Y14.6, Geometric Dimensions and
Tolerances.
8.2 Gear data formats
See AGMA 910--C90, Formats for Fine--Pitch Gear
Specification Data.
Figure 53 -- Dual path spring loaded gearing
8.3 Surface texture (surface roughness,
7.5.8 Contra--rotating inputs waviness and lay) of gear teeth
The force necessary to keep the driving gear teeth See ANSI B46.1, Surface Texture and AGMA
in contact at only one side can be introduced by 906--A94, Gear Tooth Surface Texture with
means of a second driving input, as shown in figure Functional Considerations.
54. This second input applies a torque opposite to,
but smaller than, the torque of the main driving 8.4 Gear blanks
input. With the proper controls, this opposing 8.4.1 General
torque can be adjusted to the level needed at each
point in the driving cycle. This avoids the high The complete design of a gear requires the design
friction and gear forces typical of spring--loading of the gear blank in addition to the design of the gear
designs. teeth. An acceptable blank design will meet the
following requirements:
Output
-- To provide the necessary size for those gear
Rotation tooth features which originate in the gear blank;
Rotation Rotation
-- To support and position the gear teeth so that
they will function as intended;
-- To permit economical manufacture with the
desired accuracy.
8.4.2 Design for blank size
8.4.2.1 Outside diameter (or inside diameter on
Input Contra--Rotating
Drive internal gears)
Torque This diameter is usually determined as part of the
general gear design process described in clause 6.
It may be slightly different in the blank when the gear
teeth are to be manufactured by a process in which
(Resisting) the finished outside diameter is formed by the
Torque
cutting tool (called a topping tool). The rough blank
Figure 54 -- Contra--rotating input gearing outside diameter should then be made greater (or

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

the blank inside diameter should then be made means used to keep the blank locked to the shaft,
smaller) by a suitable machining allowance. such as a key, pin, setscrew, clamp or interference
fit, the resulting joint must be strong enough to
8.4.2.2 Face width
withstand the applied torque without loosening.
The minimum gear face width is determined as part Clearance between the gear blank bore and the
of the general gear design process described in shaft should be minimized. The same applies to the
clause 6. The blank face width may be made fit between the key and its keyway, the pin and its
greater for various reasons, such as: hole, or any joining device and its restraining
surface. Extra strength and an interference fit may
-- To insure adequate overlap of the face
be needed in applications with reversing or abruptly
widths of the two meshing gears when axial
positioning is not sufficiently well controlled; changing loads.

-- To allow for reduction of the effective face 8.4.3.2 Position of gear teeth
width by rounding or chamfering of the ends of The blank design should ensure the gear teeth are
the teeth; positioned concentric and parallel to the axis of
-- To provide adequate face contact ratio. rotation of the assembled gear, at least to an
accuracy consistent with the accuracy of the gear
8.4.2.3 Other blank dimensions
teeth. The blank features that are to provide this
Other blank dimensions, such as the bore diameter, accurate positioning are referred to as the mounting
journal diameter or mounting ring diameter, are not surfaces. Attachment to the shaft or other support-
part of the gear tooth design. They are usually ing members must also be considered. The mating
determined as part of the design of the complete surfaces, if not in an interference fit or tightly
assembly. However, such dimensions, both in size clamped, should have minimum clearance. The
and in accuracy, may influence the operation of the method of fastening should be such as to preserve
gears and therefore, require the attention of the concentricity and parallelism. A loose fitting bore
gear designer. fastened to the shaft with a set screw, for example,
may result in the loss of the concentricity
8.4.3 Design for gear function
maintained separately in the gear and shaft.
8.4.3.1 Support of gear teeth 8.4.4 Design for manufacturing
The shape and proportions of the gear blank should 8.4.4.1 Process requirements
be adequate to support the gear teeth against the
transmitted tooth loads. The blank should also be The shape and proportions of the gear blank must
rigid enough to support any other loads tending to be compatible with the manufacturing process.
deform the blank and its gear teeth. Weight, Where the gear teeth are to be formed by a moving
assembly and manufacturing considerations may tool, the blank design must permit access to the
require the body of the blank be reduced from the tool, both at the beginning and the end of its forming
full face width. In such cases, adequate depth of the stroke. Where the gear teeth are to be formed in a
rim and thickness of the web or cross section of the mold or die, the blank design must meet ejection
spokes should be maintained, or ribs should be and other requirements of the forming process.
added, to prevent deflections which could harm the 8.4.4.2 Location requirements
gear tooth action or tooth load distribution. In helical
When the blank manufacture is to be followed by a
gears, the tooth forces contain axial components
separate gear tooth machining or finishing opera-
that may require additional rigidity of the blank.
tion, the blank design should contain provision for its
Similar concerns apply to the features of the gear location during these operations. Ideally, the
blank that are attached to the shaft or other surfaces used for location during machining will be
supporting member. Where a gear hub is used for the same as the mounting surfaces that are to be
this purpose, it should be of sufficient thickness and used to locate the gear in assembly. For example,
length. It should be axially constrained to support the bore might serve both these purposes on an
the radial and axial tooth forces. Whatever the external gear and the outside ring diameter serve

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

these purposes on an internal gear. Often two separated, such features should be included in the
surfaces are needed, both in manufacture and blank design.
assembly, one to center the gear blank and the
8.4.5 Blank tolerances
other to keep it parallel to the rotation axis.
Blank dimensions play an important role in gear
Sometimes the one or two assembly mounting
performance, either directly or through their influ-
surfaces are not suitable for location during
ence on assembly or manufacturing accuracy. The
manufacture. This may be because the mounting
tolerance selected for each dimension should be
surfaces are not accessible to simple tooling or
appropriate to the role played by the dimension and
because they will not permit the simultaneous
to the overall size, pitch and quality level of the gear.
machining of several blanks for greater economy. In
Suggested procedures for selecting these toler-
this case, some features should be added to the
ances are described below. Specific applications
blank design to provide these manufacturing loca-
may require tighter or looser tolerances depending
tion surfaces. These surfaces should be accurately
on the relative importance given to the gear
located relative to the assembly mounting surfaces.
performance versus gear blank manufacturing cost.
For example, center holes may be added to the
ends of the gear blank journals and used for location 8.4.5.1 Outside diameter (or inside diameter on
during the gear manufacturing. The journal diame- internal gears)
ters are made concentric to the center holes. It is
The tolerance on this dimension has a direct effect
usually advantageous to consult the gear manufac-
on the depth of engagement and, thereby, on the
turer during the blank design process, especially if
contact ratio of the mating gears. The direction of
the gear blanks are to be supplied in finished form to
the tolerance should be to reduce material, i.e.,
the gear manufacturer.
negative on an external gear and positive on an
8.4.4.3 Clamping requirements internal gear. This is to help prevent interference of
the tooth tip with the fillet of the mating gear and to
Clamping of the gear blank during machining of the
help ensure adequate root clearance. The
gear teeth is another consideration in the blank
suggested tolerances are:
design. The blank design should permit secure
clamping without any reduction in the accuracy of Outside diameter tolerance =
the machined gear and without any permanent + 0.0
deformation of the gear tooth surfaces. Some-
times, the locating surface can also serve as the 
− 0.5( TCT ) + 0.1
P nd
 ...(62)

clamping surface as, for example, when the gear is

clamped by gripping its bore with an expanding Inside diameter tolerance =
arbor. At other times, two separate surfaces are
required, as when the gear is centered by an arbor 
+ 0.5( TCT ) + 0.1
P nd

through its bore but is clamped across its face
against a shoulder on the fixture. In such a case, if − 0.0 ...(63)
the face of the gear is not square to its bore, the
where
blank (or the arbor) may be distorted during
clamping. The machined teeth in the unclamped Pnd is diametral pitch on spur gears and normal
gear will no longer be accurately positioned relative diametral pitch on helical gears;
to the bore. TCT is total composite tolerance.
Clamping considerations may require that some The above discussion and suggested tolerances
part of the blank be extended beyond its specified apply only to the diameter of the finished gear. If the
shape, with the excess to be removed after the teeth blank diameter is modified in the cutting (topping)
are completed. When the gear manufacturer is also operation, the tolerance on the original diameter
to make the blank, such features can be readily should be derived from other requirements, such as
introduced where required. When the blank the need to control the amount of material to be
manufacturer and the gear manufacturer are to be removed.

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

8.4.5.2 Concentricity of outside diameter (or 8.4.5.3.2 Rotating fit assembly

inside diameter on internal gears)
When a cylindrical surface on a blank is to rotate
about a stationary member, the added clearance
The tolerance on the concentricity of the finished
permitted by the diameter tolerance does not affect
diameter relative to the bore or other cylindrical
concentricity in the gear meshing action. It may,
mounting surface is similar to the diameter toler-
however, increase center distance and reduce tooth
ance in one respect. By allowing variations in the
engagement. A bore rotating on a stationary shaft
radius, it permits greater reduction in depth of
or a journal rotating in sleeve bearings are examples
engagement and, hence, in contact ratio. This
of this assembly condition.
additive effect should be kept relatively small. The
suggested concentricity tolerance is: 8.4.5.3.3 Interference fit assembly
Tolerance = 0.7(TCT) + 0.0002 ...(64) When a cylindrical surface on a blank is to be
This tolerance may be increased if there is an assembled to the supporting member with an
equivalent reduction in the diameter tolerance. The interference fit, there is usually no change in
tolerance may also be increased if the gear design concentricity or center distance. The assembly of a
has been checked for the resulting minimum shaft into the inner race of a ball bearing and the
contact ratio. See clause 6. assembly of a thin rim gear on a shaft--mounted
wheel are examples of this assembly condition. The
One special situation arises when the gear cutting diameter tolerance is usually determined by the
set up will center the blank by its outside (or inside) requirements of the interference fit. In the case of
diameter instead of by its bore or other mounting the thin rim gear, however, large variation in the
surface. If the blank is made by the same shop that amount of interference may cause a corresponding
cuts the gear, this shop will set its own tighter blank variation in the size of the stretched gear and in the
concentricity tolerance. If not, the gear resulting depth of engagement. This may present a
manufacturer should be consulted before blanks problem in very fine--pitch gears and the diameter
are made. tolerance may need to be reduced further.

