Performance Improvement of Two-Stroke Engine Using Orifice Control
Performance Improvement of Two-Stroke Engine Using Orifice Control
Performance Improvement of Two-Stroke Engine Using Orifice Control
1.1 Introduction
1.4 Ignition
The result of heat losses at the spark plug electrodes, heat convection
losses and cyclically fluctuating mixture states, causes ignition energy to be
Fig.1.2 Spark over duration
5
2–
20
–
10
–
| | | |
0 20 40 60
0–
Mean pressure, bar
• Flame quenching
• Crevice volume filling
• Fuel absorption/desorption in lubricating oil
• Incomplete combustion
Fig.1.4. Not all the fuel trapped in the crevices remain unburned. In fact,
during compression and combustion, mass flow is directed into the crevices.
When the pressure begins to drop during expansion, a part of the accumulated
gas flows back and can eventually participate in late combustion.
Fortunately, in two-stroke engines, the crevice volume is proportional to the
surface-volume ratio of the combustion chamber. Thus, this value is typically
low of the order of 6 to 8.
𝐴
= 13 𝑡𝑜 17; 𝐶𝑂 = 1.5 𝑡𝑜 2.5 %
𝐹
11
𝐴
= 11.4 𝑡𝑜 15.8; 𝐶𝑂 = 5 𝑡𝑜 %
𝐹
Beyond those points, a rapid decline occurs for lean limits (CO < 1 %),
and a smooth decline follows for rich limits (CO > 5 %). The maximum
temperature occurs with mixtures richer than stoichiometric. Smooth
transition is the primary reason why engines usually are tuned on the rich
side. The other reason is that a rich mixture is necessary during the rapid
transient to achieve good acceleration performance. In two-stroke engines,
we cannot use advantageously accelerating pump devices on the carburetor
because the large volume of crankcase induces a consistent delay before the
rich mixture can reach the combustion chamber.
𝑂 + 𝑁2 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑁 ...........................................................1.1
𝑁 + 𝑂2 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂 ..........................................................1.2
𝑁 + 𝑂𝐻 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝐻 ..........................................................13
1 𝑑([𝑁𝑂]𝑉 (𝑡))
( ) = 𝐾𝐹1 [𝑂 ][𝑁2 ] + 𝐾𝐹2 [𝑁][𝑂2 ] + 𝐾𝐹3 [𝑁][𝑂𝐻 ]
𝑉 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑([𝑁]𝑉 (𝑡))
( ) = 𝐾𝐹1 [𝑂][𝑁2 ] + 𝐾𝐹2 [𝑁][𝑂2 ] + 𝐾𝐹3 [𝑁][𝑂𝐻 ]
𝑉 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
[𝑁𝑂]2
1 𝑑[𝑁𝑂]𝑉(𝑡) 2𝐾𝐹1 [𝑂][𝑁2 ](1−( ))
𝐾[𝑂2 ][𝑁2 ]
( )= 𝐾𝑅1[𝑁𝑂] …………….…1.6
𝑉(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (1+( ))
𝐾[𝑂2 ]+𝐾𝐹3 [𝑂𝐻]
𝐾𝐹1 𝐾𝐹2
where 𝐾 =
𝐾𝑅1 𝐾𝑅2
% EGR
The concept appears rather simple, but looked at closely the actual
formation phenomena, the routes to photochemical smog formation show a
rather high degree of complexity. Thirteen equations are characterizing the
processes as shown in Fig.1.11.
𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂2
𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻𝑦 → 𝑁𝑂
+𝑂
𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 𝑂3
𝑂3 + 𝐻𝐶
→ 𝑅𝐶𝐻𝑂 + 𝑅𝐶𝑂
𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂2
+𝑂
𝑂 + 𝑁𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂
+𝑂
𝑂 + 𝐻𝐶
→ 𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶𝐻𝑂
𝑅 + 𝑂2 → 𝑅𝑂2
O
𝑁𝑂 + 𝑅𝐶𝑂2
→ 𝑅𝑂 + 𝑁𝑂
𝑅𝑂 → 𝑅 + 𝑂
𝑅𝑂 + 𝑁𝑂2
→ 𝑅𝑂𝑁𝑂
𝑅𝐶𝑂2 +
𝑁𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂 +RCO
𝑅𝐶𝑂 + 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2
→ 𝑅𝐶𝑂 𝑁𝑂
O2 – Oxygen
R* - Alkyl radical
severe
Medium
light
none
deceleration
2 stroke 4 stroke
i d l i n g
acceleration
We have seen from the above discussions that the growing automobile
field involves an enormous number of I.C. engines that emit exhaust gases
and pollute the atmosphere. With more and more people preferring
automotive vehicles for mobility, there is an urgent need to take precautions
against polluting the atmosphere. Elimination of vehicles is out of the
question as growth and development demand mobility in the world. Ways
are to be found to improve the performance of automobiles and minimize the
effect of the exhaust on pollution.