8.4.5.3.4 Gear cutting set--up

8.4.5.3 Other blank dimensions
When the blank might be centered differently in the
There are other blank dimensions whose tolerances gear cutting set--up than in the final assembly, a loss
can influence the performance of the finished gear. in concentricity may be introduced. This may occur
These include the diameters of the bore, of the in two ways:
journals, and of other cylindrical surfaces used for -- Different surfaces of the blank are used for
mounting or manufacture. They also include the the two location purposes. For example, center
concentricities between pairs of these surfaces and holes in the ends of the journals are used in the
the squareness between these surfaces and the gear cutting set--up while the journal diameters
lateral mounting or manufacture set--up surfaces. are used in the final assembly;
For each of these, there are various assembly and
-- One surface of the blank is used for both lo-
manufacturing conditions which determine the
cation purposes, but its diameter tolerance per-
effect of the tolerance and the selection of its value.
mits a wide range of size. An off--center condition
may arise when the size of the location device in
8.4.5.3.1 Clearance fit assembly the gear cutting set--up cannot adapt to the blank
size variation. In the case of the bore, if the arbor
When a cylindrical surface might be assembled used to center the blank is made to fit the mini-
off--center with respect to a shaft in a clearance fit, a mum bore diameter, it will not necessarily center
larger diameter tolerance permits a greater clear- the blank with maximum bore diameter. If many
ance and, therefore, a greater off--center condition. blanks are to be located in one set--up on the
The clearance fit of a bore on a shaft is an example same arbor, variations in the bore diameters may
of this. result in off--center gears.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

The tolerances needed to control these manufac- 8.4.5.4.1 Bore

turing concentricity variations may need to be
Form tolerances may be required on bores or other
tighter than those needed to meet assembly
inside diameters used for assembly for the condi-
requirements. These tolerances are best selected
tions of out--of--roundness, taper, bell mouth, and
by the gear cutting shop, either by making its own
barrel shape.
blanks or by advising the blank designer.
8.4.5.4.2 Journals
8.4.5.3.5 Lateral surface assembly
Form tolerances may be required on journals, or
other outside diameters used for assembly, for the
When the gear is to be assembled using a lateral
conditions of out--of--roundness and taper.
surface to keep the gear teeth parallel to the shaft
axis, any non--squareness between the lateral 8.4.5.4.3 Lateral surfaces
surface and the gear teeth will affect gear perfor-
Lateral surfaces used for assembly may require a
mance. Such variations usually introduce an
tolerance on flatness. Usually, convexity is not
eccentric condition into the action of the meshing
permitted and the tolerance is expressed as a limit
gears and some degree of tooth misalignment.
on concavity.
If the same lateral surface used to square the gear 8.4.6 Drawings
in the assembly is also used to position the gear
On the gear drawing, the dimensions and toler-
during manufacture, the blank will not add any
ances of the gear blank are customarily applied to
non--squareness. If different surfaces are used, it is
the views in accordance with standard drafting
necessary to introduce a tolerance relating the two
practice. Only the outside diameter and its
surfaces. This tolerance may be a lateral runout
tolerance are usually transferred to the format table.
specification, a parallelism specification or both.
A separate drawing for the gear blank may be made
When serving purely as in--process tolerances,
if the blank is to be obtained from a source other
these are best set by the gear manufacturer. When
than the gear shop. Such a separate drawing
these tolerances are required in order to meet
should show the larger outside diameter (or smaller
special assembly conditions, their values should be
inside diameter) if it is to be cut during gear cutting.
selected after considering lateral surface diameter,
It should also show any extra stock remaining for
gear face width and the amount of eccentricity and
clamping during cutting and to be removed later.
misalignment that can be tolerated.

8.4.5.4 Geometric form

9 Gear tooth tolerances
It may be necessary to establish tolerances on
various features of geometric form, such as round- Clause 5.7 of this information sheet discusses
ness and flatness, in order to meet especially application considerations of gear system design.
stringent assembly conditions. Such conditions Tolerancing of gear teeth cannot be done correctly
may arise when the tightness of interference fits and without considering the application of the gears. It is
clamped surfaces must be carefully controlled. obvious that the closer a gear is to perfect, the better
They may also arise when the gear blanks are it will perform in any application. The difficulty is in
sufficiently flexible that the tight fit or clamping of determining the character and amount of variation
poorly formed surfaces may distort the gear teeth from perfection that a given application will tolerate.
and reduce their accuracy after assembly. In this For example, if noise of a gearbox is of prime
last case, variations in form are less critical if the importance, it can be shown that frequency of
gear blank will receive the same kind of support excitation is an important factor. Depending upon
during manufacture of the teeth as in the final where in the geartrain a gear operates, gears are
assembly. The decision to use a form tolerance and toleranced differently. The tooth profile variation
the selection of its value should be based on an may be more important at the low speed end of the
evaluation of these special assembly conditions. geartrain, whereas, the accumulated pitch variation

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

is more important at the high speed end of the accuracy of a gear is determined by the accuracy of
geartrain. the shape of each cam (gear tooth) and by how
It is difficult to generalize the process by which accurately the teeth are spaced around the cylinder.
gears are correctly toleranced. The following In gearing terms, the shape is called the profile of
paragraphs attempt to offer insight into the the tooth and the spacing is called the pitch. Figure
fundamental concepts of tolerancing. Each gear 55 shows gear teeth with errors isolated and
must be carefully analyzed for functionality in order exaggerated for illustration. Actual gear teeth would
to tolerance it correctly. exhibit combinations of these errors. Inspection of
gear teeth for pitch, profile and lead is termed
9.1 Elemental inspection of gears elemental inspection and is described in ANSI/
Clause 4 of this information sheet described a gear AGMA 2000--A88, Gear Classification and
as a series of involute cams uniformly spaced Inspection Handbook. Elemental inspection of
around the circumference of a cylinder, usually used coarse pitch gears is done by index, involute profile
to transfer motion from one shaft to another. Perfect and lead inspection machines. These machines
involute gears will theoretically transmit uniform may be completely mechanical or computer
rotary motion from one shaft to another. The controlled.

C
B D

E
A

Base circle

A Reference profile (perfect form and position)

B Spacing error (index error)
C Profile error (involute error)
D Lead error (helix angle error)
E Radial position error (caused by runout or wobble)
F Tooth thickness error

Figure 55 -- Graphical representations of typical gear errors

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

9.2 Functionality of gears backlash, on fixed centers. Therefore, the rolling

test must be correlated to the true functionality of
Variations in pitch, profile and lead in gears mounted
the gears.
on fixed centers cause variations in the rotational
position of the gears as they roll through mesh. That The AGMA established a standard technique for
is, variations cause the driven member of a mesh to calculating the tolerances of gears. The result is an
be in a slightly advanced or slightly retarded position AGMA Quality Number which is a concise means of
with respect to where it would be if both gears were specifying the tolerances which define the quality of
perfect. This advance or retardation is known as the individual gear. This standard technique is
transmission error and can be measured directly, if described in ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88.
the gears have been instrumented with position However, the AGMA technique for establishing
measuring devices. Transmission error can result tolerances is derived from typical tolerances avail-
in audible noise as the gears are run, in addition to able from standard manufacturing processes. In
mis--positioning of the gear. In some applications, other words, each AGMA Quality Class generally
gear variations can cause unpredicted loads on reflects the capability of a gear machining
machine components and contribute to premature operation. Use of this tolerancing technique has
failure. been extended to gear manufacturing processes
9.3 AGMA quality number that do not involve machining of the teeth such as
injection molding, powder metal pressing and die
Fine--pitch gears are usually toleranced by specify- casting.
ing the parameters associated with a composite
action test as described in ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88. Note that the total composite variation, tooth--to--
Gear designers are encouraged to read and tooth composite variation and test radius tolerance
understand the information contained in this may be chosen independently. That is, the total
inspection standard before attempting any gear composite variation may be chosen to be that of one
design. class and the tooth--to--tooth variation of another
class.
9.4 Fundamentals of composite testing
Further, the value for any of these parameters used
The composite inspection of gears is known by on a drawing is not required to be that of any
various names. They include: composite action particular class. The AGMA system is a standard-
test, double flank test, rolling test and various ized system available if the designer chooses to use
combinations of these terms. The test is based it to determine the tolerances for a gear.
upon a fundamental geometric property of involute
9.5 Functional tolerancing
gears: if two perfect involute gears (of the same
base pitch) are rolled together in tight mesh, the The gear designer is advised to be certain that the
center distance remains a constant. The gear tolerances placed on gear drawings are derived
rolling fixture is a device based upon this principle from an analysis of the function of the gears being
which measures the variation of tight--mesh center toleranced. The AGMA system is based upon
distance when a master gear is rolled with a work manufacturing considerations, not on functional
gear. The master gear variation is assumed to be considerations.
negligible compared to the work gear variation.
Total composite variation, tooth--to--tooth variation
and tolerance on test radius are limits specified for 10 Materials and heat treatment
the variation in center distance as the work gear is
rolled with a master gear on a gear rolling fixture. 10.1 Selection of materials
Note the rolling test is done with the gears in tight The application usually determines what material is
mesh (double flank) and with a center distance that required. In power transmissions, the criteria for
is allowed to vary. This test does not replicate the rating gears is strength and wear. Therefore, if a
action of most gears used in machines. In most gear is to operate for a particular application, the
applications, gears are run single flank, with material must possess adequate strength and wear

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properties. Materials cannot be selected on machinability of this series of stainless steels can be
strength and wear properties alone. Some applica- improved to some degree by heat treating to Rc 20
tions may require the material to have corrosion to 28.
resistance or be light in weight. Because applica-
10.2.2.3 Corrosion resistance
tions vary, no one material can be used for every
application. Stainless steels should always be passivated for
maximum corrosion resistance. It is advisable to
For most iron and steels, refer to ANSI/AGMA
passivate stainless steel after all machining opera-
2004--B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment
tions have been completed to insure the ultimate
Manual.
anti--corrosion qualities of the metal. This process
10.2 Types of steels not included in is used to remove small particles of foreign matter
ANSI/AGMA 2004--B89 which have become imbedded in the material during
machining.
10.2.1 Extreme temperature draw (ETD) steels
10.2.3 Tool steel
Steels can be purchased based upon physical
properties. Usually, the properties are obtained by Tool steel blanks are being used for fine--pitch gears
austenitizing, quench and tempering or heavy cold for load, life and wear resistance. There are many
working followed by stress relieving. The guaran- applications when tool steels are superior to other
teed physicals of ETD are obtained by subjecting steels.
4100 series steel to an elevated temperature draw. 10.2.4 Cast iron and nickel cast irons
The microstructure is acicular ferrite and fine
pearlite. The resultant strengths are 150,000 psi Cast iron and nickel cast iron blanks for fine--pitch
minimum tensile for ETD 150 and 180,000 psi gears are used when wear resistance and good
minimum tensile for ETD 180. These steels have machinability are required. Complicated shapes
excellent strength and toughness. can be cast more economically than machining the
shapes from bars.
The ETD family of steels is used in fine--pitch gears
to provide the necessary physical properties while Furnace treatment is the usual method for
bypassing the usual heat treating process after hardening.
cutting the teeth. 10.3 Aluminum
10.2.2 Stainless steels not included in 10.3.1 Alloyed aluminum
ANSI/AGMA 2004--B89
Alloyed aluminum is the most common light metal
10.2.2.1 300 series for gears. Three prominent grades are 6061--T6,
The steels of the 300 series are not heat treatable, 2024--T4 and 7075. Occasionally, blanks are made
are non--magnetic, and are used for maximum from 356--T6 castings. Centrifugal casting reduces
corrosion resistance. Types 303, 304 and 316 are the problem of porosity.
very popular for fine--pitch gears when maximum 10.3.2 Operating life
corrosion resistance properties are required. Due
Operating tests have shown that gears made of
to their poor machinability, they are used only when
these materials, carrying light loads and with
the application requires. The 300 series austenite
suitable lubrication, can be used in the as--
steels are susceptible to galling by contact with
machined condition for a few million cycles of
each other or with dissimilar metals.
operating life.
10.2.2.2 400 series
Greater wear life can be obtained by having the
The steels of the 400 series are magnetic and are gears hard anodized. Dimensional build--up may be
heat treated before or after machining, depending as small as 0.0001” per surface. The result is a hard
upon hardness required. Types 416, 420 and 440c aluminum oxided surface, resistant to salt atmos-
steels are used when higher wear resistance and phere corrosion and wear. Lubrication is important
load carrying capacity are desired. The for all applications involving gears and particularly

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here to help prevent the oxide coating from breaking Due to the structure of powder metal parts, the
into small abrasive particles. hardness is specified as ”apparent” as opposed to
actual. Superficial as well as microhardness testing
10.4 Powder metal (P/M)
is employed.
Metal powders, when properly mixed, compacted,
10.4.2 Fatigue properties
sintered and heat treated, develop a high resistance
to impact and wear. Powder metal gears are one of Gears which are cyclically loaded should be rated
the many parts produced to take advantage of this based on fatigue strength. Powder metal gears
method of manufacturing. Briefly, the steps have relatively poor fatigue strength because of
involved in producing a powder metal gear are: porosity. One way to improve strength is to increase
part density. This can be accomplished by double
-- Mixing together a base material, alloys and
other additives; pressing the gear rather than single pressing during
the compacting part of the powder metal process.
-- Compacting the powder mixture in a single or
multiple steps; 10.4.3 Lubricating characteristics
-- Sintering the gear. Powder metal gears can be oil impregnated to allow
After sintering, the powder metal gear is ready for for self lubrication. Possibly, for certain low speed
use. However, secondary operations such as applications, grease or an oil bath could be omitted.
coining, oil impregnation, heat treating and machin- Careful design of the die and punch can produce a
ing can be performed to enhance the mechanical gear with an area(s) that is dense and strong and
and physical properties. another area(s) that is self lubricating.

Since the base material, alloys and additives are 10.4.4 AGMA quality numbers
fine powders, it is relatively simple to alter the AGMA quality numbers range from Q5 to as high as
percent composition of a mixture. By doing so, the Q9 under special conditions. Inspection is accom-
designer can test various powder metal gears and plished using standard techniques for any metal
determine which composition best suits an applica- gears except as noted in 10.4.1.
tion. Because of the nature of powder metal, gears
can be made with mechanical properties similar to 10.5 Plastics
ferrous or nonferrous metals. Furthermore, it is
10.5.1 General
possible to make a powder metal gear having
special attributes such as corrosion resistance or The use of plastics as materials for fine--pitch gears
having special sound dampening characteristics. is growing. Improved materials, advances in gear
mold design and molding technology, and the
10.4.1 Hardness
successful use of plastics gears in many
Hardness checking of powder metal gears is difficult applications have contributed to this growth.
because of the surface porosity. Errors in hardness Information in this Design Manual was obtained
measurement occur when using the standard from manufacturers of polymers, composites, stan-
indenters. Since the powder metal gear has more dard shapes and compounds, as well as of plastics
voids than a traditional metal, the indenter pene- gears themselves. Optimum performance of
trates deeper than it should, causing error in the plastics gearing requires the proper design and
reading. The Metal Powder Industry Federation selection of both materials and manufacturing
recommends that a chisel shaped stylus 0.050 inch processes. To add strength to plastic teeth, a full
wide with a 0.0005 inch radius tip be used. This fillet radius is often used in the roots of the teeth.
produces a more accurate measurement because
10.5.1.1 Uses of plastics gearing
the stylus spans a long distance rather than an area,
thus avoiding the pores on the surface. Surface In the power transmission field most molded gears
hardened gears need special attention because the are used in the fractional horsepower area. Many
indenter may penetrate the case, thereby yielding cast and machined gears are used in higher
an inaccurate measurement. horsepower applications.

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10.5.1.2 Advantages of plastics gears changes due to temperature or humidity. The dimen-
sional changes can either be growth or shrinkage and
Some reasons for the wide use of plastics gearing are generally predictable. To insure proper meshing of
are as follows: gears at either extreme requires adequate clearance
which should be properly specified. Careful material
-- Low cost; selection can enhance the long term life of plastics
-- Resistance to corrosion; gearing, and such materials are used with and without
reinforcements and other additives.
-- Lightweight (about 1/7 the density of steel);
10.5.1.6 Specifications for plastics gears
-- Low inertia;
-- Inherent lubricity and compatibility with com- The proper use of plastics in gearing requires the
mercial lubricants, most chemicals and common adequate specification of the gear characteristics
solvents; actually needed. It is highly recommended that all
users of plastics gearing utilize a proper drawing
-- Potential noise reduction; specification format.
-- Reduction of wear in mating gears;
10.5.1.7 Available types of plastics gears
-- Overload protection (acting as a sacrificial
member); Any gear form which has been cut from metal can
-- Color to aid in assembly; be cut from properly selected plastics materials.
Many of the gear forms can be molded providing a
-- Low maintenance. suitable moldable material is selected. Certain gear
10.5.1.3 Molded gearing forms, such as a throated wormgear which is
conforming to the mating worm, are usually not
Molded gears can be combined with other features
considered practical as one piece moldings.
to create multifunctional parts, and can be produced
in large quantities by the molding process. 10.5.2 Plastics materials
10.5.1.4 Machined gearing Gears are made from various plastics, both thermo-
Many basic polymers are available in various setting and thermoplastic, with the latter by far the
most widely used. These materials are available as
shapes from which gears can be machined using
unfilled polymers for use in molded and machined
essentially standard gear cutting equipment. This
makes it possible to use machined plastics gears in gears. Polymers can be reinforced with glass
fibers, glass beads, milled glass, carbon fibers,
quantities and sizes not practical for the molding
process. fabrics and mineral reinforcements and fillers.
Reinforcement may improve dimensional accuracy
10.5.1.5 Limitations of plastics gearing in some cases, because of the reduction in
shrinkage. It may harm dimensional accuracy in
A major limitation of plastics gearing is reduced
other cases, where non--uniform fiber orientation or
tooth strength in comparison with ferrous gearing.
distribution results in non--uniform shrinkage. Most
The effects of temperature and moisture on plastics
machined gears are not made from glass or mineral
materials used in gearing are not the same as for
reinforced plastics since they are difficult to
metals. It should be recognized that temperature
machine and the exposed reinforcement on the
and absorption of moisture affect the size and
machined tooth profile may be abrasive to the
strength of plastics. In addition, plastics are
mating gear as well as to the cutting tool.
relatively poor conductors of heat. A temperature
buildup developed through the working of the gear Lubricants such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),
may be difficult to dissipate. These limitations may silicone, molybdenum disulfide and graphite are
be overcome through the proper selection of the often added to improve the inherent lubricity of
basic polymer and the addition of reinforcements, plastics. Additives for stabilization (temperature
lubricants or other additives. and ultra--violet light) and coloring are also used.
NOTE: Care must be exercised when designing plas- The list of candidate materials for plastics gearing
tics gearing to account for dimensional and strength continues to expand.