This study proposes the use of uncooled and cooled exhaust gas
recirculation and modified inlet manifold with orifice suction control device
22
• The proposed study is concerned only with the novel idea of using
orifice in the manifold of exhaust gas recirculation.
• After exhaust treatment for improvement of emission characteristics are
not included in this study.
2.1 General
when compared to pure diesel at full load. However, the brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) is very close for B25 compared with pure diesel at full
load. There is a significant reduction in carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbon (HC), oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) and smoke emission at high
loads with neat WPLME. The exhaust emissions CO, HC, NOx and smoke
opacity, were decreased by 23.1 %, 31.5 %, and 64 % respectively for pure
pork lard methyl ester at full load when compared to pure diesel. Lower
heat release rate and shorter ignition delay were observed for WPLME
compared to diesel fuel.
Lakshmi Narayana Rao et al. (2008) studied the use of Used Cooking
oil Methyl Ester (UCME) on a single cylinder, 4.4 kW direct injection air
cooled stationary CI engine coupled with swinging field electrical
dynamometer. BTE of UCME is lower than that of diesel by 2.5 %. The
BTE of blends of UCME lies between diesel and neat UCME at all loads.
Since the engine is operated under constant injection timing, UCME has
lower calorific value than that of diesel. Hence the specific fuel
consumption is slightly higher than that of diesel for UCME and its blends.
The emission of CO is reduced by 15 % for 20 % UCME and by 50 % for
UCME when compared to diesel at rated load conditions.
Qi et al., (2015) reported that high EGR will dilute the engine charge
and may cause serious performance problems, such as incomplete
combustion, torque fluctuation, an engine misfire. An efficient way to
overcome these drawbacks is to intensify tumble leading to the increased
turbulent intensity at the time of ignition. The enhancement of turbulent
intensity will increase flame velocity and improve combustion quality,
therefore increasing engine tolerance to higher EGR.
Over the years, various methods have been suggested to improve the
power output and reduce emission levels from two-stroke engines. These
include piston coating, chamber design, electronic injection, catalytic
converter and some engine modifications. Manivel and Dhandapani (2001)
have reported 45% more brake power using electronic injection system in
the engine.
Mishra and Rahman (2001) have evaluated the influence of air flow
velocity on the combustion behavior and estimated minimum burning
velocities of 5 to 8 cm/s for equivalence ratios of 0.48 to 0.53.
Muralikrishna et al., (2010) have stated that the inlet flow structure is
greatly influenced by the intake manifold inclination. A flow reversal
below the intake valve is seen with all the manifold inclinations with all
32
intake valves lifts considered. For all the intake valves lifts with 200 intake
manifold inclination, air flow is in the form of the jet near the intake valve
exit, whereas for other manifold inclinations, the jet formation is not the
same for all the lifts. It is found that at 300 intake manifold inclination,
large-scale vortex below the intake valve at all intake valves lifts. TKE is
found to be higher compared to all other manifold inclinations. Conclusion
for all intake valve lifts with 600 manifold inclinations that the information
obtained in this investigation is very much useful in the optimization of the
geometry and orientation of the intake manifold of the modern internal
combustion engines.
Rizalman Mamat et al. (2009) reported that the air-fuel flow increases
slightly as pressure drop decreases. At part load, the increase of fuel flow
responds to pressure drop, while the fuel flow rate increases rapidly as
pressure drop increases. Swirl coefficient is defined as the ratio of
circumferential airspeed in the cylinder to the axial speed of the airflow in
the cylinder.