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10.5.2.1 Thermoplastic materials deadening qualities and resistance to flex

fatigue, impact and creep, among other
A thermoplastic (T/P) material is one that will advantageous characteristics.
repeatedly soften when it is heated and will harden
when it is cooled. In molding, it undergoes a -- Styrene--acrylonitrile (SAN) is a stable, low
shrinkage material and is used in some lightly
physical change only. The most commonly used
loaded gear applications.
thermoplastic materials for gearing are as follows:
Annex A of ANSI/AGMA 2004--B89, Gear Materials
-- Nylon (PA) is a family of thermoplastic poly-
and Heat Treatment Manual, has a detailed
mers. The most widely used of any molded gear-
explanation of these thermoplastics.
ing material is nylon 6/6, but nylon 6 and nylon 12
are also used. Some nylons absorb moisture 10.5.2.2 Thermosetting materials
which may cause dimensional instability. Nylon
may be compounded with various types and A thermosetting material is one that, during mold-
amounts of glass reinforcing materials, mineral ing, will undergo a physical change as well as a
fillers, and such lubricants as PTFE and MoS2 chemical reaction called polymerization and cannot
(molybdenum disulfide). be remolded by reapplication of heat. Common
thermosetting materials used in plastics gearing are
-- Acetal (POM) has a lower water absorbtion
phenolic (PF) and polyimide/thermoset (PI).
rate than nylon and, therefore, is more stable af-
ter molding or machining. Acetal polymers are -- Phenolics (PF) are invariably compounded
used unfilled or filled, with glass and minerals, with various fillers such as woodflour, mineral,
with and without lubricants, such as PTFE and glass, sisal, chopped cloth and such lubricants
MoS2, as well as one version with fibrous PTFE. as PTFE and graphite. Phenolics are generally
-- Polycarbonate (PC) is generally used with used in applications requiring stability, and when
the addition of glass fiber and/or PTFE lubricant higher temperatures are encountered.
and is a fine, low shrinkage material for producing -- Polyimide (PI) is usually 40--65 percent
consistently accurate molded gears. fiberglass reinforced and has good strength
retention when used at high operating
-- Polyester (PBT and O\PET) are both un-
temperatures.
filled and with glass fiber, and are finding their
way into more markets as a molded gearing For more information, see annex A of ANSI/AGMA
material in competition with nylon and acetal. 2004--B89.
-- Polyethylene, ultra--high molecular 10.5.3 Molded plastics gearing
weight (UHMW/PE) is a low moisture absorption
material that has high abrasion and wear resis- 10.5.3.1 Molding considerations
tance. Most gears of UHMW/PE are machined
from extruded bar or slab stock. Some parts are The molding of gears requires special techniques
made by injection and compression molding and knowledge. Processing techniques vary with
techniques. molding materials, gear geometry and size, and
mold design. Gear molding is a specialized molding
-- Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), when com- service.
pounded with 40 percent glass fiber with or
without internal lubricants, has been found in 10.5.3.2 Molding process
certain gear applications to have much greater
strength, even at elevated temperatures, than Molded gears are usually produced by injection or
most materials previously available. transfer molding methods in which the plastics
molding material is forced under pressure through a
-- Polyurethane (TPU) is generally noted for gate(s) into the mold cavity. The teeth of a molded
its flexibility and, therefore, has the ability to external gear are formed by the metal ring in the
absorb shock and deaden sound.
cavity in which the gear teeth have been repro-
-- Polyester elastomer (TPE) is a newcomer duced. The teeth of an internal gear are formed by
to the gearing field, and has excellent sound the teeth in the metal core of the cavity set.

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10.5.3.3 Mold design for an AGMA quality six (Q6) gear, while a single
cavity might be used for a quality ten (Q10) gear.
Accurate molded gears require molds which are
properly designed and accurately manufactured. 10.5.3.6 Mold economics
Mold design must take into account methods of Most plastics gears are specials, inasmuch as
gating and other elements of the fill system, molds for gears of all pitches and diameters and
temperature control, and the ejector system. Cavity face widths are not commonly available. This
teeth must be precisely altered in form and changed means that usually a special mold must be pur-
in size to assure that the molded gear, after chased for each gear and, therefore, the molding
shrinkage takes place, assumes the desired config- process on an economic basis is usually limited to
uration. Accurate gear mold cavities can be larger production quantities of gears. A molded
produced by grinding, electric discharge machining gear from a single cavity mold will be more
(EDM) or electroforming. expensive than the same gear produced from a
multicavity mold.
10.5.3.4 Shrinkage during molding
10.5.3.7 Use of inserts
Gear molding materials may shrink from approxi-
mately 0.001 to 0.035 of an inch per inch from the Molded--in metallic inserts, including simple bush-
cold mold dimension to the cold gear dimension, ings, sleeves and shafts, are used to achieve
depending upon the material selected, the molding advantages such as: more accurate bores,
method used, and the cross--sectional mass of the reduced thermal effects because of the conductivity
gear. These same materials, when reinforced with of the metal, more closely controlled shrinkage, as
glass fibers or other high aspect ratio fillers will in the case of a solid metal gear blank with molded
shrink less in percentage but may shrink non-- plastics teeth, improved dimensional stability and
uniformly because of flow orientation of the usually greater load carrying capacity.
reinforcements. Therefore, a thorough understand- When contemplating the use of inserts, consider-
ing of the molding process, the selected material, ation must be given to the added cost of the insert,
and the required gear configuration is vital in order as well as the cost of inserting it into the mold during
to predict whether the desired accuracy can be the molding operation, or of assembling it as a
achieved. This will determine the size and the gear post--molding operation.
profile of the cavity required.
10.5.4 Machined plastics gearing
10.5.3.5 Accuracy of molded gears
10.5.4.1 Machining techniques
Molded gearing accuracy depends upon selection These materials do not require special machines or
of a suitable material ---- design of the gear, cutting tools. Gear shapers and hobbing machines
determination of the shrinkage of the plastics using properly selected and sharpened cutting tools
material, good mold design, accurate mold con- at prescribed feed and speed rates will produce
struction and use of molding techniques applicable quality gears. Materials manufacturers generally
to the molding of gears. recommend the use of coolants during machining in
To obtain greater accuracy in a molded gear, the order to avoid stress cracking and melt outs. Climb
mold should be designed to have uniform cross cutting hobbing technique is also recommended for
sections, optimum gating location and adequate improved surface finish. It may be advisable to
ejection locations. The material selected should consult with the materials manufacturers for com-
display a highly consistent shrinkage and should be plete fabrication recommendations.
inherently stable under the environmental and use 10.5.4.2 Molded blanks
conditions.
Thermoset and thermoplastic gear blanks pro-
Usually, the greater the accuracy required in a gear, duced by the molding process, and cut by
the fewer the number of cavities in the mold. For conventional hobbing and shaping machines, offer
example, an eight (8) cavity mold might well be used alternatives to the expense of a toothed gear mold