Yang Liang Jeng et al., (1999) reported that the potential of using a
video-based particle image system in studying the inlet tumbling flow
structure of an engine is demonstrated. No significant tumbling motion is
33
The study by Suresh et al., (2001) on data obtained from over 250
vehicles proved the influence of various parameters on exhaust emission
levels and two-stroke engines are found to be the major source of HC
emissions about 5 to 6 times that of four-stroke engines. It was also
concluded that proper servicing and emission control system could
considerably reduce emission levels.
Jagdale et al., (2001) have reported that nitric oxide and nitrogen
dioxide, collectively called, NOx is a precursor to photochemical smog and
contributes to acid rain and ozone depletion. Control of NOx emission is a
crucial step towards maintaining a clean and green environment.
Kale et al., (2001) have analyzed the quantity of engine oil carried
away with the blow-by gas into the inlet manifold, especially at full load
conditions when the flow rate reaches a maximum value.
to high levels resulted in a decrease in brake thermal efficiency for both the
fuels.
Rajan and Senthil Kumar (2009) studied the effects of EGR on the
performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine fueled with
sunflower biodiesel. The study involved a twin cylinder, naturally aspirated
water cooled. DI diesel engine was used for experiments. Sunflower
biodiesel was blended with diesel fuel in different percentages denoted by
B20 (20 % biodiesel by volume blended with 80 % diesel) and B40. The
experiments were conducted with B20 and B40 with different EGR rates.
It was observed that higher amount of smoke emission in the exhaust
compared to without EGR. Smoke emission was increased with increasing
engine load and EGR rate. At full load conditions with 15 % EGR rate, B20
and B40 emitted NOx was lower by 25 % and 14 % respectively, compared
to diesel fuel without EGR. They concluded that the use of EGR with
biodiesel was able to reduce NOx emissions at the expense of an increase
in smoke, CO and HC emissions.
Rajesh et al., (2001) have used vortex structures that enhance mixing
and causes complete combustion of fuel within a short distance from the
dump plane.
Benny Paul and Ganesan (2010) state that the helical spiral manifold
geometry creates a higher velocity component inside the combustion
chamber at the end of a compression stroke. Swirl ratio inside the cylinder
and TKE are higher for the spiral manifold. The volumetric efficiency of
37
the spiral, helical combined manifold is 10 % higher than that of the spiral
manifold. The summary of the comparison is as follows: Helical spiral
combined manifold creates higher swirl inside the cylinder than the spiral
manifold. Helical manifold provides higher volumetric efficiency as
compared to normal maifold. Helical spiral combined manifold provides
higher mean swirl velocity at TDC of compression. However, further
investigations based on combustion and heat release rate analysis are
essential for getting a better understanding of the flow inside the cylinder
and its effect on the motions.
compression strokes. Swirl is generated through suction of air flow into the
combustion chamber during the intake stroke and significantly enhances
the mixing of air and fuel to give either identical or stratified mixture inside
the cylinder. At the beginning of intake stroke, the normal tumble ratio
reaches a local peak value at 4000 crank angle for a homogeneous and
stratified piston. Then it decreases nearly to zero around 440 0 crank angle
before increasing over again at the present crank angles. It happens due to
the exchange of two main vortices among opposite direction inside the
engine cylinder, which resulted from the strong air jet flow through the
valve blind are during the intake stroke. The standard tumble ratio is also
seen to increase slightly higher during the maximum intake valve opening
for both pistons before regularly decreasing during the compression stroke.
The standardized piston is still able to produce a higher tumble ratio on the
normal side during the early intake stroke.
Nurun Nabi et al., (2006) made biodiesel from neem oil by the
esterification process with methyl alcohol and conducted the experiments
with neat diesel fuel and different blends of diesel and biodiesel in a
naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine. They have reported a
lower CO and smoke emissions and a higher NOx emission with diesel-
biodiesel blends in comparison with conventional diesel.
suggested that EGR cooling is necessary to retain the low NOx emissions
and prevent the rising of soot emissions without affecting the engine
efficiency at high EGR rates.
2.10 Summary
The literature review shows that research work has been carried out
using various methods to produce turbulence flow aspects of modified
47
3.1 Introduction
Out of the three emission sources namely point, line and area, this
project concentrates online sources where two-wheelers contribute to a major
part of pollution. An experimental study was taken on a two-wheeler two-
stroke petrol engine using Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) with varying
orifice suction control, and the results were analyzed for improvement in
performance concerning four-stroke petrol engine of comparable size.