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

for low quantities. Special gear requirements such accuracy requirements of the part. The stamping
as throated wormgears or double enveloping process is generally limited to gears of narrow face
worms which may not be practical for molding, are widths.
machined from such blanks.
10.5.5.4 Pressed and sintered
NOTE: Blanks should be designed and molded with
special attention to preventing voids and excessive This method is similar to powder metal technology.
distortion after machining. Specially blended powders are compacted in a die,
then sintered. They can be oil impregnated since
10.5.4.3 Gear and blank accuracy
the material is porous. Secondary operations will
End product accuracy is primarily dependent upon vary, depending on the complexity of the part, and
gear blank quality and process controls. Gear tooth the limitations of the tooling.
finishing techniques common to metal gears, such NOTE: The size limit of injection molded gearing is
as grinding, honing and lapping, are not usually usually determined by the part wall thickness. The size
performed on plastics gearing. limits of machined gearing is determined by the size of
available extruded or cast shapes and parts. Not all
10.5.5 Other manufacturing methods plastics materials can be used for the manufacturing
processes identified in this section. Discussion be-
In addition to the molded and machined plastics tween designer and manufacturer will usually result in
gearing previously discussed, other manufacturing considerable time savings and mutually acceptable
parts.
methods are also used. “As Cast” and “Forged”
plastics gears will not be as accurate as machined 10.5.6 Inspection
or injection molded gears. “Stamped” and “Pressed
Plastics gears must be accurate to wear well,
and Sintered” plastics gears are being manufac-
operate quietly and transmit uniform motion. In
tured to accuracies comparable to metal gears
order to meet these objectives, the understanding
produced by the equivalent process.
of variations, tolerances and inspection is neces-
10.5.5.1 As cast sary. Refer to ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88, Gear
Handbook -- Gear Classification, Materials and
This method is used with urethanes and cast nylon Measuring Methods for Unassembled Gears for
materials. The mold, which is usually machined in additional information.
metal, is engineered to provide adequate shrinkage
NOTE: Inspection of plastics gears must be done in a
allowance for the material being cast. The basic
manner which accounts for size variation with tem-
procedure closely resembles cast metal processes. perature and moisture content. It is commonly ac-
Secondary operations usually include boring, key cepted practice to use about one--half the tight--mesh
seating and machining of set screw holes. load recommended for metal gears when measuring
plastics gears on a center distance measuring instru-
10.5.5.2 Forgings ment. Refer to ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88. Care must be
taken not to distort the gear teeth or mounting arbor of
This method is used to produce special sprockets the work gear by application of excessive tight--mesh
and gears for applications such as snowmobiles. applied load.
This process is similar to metal forging. A billet of
the desired material is heated below its melting
point, then pressed in a metal--forming die. 11 Manufacturing methods
Secondary operations usually include boring, key
seating and machining of set screw holes. 11.1 General
10.5.5.3 Stamping Many methods are used to produce the finished
gear teeth including: hobbing, shaping, milling,
This method is identical to that used for metal gears
fly--cutting, broaching, casting, powder metal proc-
in instrument drives, meters, switches and timers.
ess, molding, stamping, cold rolling, grinding,
Stamped gears are usually finished in one operation shaving, honing, lapping and burnishing. This
depending on the quality of the die set and the clause reviews the most common methods used to

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

manufacture fine--pitch gear teeth but is not 11.8 Powder metal process
intended to be all inclusive.
In the powder metal process, metal, which has been
11.2 Hobbing reduced to powder particles, is compressed into a
mold cavity. After compression, the part is heated
The generation of a gear tooth is a continuous or sintered to allow the powder particles to bond or
indexing process in which both the cutting tool and adhere to each other into a homogeneous structure.
the workpiece rotate in a constant relationship while
the hob is being fed into the work. As the hob is fed
11.9 Molding
across the work, all the teeth in the work are
completely formed. Hobbing is normally limited to Gears are currently produced of thermosetting and
external gears. Caution should be used by the thermoplastic materials, using the compression,
designer to allow ample room on each side of the injection and transfer molding processes. Heat and
gear for entry and exit of the cutting tool. pressure in combination are used to force the
plastics material into a mold cavity. The large
11.3 Shaping number of materials available has rapidly increased
Gear shaping is a generation process where the the use of this process for all kinds of gears.
workpiece and the toothed circular cutter progres- 11.10 Stamping
sively index in a timed relationship simultaneously
Using a punch and die, gears may be produced from
with a reciprocating action of the cutter. This
thin sheet stock materials. To improve the sheared
reciprocating action permits the cutting of gears that
surface a second operation using a trim die is
are closely banked against obstructions or other
sometimes incorporated into the production pro-
gears of a cluster. Moreover, the nature of shaping
cess. Fine blanking is a specialized process to
allows the generation of internal teeth.
produce the completed gear essentially burr free in
11.4 Milling one operation.

Milling gear teeth is a form cutting method using a 11.11 Cold rolling
cutter having a profile matching the gear tooth Cold rolling is the forming of gear teeth by controlled
space. One tooth is cut, the blank is then indexed, displacement of metal. Dies, either in circular or
usually using a dividing head, and the next tooth is rack form work in the tooth space of the part, forcing
cut, continuing around to complete the gear. metal to flow and form teeth. The cold rolling
method can be used either to make a gear complete
11.5 Fly--cutting
or as a finishing process on teeth already cut. The
Fly--cutting may be a form cutting or generating designer should be aware that special procedures
method using a single tooth cutter. and material are required for the blank.

11.6 Broaching 11.12 Cold drawing and extrusion

Cold drawing and extrusion of gears is extremely
Broaching is a machining method by which succes-
versatile in that almost any shape desired can be
sive in--line teeth, or a broach, is pulled or pushed
reproduced. The material is forced through one or
over or through a gear blank. The broach is
more die blocks with the last block giving the final
designed to remove successive small amounts of
shape.
material in a single stroke. The last several rows of
teeth are used for sizing to the final configuration. 11.13 Grinding

11.7 Casting The grinding of gear teeth is accomplished by three

different methods. The first is a continuously
Casting of gear teeth is accomplished by pouring or formed grinding wheel resembling a large diameter
forcing molten metal into a cavity. The quality of the worm which is fed into the work similar to the
gear varies largely with the quality of the cavity and method described in hobbing. The second incorpo-
the process used. rates a grinding wheel with the proper tooth space

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

form dressed on the perimeter of the grinding wheel. 12 Inspection

In the third, two disc type wheels are positioned so
their axes are perpendicular to the profiles of a rack The methods of inspection should be considered
tooth and the working portion of the wheels serve as when gears are being designed, especially when
the rack profiles. Grinding is usually used as a the specifications are being prepared. The methods
finishing process but in many fine--pitch applica- selected should be the minimum necessary to
tions, it may be used as the complete process to establish the quality characteristics required by the
manufacture the teeth. Caution should be used by application. Needless inspection can add substan-
the designer to allow ample room on each side of tially to the cost of the gears, whether performed by
the gear for entry and exit of the grinding wheel. the manufacturer or the user. Other considerations
in the selection of inspection are the availability of
11.14 Gear shaving the measuring instruments and the suitability of the
measuring process to the size of the gear teeth.
Shaving is a free--cutting gear finishing operation The standard and preferred measurements are the
which removes small amounts of metal from the composite check and the test radius measurement.
working surfaces of the gear teeth. It is used to Other commonly used procedures are the mea-
improve the accuracy of index, helix angle, tooth surement over wires, measurement of runout by
profile and concentricity, and to improve the tooth indicator and the comparator method.
surface finish.
It is less common, although sometimes desirable, to
measure involute, tooth alignment and tooth place-
11.15 Gear honing ment (pitch variation or index position) by elemental
methods. It is possible to measure teeth as small as
The honing process uses an abrasive impregnated 100 to 120 DP. Tolerances for these elemental
plastic helical gear--shaped tool. This tool is run in measurements do not exist in AGMA for teeth finer
mesh with a hardened gear to remove nicks and than 20 DP. Elemental inspection tolerances for
burrs from teeth. It also improves the surface finish gears finer than 20 DP must be agreed upon
to some degree. between manufacturer and user.
12.1 Composite action test, double flank check
11.16 Gear lapping See ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88, Gear Classification
and Inspection Handbook for detailed descriptions
Lapping is a method of correcting minute heat-- of measuring methods, master gear tolerances and
treatment distortions of involute profile, helix angle, inspection tolerances.
spacing and eccentricity. It is done by either of two 12.2 Measurement of runout by indicator
methods. The first method is running the work in
mesh with a gear--shaped lapping tool and the See ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88. However, when
second is to run two mating gears together. In both inspecting wide--face gears, it may be desirable to
methods an abrasive lapping compound is the check at both ends of the teeth. A marked
medium that accomplishes the removal of metal. difference in the two sets of readings, in magnitude
or angular position of the high point, reveals the
presence of a wobble condition. This condition,
11.17 Gear burnishing
incidentally, detracts more from the quality of the
gear than does uniform across--the--face runout
Burnishing is a finishing operation whose sole because it prevents uniform contact across the
purpose is to produce a smooth uniform surface. It entire gear face.
cannot be used to correct results of improper
12.3 Measurement over wires
cutting. The workpiece is run in metal to metal
contact under light pressure with a special hard- See ANSI/AGMA 2002--B88, Tooth Thickness
ened burnishing gear. Specification and Measurement, for detailed in-