A very high amount of EGR will dilute the engine charge and may cause
serious performance problems, such as incomplete combustion, torque
[1]
fluctuation, and engine misfire . An efficient way to overcome these
drawbacks is to intensify tumble, leading to the increased turbulent intensity
at the time of ignition. The enhancement of turbulent intensity will increase
flame velocity and improve combustion quality, therefore increasing engine
[2]
tolerance to a higher EGR. A dedicated EGR engine will tolerate high
dilution levels, enable faster burn rates, reduce cycle-to-cycle variations,
decrease ignition energy levels and further improve efficiency and emissions.
[3]
Modified inlet with aerofoils provides increased turbulence
improving the performance and reducing the emission from in-cylinder
internal combustion engines. EGR systems divert some of the engine-out
exhaust gas and mix it back into fresh intake air stream. Mixing exhaust with
49
the intake air lowers combustion temperatures and rates. The mixing
improves emissions by reducing the formation of NOx. It also reduces the
knock limit, providing better fuel economy through high compression ratios
and spark advance.
system. The performance obtained was compared with that of the four-stroke
engine.
The internal combustion engine can produce the same amount of torque
at any rpm. The rpm varied using throttle control and dynamometer control.
The speeds were varied in steps of 500 rpm from the minimum speed
prescribed for the engine, i.e., 2500 rpm. Accordingly, the range of brake
power varies from 2 kW to 5 kW, and the performance readings were taken
for these values. The time taken for the consumption of a specific amount of
fuel is noted. Inlet airflow is measured at inlet chamber by measuring the
pressure drop across the orifice between the chamber and inlet pipe.
The emission parameters were directly taken from the display panel of
the exhaust gas analyzer by inserting the probe for sample collection at the
exhaust point. Technical Specifications of exhaust gas analyzer are given in
Appendix 2.
The experimental setup shown in Figure 3.1 was used to conduct the
experiments on the engine and determine the performance of the various
modifications.
53
All tests were conducted at steady state condition without modifying test
engine. All measurements were repeated thrice, and an average was used for
determining the derived parameters. The engine was operated initially to
reach warm-up conditions before trials.
The air flow rate is passed through an air tank connected to the engine.
The air intake to the engine is connected to this large rigid tank with an orifice
at its inlet. The tank is large enough to dampen out the pulsations in flow and
be free of resonances in the normal speed range of the engine. The flow
generating component is represented by the equation for compressible flow
through the orifice. The equation derived from Bernoulli’s equation
assuming steady state, incompressible, inviscid flow unaffected by gravity is
𝑑𝑚
= 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴√2𝜌(𝑝𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 𝑝𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 ) ............................3.1
𝑑𝑡
Orifice Plates
57
𝐴2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )1000 ......................................3.2
2
√1−(𝐴2 )
𝐴1
Figure 3.4 Air and Gas flow rates with Orifice meter
The mass flow rate of fuel was calculated by the time is taken for
quantity (50cc) of fuel consumed by an engine. Normally, the fuel is drawn
from the petrol tank to burette using the 2-way valve. When the valve is
closed, the fuel is drawn from the graduated burette to the engine. The time
taken for a certain quantity of fuel (50cc) consumed by the engine is noted.
After measuring the flow rate, the valve was opened for the flow to take place
from the tank to engine through a burette. For getting accurate readings, the
experiment was repeated thrice.
Exhaust gas analyzer (AVL 444 DIGAS) was used to quantify the
exhaust gas emissions in the exhaust. The photographic view of the exhaust
gas analyzer is shown in Figure 3.5 The amount of Carbon monoxide (CO),
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Hydrocarbons (HC), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) and
Air fuel ratio are displayed in the analyzer. The photographic view of the
exhaust gas pipe is shown in Figure.3.5. The exhaust pipe removed from the
engine is shown in Figure 3.6.
Microsoft Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets, using a grid
of cells arranged in numbered rows and letter-named columns to organize
data manipulations like arithmetic operations. It has a battery of supplied
functions to answer statistical, engineering and financial needs. Also, it can
display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with a very limited
three-dimensional graphical display. Excel is not just used as a database here.