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formation on the specification and measurement of the cutter need to be known because the computer
tooth size. program computes the path of the elements of the
cutter surface as it is rolled through mesh with the
12.4 Optical comparator measurement blank in order to create the surface of the tooth. If a
12.4.1 Use and limitations computer program does not request cutter informa-
tion as part of the input, the program contains
These measurements are made in an optical assumptions with regard to cutter parameters. The
comparator which projects an enlarged image of gear designer should determine what cutter is
part or all of a gear outline onto a screen. The image modeled by the software before proceeding with the
can be compared to a transparent layout of the design.
desired outline drawn to the same scale. A variety It is recommended that reference features (such as
of gear quality characteristics can be measured, the gear center) and tooth centerlines be part of the
including gear size (tooth thickness), runout, pitch layout so the user of the layout can properly orient
and profile variation. While the comparator method the chart to the projected image.
is useful in checking very fine--pitch gears, it is not
The mathematical algorithms which a computer
an adequate substitute for the composite check.
uses to model the tooth create a series of points that
The method is limited to spur gears. It is generally are plotted to form the picture. Figure 56 contains
not practical to obtain a suitable image from helical tables which show the points plotted in this
gears, from either the normal or transverse plane. example. Note that this picture shows overlap of the
involute profile with the trochoid due to the drawing
Some standard magnifications used on optical
method used.
comparators are 31.25 and 62.5 derived from the
fractional scale and 10, 20, 50 and 100 derived from 12.4.3 Limitations of CAD gear profile software
the decimal scale. The advantage of a larger scale The gear designer should carefully evaluate the
is often offset by the corresponding difficulty in quality of the software used to draw gear teeth. The
projecting a sharp image and by the limitation software used in figure 56 did not calculate the
imposed by the comparator screen size on the intersection of the trochoid and involute profile.
portion of the gear which can be viewed at one time. Each curve was calculated past the intersection and
Even with the largest scale, outline variations less plotted. The CAD operator must manually trim the
than 0.0005 inch cannot readily be detected by curves to the proper intersection point if the
projection. application requires. The most accurate tooth
A proper check of the gear outline by the projection drawing programs calculate all intersections and
method requires that the gear image be in proper trim the curves to the intersection points. These
relationship with the layout. Ideally, the gear axis is software packages are recommended if molds are
the reference feature on the gear. When this is not being made directly from the design software.
practical and the outside diameter is used instead, Less rigorous software may calculate the involute
the tolerance limits on the size and concentricity of properly but not attempt the trochoid. These
the gear outside diameter must be taken into programs usually use a radial line from the base
account. circle to the root circle. Even less rigorous software
uses the equations for approximating a gear tooth
12.4.2 Comparator layouts
found in text books for drawing board drafting
Computer Aided Design (CAD) software packages courses. The use of such software is discouraged.
are frequently used to create the profiles of gears for 12.5 Elemental measurements
use with optical comparators. Figure 56 is an
example of this method. The tooth shown is for a 10 If equipment is available, it is possible to measure
tooth, 20 DP, 20 degree PA gear, with tooth profile variation, tooth alignment variation, index
thickness 0.07854 in. This profile depicts the tooth variation and pitch variation by the use of a
as if it were cut with a rack--type cutter with tooth contacting probe on individual teeth. This is
thickness of 0.07854. The tool had an addendum of important when trying to diagnose problems with
0.062 in and had zero tip radii. The parameters of gear quality.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Outside diameter Trochoid

X Y X Y
0.300 0.000 0.242635 0.044656 Y
0.299891 0.008080 0.234305 0.040398
(0 1823 0 0460)
(0.1823,0.0460)
0.299640 0.014687 0.214320 0.034128
0.203145 0.033447
Involute Profile 0.196298 0.034428 (0.2343, 0.0404)
X Y 0.191806 0.035934
0.299640 .014687 0.188707 0.037593
(0 2 0)
(0.2,0) (0 3 0)
(0.3,0)
0.290149 .021052 0.186493 0.039280
X
0.281099 .026318 0.184878 0.040960 0.200” to gear axis
0.272587 .030569 0.183696 0.042632
0.264703 .033897 0.182848 0.044313
0.257527 .036401 0.182278 0.046028
0.251127 .038185
0.245563 .039361
0.240883 .040043 Root circle
0.237122 .040348 X Y
0.234306 .040398 0.182278 0.046028 RC Trochoid Involute OD
0.232166 .040290 0.180464 0.052694
0.231457 .040290 0.178799 0.058095
Figure 56 -- Profile of 10 tooth, 20 DP, 20° PA gear tooth with undercut

The following are brief descriptions of the above surface. For racks, linear position is used in place of
variations. See ANSI/AGMA 2000--A88 for detailed angular.
descriptions on measuring methods and
12.5.4 Pitch variation
interpretations.
Pitch variation is the difference between two
12.5.1 Profile variation distances: the theoretical distance between corre-
sponding points on adjacent teeth and the
Profile variation is the difference between the measured distance between those points.
measured and the specified involute profile on the
portion of the tooth flank extending from the
specified form circle to the addendum circle or start 13 Lubrication
of tip chamfer or tip round.
13.1 Introduction
12.5.2 Tooth alignment variation (lead variation)
To achieve maximum reliability and minimum cost in
Tooth alignment variation is the difference between a gear design, the lubrication function should be
the measured lead trace and the specified lead given the same degree of attention as is given to the
trace, with the difference measured normal to the gear selection and design, and should be ap-
specified lead trace. The tooth alignment traces are proached as a system. The lubrication system
taken along the helix on helical gears and across the consists of the lubricant, its means of application, its
face on spur gears. means of retention, the gear materials and the
operating environment.
12.5.3 Index variation
In gear design, the lubricant may provide any or all
Index variation is the displacement of any tooth from of the following functions:
its theoretical angular position relative to a datum -- To reduce the friction between the gears and
tooth about an axis established by a specified within the bearings;

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-- To minimize wear between contacting parts; their properties may be screened for suitable
candidates.
-- To remove wear particles or ingested
contaminants; The maximum temperature that a gear will
-- To protect surfaces from corrosion; achieve is a function of the heat that it will gener-
ate as a result of friction losses, the rate at which
-- To remove heat or to preheat. it can reject heat to the heat sink and the temper-
13.2 General considerations ature of the heat sink.
-- Tooth loading. Most lubricants act by sepa-
The following factors govern the selection of the
rating the contacting rubbing surfaces with a
lubrication system to be used:
shear--film that prevents direct material--to--ma-
-- Operating temperature range; terial contact. The degree to which wear of these
surfaces is minimized is a direct function of the
-- Tooth loading (K factor);
integrity of the lubricating film. Minimum wear is
-- Pitch line velocity; achieved when the thickness of the film exceeds
that of the asperities on the surfaces of the con-
-- The degree to which the gears are enclosed,
tacting parts. The pressure to which the lubricant
and if enclosed, the degree to which the
film is subjected is the Hertzian contact pressure.
enclosure can be sealed;
High pressures tend to squeeze the film to the
-- Operating life between reapplications of point that it will not adequately separate the
lubricant; parts.
-- Operating environment. -- Meshing velocity. The rate of sliding at the
Methods of lubricating fine--pitch gearing are the lubricating film is a function of the meshing veloc-
following: ity. In the case of fluid film lubrication, the film
thickness developed by a given load in a given lu-
-- Force feed (pumped) systems; bricant at a given temperature is a function of the
-- Splash systems; meshing velocity and gear tooth geometry. Thus,
low speed applications tend to demand higher
-- Grease packed systems; viscosity materials in order to obtain an adequate
-- Intermittent oil or grease application film thickness.
systems; In the case of bonded films or dry (powdered) lu-
-- Sintered materials (oil impregnated); bricants, high speed may preclude adequate lu-
brication. High speeds combined with high tooth
-- Plastics materials (lubricant filled); loading may generate sufficient heat to eliminate
-- Bonded coatings; from consideration all lubricating systems that
cannot actively carry away heat.
-- Solid lubricants;
-- Gearing enclosures. The degree to which
-- Non--lubricated systems.
fine--pitch gears can be enclosed dictates the
13.3 Lubricating system considerations type of lubricating system that can be applied.
Gear enclosures range from designs that are ful-
The following should be considered when selecting ly enclosed and can be provided with shaft seals
the lubricating system, the lubricant, or the gear and static casing seals to open designs wherein
materials: no fluid type lubricants are possible or tolerable.
-- Temperature range. Determine the limits of At times the lubricating system may dictate the
the range of temperature over which the gears casing design.
are expected to operate, temperatures to which
they may be subjected during storage or ship- 13.4 Methods of lubricating fine--pitch gearing
ment and the magnitude of any unusually high or
low temperature excursions. Once these values There are three general approaches to the
have been established, lists of lubricants and lubrication of fine--pitch gearing.

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13.4.1 Oil (fluid) -- Special materials bonded to the gear tooth

surfaces.
Oil may be used as a lubricant under the following
conditions: In general, these materials are limited to applica-
tions in which the tooth contact loads are low (low
-- An enclosure adequate to retain the oil can “K” factors) and speeds are low enough so that the
be provided, including dynamic seals at the heat resulting from meshing friction does not
shafts and static seals at the split lines; damage the materials.
-- In the case of open gearing, where lubricant In some cases, the actual number of operating
fling--off is minimal or may not occur, grease ap- cycles may be low enough that a properly applied
plied manually by brush, spatula or pressure gun coating will not have worn through by the end of the
may be considered; service life of the gear.
-- The range of operating temperatures is 13.5 Characteristics of lubricants
within the service range of the oil selected;
There are several characteristics that can be
-- The operating environment is tolerant of the measured for different lubricants, and that can be
oil that may migrate past the seals or be spilled compared, making possible an intelligent choice of
during oil changes; a specific lubricant for a given application.
-- The operating speeds and loads are such as 13.5.1 Characteristics of oils
to produce an adequate lubricating film
thickness. The following are the characteristics of oils for
application with fine--pitch gears:
13.4.2 Grease
-- Viscosity. A measure of the internal fluid
Grease may be used as a lubricant under the friction of an oil; it is the difficulty with which an oil
following conditions: will flow at a given temperature.
-- An enclosure adequate to retain the grease The viscosity of an oil at low temperatures may
can be provided, including dynamic seals at the be so great as to require excessive power to turn
shafts and static seals at the split lines; the gears it lubricates. At high temperatures the
oil may become so fluid that it cannot provide an
-- In the case of open gearing, the speeds are adequate film to separate the teeth of meshing
not so high so as to throw off the grease, but- gears. Viscosity may be measured using several
tered--on grease may be considered; distinctly different systems, i.e., Kinematic,
-- The gear may receive re--lubrication when Saybolt Universal, Engler Degrees, etc. ISO rec-
needed; ognizes Kinematic viscosity as the standard
measure of viscosity. Kinematic viscosity is
-- The range of operating temperatures is with- measured by the rate of flow through capillary
in the service range of the grease selected; tubes. It is calculated in mm2/s (centistokes) and
-- The operating environment is tolerant of the is measured at standard Celsius temperatures;
oil or grease that may get by the seals or be -- Viscosity index. A measure of the change
thrown from open, buttered gearing. of the viscosity--temperature characteristic of a
13.4.3 Non--fluid systems fluid, indicating the rate at which the viscosity of a
fluid will change as temperature increases or
Several methods are available to provide a low decreases;
friction contact between the surfaces of meshing -- High temperature stability. A characteris-
gear teeth. These include: tic important in gears operating at elevated tem-
-- Certain metallic combinations such as brass peratures. Every oil has some temperature
against steel; above which its design characteristics will begin
to break down. In general, synthetic oils retain
-- Certain plastics running against each other; their properties to higher useful temperatures;
-- Certain plastics filled with materials having -- Compatibility with materials of manufac-
lubricating properties; ture. The lubricant must be chemically

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compatible with metallic and elastomer compo- 14 Bearings

nents, sealants, paints and other applied coat-
ings; 14.1 General

-- Additives. Additives are blended into many The bearings discussed in this clause are of the
oils to improve specific characteristics and to rolling element type. However, some of the
tailor the oil to a given application. Typical information will also apply to journal bearings.
additives are used to improve oxidation resist- The bearing application process consists of select-
ance, viscosity index, load carrying ability and ing the type of bearing at each location, finding its
anti--foaming characteristics. operating speed and loads, both radial and thrust,
and then selecting a size of bearing of adequate
13.5.2 Characteristics of greases
capacity over the required life. In addition, bearing
Most greases consist of two principal parts, an oil lubrication must be assured.
and a thickener, generally a metallic soap, which 14.2 Types of bearings
acts like a sponge to retain the oil. The oil The selection of bearing type is commonly influ-
component may be evaluated by the criteria given enced by the magnitude of the bearing loads in
above. A thickener (organic or inorganic) provides relation to the space available for the bearing. The
body to a grease. Aluminum, bentone, calcium, size of the thrust load is especially important.
lithium and polyurea are common thickener types Although thrust loads are not usually associated
used in modern greases. Each provides its specific with spur gears, some thrust will develop from slight
grease with distinctive properties. misalignment of the shaft, from teeth slightly out of
The following are the characteristics of the grease parallel or having a slight lead, or from shaft
(thickener) component for applications of grease to bending.
fine--pitch gears. The descriptions of the types of bearings given
below are only suggestive of their individual fea-
-- Penetration number. A physical test estab- tures. Further information should be obtained from
lished by the National Lubricating Grease Insti- bearing manufacturers.
tute (NLGI) to define the consistency (softness or
hardness) of a grease at 35°C (77°F). A special- 14.2.1 Angular--contact ball bearings
ized instrument, known as a penetrometer, is This ball bearing has large load capacity for
dropped into a prepared sample of the grease combined radial and thrust loads. An individual
under carefully prescribed conditions. NLGI bearing must have a thrust load, but will support this
penetration numbers range from 0 through 6 load in one direction only. Where the thrust load
(very soft to very hard). may reverse direction or where its direction is
As the grease is worked at the mesh and near the uncertain, these bearings should be used in op-
gear teeth in service, it is subjected to shear posed pairs. The two bearings may be located at
forces that cause the thickener to release the lu- opposite ends of the shaft or they may be placed
bricating fluid. When the shear forces are back--to--back with an additional bearing at the far
removed, the thickener reabsorbs the lubricating location. Sometimes two or more bearings are
fluid. The degree to which a grease softens while arranged in tandem at one location to obtain the
working will influence its ability to stay near the necessary load capacity, as when a larger diameter
areas of the teeth where it will be most beneficial. bearing would not fit into the housing design.
Therefore it is necessary to select a grease that 14.2.2 Deep groove radial ball bearing
will soften sufficiently to enter the mesh but
remain there under load; This ball bearing has a smaller thrust load capacity,
but will support thrust loads in both directions in a
-- Dropping point. The temperature at which single bearing.
a grease passes from a semi--solid state to a liq-
14.2.3 Cylindrical roller bearing
uid state. Dropping point helps determine the
maximum temperature at which the grease will This bearing is normally used for its greater radial
lubricate and remain in place without running out. load capacity. Since it has no thrust load capability

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

of its own, it must be accompanied by another type from driving or driven components such as
of bearing, such as the deep groove radial. The motors or impellers.
cylindrical roller bearing is also used when free axial 14.4.2 Calculation of bearing reactions from
sliding is needed. In such applications, the axial other forces
location of the shaft is fixed by the other bearing and
the cylindrical roller bearing prevents internally 14.4.2.1 Weight forces
induced thrust loads caused by assembly errors or Locate each gear or other weight contributing
axial thermal expansion of the shaft. component in its axial position relative to the
14.2.4 Tapered roller bearing bearings. Treating each weight as a vertical force,
combine these forces with the vertical components
This roller bearing adds high thrust load capacity to of the gear tooth forces in the vertical plane. Then
the high radial load found in cylindrical roller continue with the remainder of the calculations.
bearings. Their use in relation to thrust load
14.4.2.2 Other drive component forces
direction is subject to the same considerations
discussed under angular--contact bearings. For belt and chain drives, treat these forces in the
same manner as spur gear tooth forces after
14.3 Bearing speed
establishing the appropriate force magnitudes and
Speed affects the bearing capacity in several ways. directions. Coupling forces require a special
The greater the speed, the greater the number of treatment which varies with the type of coupling and
stress cycles over the total hours of required life. are not discussed here.
Also, the greater the speed, the more likely the 14.4.2.3 Centrifugal forces
bearing will be harmed by misalignment, improper
bearing fit on the shaft, eccentricity of inner to outer For each centrifugal force in its axial location along
races and excessive bearing play. the shaft, find its own set of bearing reactions, all in a
single plane. Since the directions of unbalance may
Some of these effects are harmful not only to the be the same for all the centrifugal forces, it is
bearings. If they are of significant magnitude, they appropriate to add up all the centrifugal force
will also adversely affect the gears supported by the reactions at each bearing. Since the centrifugal
bearings. force is a rotating force, its most harmful effect will
take place when it lines up with the resultant of all
14.4 Bearing loads
the other bearing reactions. Therefore, add the
14.4.1 Sources of bearing loads combined centrifugal force reaction to the
corresponding bearing reaction resultant.
The common sources of bearing loads are:
14.5 Bearing capacity
-- Reactions to the gear tooth forces. With spur
gears, the tooth forces create reactions at the Information on the capacity of a specific bearing is
bearings which are pure radial loads (except as available in the bearing manufacturer’s design
noted in 14.2). With helical gears, the forces also manual. The manual will also describe the calcula-
have thrust components which induce thrust tion procedure for combining the design radial and
forces on at least one of the bearings; thrust loads, bearing speed and required hours of
operation into a single figure for comparison to the
-- Weights of gears and other components
supported by the bearings; standard rating of each size of bearing.

-- Centrifugal forces due to out--of--balance 14.6 Lubrication

resulting from runout and other causes; In some applications, a single lubricant can be
-- Reactions to external forces. Such forces shared by both the bearings and gears. The
may come from other drive components condition of rolling and sliding between the various
mounted on the same shaft as the gears, such as elements of the bearing are similar to the rolling and
belt or chain drives, or couplings with some sliding in the meshing action of the gear teeth.
misalignment present. Other forces may come When the materials, temperature range and surface

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texture are also similar, one lubricant can often safety. Additional caution is needed when the risks
meet both sets of requirements. If freely circulating are greater than normal. Examples of such high risk
oil is used, it must be kept clean enough for bearings applications are those involving human safety, risk
even if the gears are more tolerant of wear particles, of damage to expensive equipment, anticipated
contaminants or other material. conditions of unreliable maintenance or inspection
and equipment that will not be accessible for prompt
When separate lubricants are used, care must be
servicing or replacement. The risks in such
exercised to prevent mixing. One way to do this is to
use sealed bearings packed with grease by the applications are even greater when there is the
bearing manufacturer. This procedure also insures possibility of failure without warning.
that the amount and type of grease in the bearing 15.1.2 Revisions of preliminary design
best suits the bearing application and is kept
In some design problems, a preliminary design is
especially clean.
needed in order to establish some size require-
The Anti--Friction Bearing Manufacturers Associa- ments as a first step in the design of the complete
tion standards which establish the ratings for rolling equipment. Such a preliminary design may not
element bearings do not consider the effect of have the benefit of adequate knowledge of loads or
inadequate lubrication. If there is only boundary other constraints imposed by the final design of the
lubrication, bearing life may result in a lesser equipment. In this case, the preliminary design
standard rating. To insure the presence of a must be reviewed and revised in light of the added
lubricant film sufficient to fully separate the rolling information. When greater gear capacity must be
elements under high speed or heavily loaded provided with minimum change to the rest of the
conditions, it may be necessary to use a jet stream design, the best solution may be the improvement
of fluid. A spray or splash system is usually suitable of the gear material or its heat treatment.
for less critical conditions.
15.2 Load rating
Load rating is the standard calculation of the load
capacity of a designed set of gears. The rating is
15 Load rating and testing
generally expressed as the horsepower that the
gear set can transmit at the specified speed and for
The preliminary design is only the first stage in the the desired life. This horsepower can then be
total design process. A design should not be compared to the power requirement of the
considered as final unless it has been confirmed by application.
test experience. The load rating calculation is often 15.2.1 Strength conditions
a valuable step before the testing and, under special
conditions, may be used in place of testing. The standard AGMA rating procedure considers
two strength conditions as determining the load
15.1 Preliminary design capacity of the gears, namely, bending and surface
durability. These are the same as the two used in
The preliminary design is generally developed the preliminary design procedure as noted in 5.6.
directly from the performance requirements.
Sometimes, however, it can be taken directly, or 15.2.1.1 Bending strength
with some modification, from a design used in a Bending strength is the capacity to resist the kind of
similar application. failure appearing as a crack in the root fillet of the
gear tooth. Such a crack results from repeated
15.1.1 Preparation of preliminary design
tensile stress cycles and can progress until all or a
A new preliminary design can be prepared by major portion of the tooth breaks away. Major tooth
carefully following procedures of clauses 4, 5 and 6. breakage can result in total failure with little
The selection of the basic design load will require likelihood of advance warning in the form of
special care and judgment, backed by experience. increased vibration or noise. See ANSI/AGMA
As explained in 5.3.1, this selection should include 110.04, Nomenclature of Gear Tooth Failure
suitable factors to give protection for expected Modes, for additional description of this type of
intermittent overloads, desired life expectancy and failure.

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AGMA 917--B97 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

The standard calculation for bending strength rating adequate lubrication. For an application in which
is described in ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95 for spur and other failure modes are possible, especially those
helical gears. related to inadequate lubrication, this standard
15.2.1.2 Surface durability rating procedure may not completely evaluate the
design.
Surface durability, also known as pitting resistance,
Because of these limitations, load rating may be
is the capacity to resist the kind of failure which
unreliable for confirming the final design. Load
results from repeated surface or subsurface
rating without testing should be used on a new
stresses that are beyond the endurance limit of the
design only after prior testing on similar designs has
material. This type of failure is characterized by the
established its reliability.
removal of material and the formation of surface
cavities. It may be a progressive condition which is 15.3 Testing
accompanied by increased vibration and noise. In
Testing is the primary method for confirming a final
applications where these disturbances can be
design. It is used even when the design has been
sensed, they can serve as advanced warning of
adequately load rated.
more serious failure. See ANSI/AGMA 110.04 for
additional description of this type of failure. 15.3.1 Types of testing
The standard calculation for surface durability The many types of testing, varying in loads and
rating is described in ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95 for operating conditions, can be grouped into the three
spur and helical gears. classifications described below. Any single type
may be selected, but the test program may extend
15.2.2 Data for rating calculations
to two or all three.
The data used in the rating calculations fall into the
15.3.1.1 Laboratory testing
following categories:
-- gear geometry; This refers to testing in which the gear components,
separate from the rest of the system, are tested as
-- material properties; sets on special purpose test equipment. Such
-- operating conditions; variables as load, speed, gear alignment, lubrica-
tion and duration of test are controlled by the test
-- gear manufacturing and assembly accuracy.
machine. The main advantages of such testing lie in
15.2.3 Advantages of load rating the relatively short time it takes to get results and the
very close control of test conditions. This control is
The use of the load rating calculation permits
especially important when the tests will also be used
evaluation of the design while it is still on paper, to compare alternative designs. The main disad-
before the system or any of its components are vantage is the uncertainty as to how the test
manufactured. If the calculations show that the machine conditions compare to the conditions to
design falls short, it will also suggest what changes which the gears will be subjected in the complete
to make. system.
15.2.4 Limitations of load rating 15.3.1.2 Bench testing
The load rating method in ANSI/AGMA 2001--C95 This covers the testing of the gears as an assembly,
is not suitable for every fine--pitch application. The either in the form of the complete system or as a
rating procedure is based primarily on experience gear drive sub--assembly. Loads may be applied to
with coarse pitch gears. It may not be applicable the gears by operating the product in a loaded
with other than the coarser range of fine--pitch condition or by applying an artificial load directly to
gears. Available data on material properties are the output shaft. This testing has the advantage of
limited to the more traditional gear materials. subjecting the gears to conditions closer to those
Corresponding data are lacking for other materials the design must satisfy. Such conditions include
widely used in fine--pitch gears. Rating methods lubrication, gear alignment, and in many cases, the
consider only the two types of failure described shocks and vibrations which arise in the operation of
above. Also, they assume that the design provides the system. The disadvantage for some gear

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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 917--B97

applications is the omission of other actual system in the testing. However, to reduce the testing time
conditions, such as operation in severe duration and sometimes to avoid the complication of
environments, poor servicing and abusive treat- load programming, the test is run continuously. This
ment. is satisfactory if the anticipated types of failures are
influenced only by the number of individual tooth
15.3.1.3 Field testing
loadings. If the timing of the load cycle can influence
In field testing, the gears are tested as part of the failure, as with temperature effects, a continuous
system being used normally. This is the ultimate in test should not be used. For example, in some
matching test conditions to actual operation. The systems designed to operate intermittently, the time
disadvantages are the long time periods, and between load periods will permit the lubricant and
frequently, the difficulty in adequately monitoring gear material to cool and not reach their critical
the test. temperatures. Such systems may fail a continuous
test and yet perform properly in normal use.
15.3.2 Selection of test loads
Instead of following a simple on--off pattern, the load
Gear loads vary considerably with the application, may fluctuate in magnitude during the course of a
not only in magnitude but also in duty cycle and in
single cycle or over the long term use of the system.
dynamic components. Each of these must be
If the load varies in a single cycle but one or more
considered when selecting test loads to avoid a test
teeth always experience the peak load, then a
which is either too lenient or too severe.
continuous test should be based on that peak load.
15.3.2.1 Test load magnitude Otherwise, some kind of load averaging should be
used. For fatigue type failures, the averaging would
Selection of a suitable test load starts with a basic be derived from the stress--cycle curves for the gear
load derived from the performance requirements of materials.
the system. This load is increased by a factor of
safety to allow for uncertainties in system require- 15.3.2.3 Dynamic test loads
ments or in testing. Such uncertainties may be in
the overload applied to the system, in the gear In their normal use, the gears may experience
materials and manufacturing quality, or in the externally induced shock and vibration loads super-
testing load accuracy. imposed on their steady loads. Unless the complete
The test load may be further increased for acceler- system is being tested in its normal use, it is usually
ated testing. This combination of higher load and impractical to duplicate this dynamic load condition
shorter test time is appropriate only for those failure in the tests. When they are not duplicated, these
modes which have this kind of load--time external dynamic loads are taken into account by
relationship. The two types of failures described the proper increase in the steady test load.
above, tooth breakage and surface pitting under
The treatment of internally induced vibration is
repeated loading, do have this relationship. Values
generally quite different. If this vibration results
of test loads can be increased to decrease time, this
from internal components only, such as the action of
can be derived from the fatigue stress--cycle curves
gear tooth irregularities on the inertias of the gears,
of the gear materials. Accelerated testing may give
then no increase in the steady load is necessary. In
misleading results if other failure modes are
such cases, the gears under test will by themselves
possible; those which depend on load level only, or
create duplicate dynamic loads. The situation
on time only.
becomes more complicated when the dynamic
15.3.2.2 Test duty cycle forces result from the interaction of internal irregu-
larities and external inertias. In setting up such
In many applications, the gears do not operate tests, it is important to preserve as much as possible
continuously for long periods of time at constant the external inertias and stiffnesses of connecting
load. The product may be used only intermittently members that would be present in the use of the
or the gears may be loaded only during a fraction of system. An improper match of the testing dynamics
the operating cycle. For faithful reproduction of to the product application dynamics could easily
operating conditions, this load cycle can be copied generate very misleading test results.

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Bibliography
The following documents are either referenced in the text of AGMA 917--B97, Design Manual for Parallel Shaft
Fine--Pitch Gearing or indicated for additional information.

1. Colbourne, J.R., The Geometry of Involute Gears, Springer--Verlag, New York, 1987.
2. Khiralla, T.W.,On The Geometry of External Involute Spur Gears, C/I Leaming, North Hollywood, California,
1976.
3. Buckingham, E., Analytical Mechanics of Gears, Dover Publications, Mineola, New York, 1949.
4. Dudley, D.W., Handbook of Practical Gear Design, McGraw Hill, New York, 1984.
5. Townsend, D.P., Dudley’s Gear Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1991.
6. Shigley, J.E. and Mischke, C.R., Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill, New York, 1989.
7. Michalec, G.W., Precision Gearing: Theory and Practice, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1966.
8. Smith, L.J., Assured Backlash Control -- the ABC System, AGMA Paper No. 239.14, AGMA Fall Technical
Meeting, 1979.
9. Shigley, J.E. and Mitchell, L.D., Mechanical Engineering Design, 4th edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1983.

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