The input data were stored in the Microsoft Excel software, and
calculations were carried out to determine the performance and output values
of the performance characteristics. These data were exported to MATLAB
for further analysis, and the results were retrieved as reports after the analysis
was over. Model output from Excel is shown in Appendix 4.
3.5.2 MATLAB
3.5.3 Maple
intuitive that one can easily manage its power and gain greater insight into
the nature of physical system modeling.
3.5.4 Summary
Tests were carried out to obtain the data necessary for determining the
performance and emission characteristics.
All these data analyses and the results are discussed in the next
chapter.
4.1 Introduction
The efficiency values were observed for the various configurations with
5 % uncooled exhaust gas recirculation, at the optimum brake power point of
4.287 kW for two-stroke gasoline base engine.
The brake thermal efficiency is 34.2 % for two-stroke base engine, and
brake thermal efficiency values are 37.7 %, 38.3 % and 37.2 % for 2SD4P5H,
2SD6P5H, and 2SD8P5H respectively. It can be observed that the increment
66
in efficiency values are 3.5 %, 4.1 %, and 3.0 % for 2SD4P5H, 2SD6P5H
and 2SD8P5H respectively over the efficiency of two-stroke gasoline base
engine.
The brake thermal efficiency is 34.2 % for two-stroke base engine, and
brake thermal efficiency values are 39.6 %, 40.3 % and 39.9 % for 2SD4P5C,
2SD6P5C, and 2SD8P5C respectively. It can be observed that the increment
in efficiency values are 5.4 %, 6.1 %, and 5.7 % for 2SD4P5C, 2SD6P5C and
2SD8P5C respectively over the efficiency of two-stroke gasoline base
engine.
The brake thermal efficiency is 34.2 % for two-stroke base engine and
brake thermal efficiency values are 38.9 %, 39.8 % and 37.7 % for
2SD4P10H, 2SD6P10H and 2SD8P10H respectively. It can be observed that
the increment in efficiency values are 4.7, 5.6, and 3.5 % for 2SD4P10H,
2SD6P10H and 2SD8P10H respectively over the efficiency of two-stroke
gasoline base engine.
The brake thermal efficiency is 34.2 % for two-stroke base engine and
brake thermal efficiency values are 40.9 %, 41.4 % and 40.5 % for
2SD4P10C, 2SD6P10C and 2SD8P10C respectively. It can be observed that
the increment in efficiency values are 6.7, 7.2, and 6.3 % for 2SD4P10C,
2SD6P10C and 2SD8P10C respectively over the efficiency of two-stroke
gasoline base engine.
The brake thermal efficiency is 34.2 % for two-stroke base engine and
brake thermal efficiency values are 37.0 %, 37.2 % and 36.4 % for
2SD4P15H, 2SD6P15H and 2SD8P15H respectively. It can be observed that
the increment in efficiency values are 2.8, 3.0, and 2.2 % for 2SD4P15H,
2SD6P15H and 2SD8P15H respectively over the efficiency of two-stroke
gasoline base engine.
The brake thermal efficiency is 34.2 % for two-stroke base engine, and
brake thermal efficiency values are 39.3 %, 39.6 % and 39.0 % for
2SD4P15C, 2SD6P15C and 2SD8P15C respectively. It can be observed that
the increment in efficiency values are 5.1, 5.4, and 5.0 % for 2SD4P5C,
2SD6P5C and 2SD8P5C respectively over the efficiency of two-stroke
gasoline base engine.
In all these cases, since exhaust gas enters first, the fresh air-fuel
mixture is prevented from a short circuit in scavenging process. Short circuit
prevention retains the air-fuel mixture for complete burning to take place
[Raju Hurakadli et al., (2015)]. By recycling the exhaust gas in the
combustion chamber, a lean mixture of air-fuel is obtained inside. As the
mixture becomes lean, there is a loss of energy and the temperature rise
during the combustion becomes less. The lower temperature results in lower
specific heat and causes lower chemical equilibrium losses. Due to this brake
thermal efficiency of the engine increases when compared to the normal two-
stroke gasoline base engine.
The Specific Fuel Consumption values were observed for the various
configurations with 5 % uncooled exhaust gas recirculation, at the optimum
brake power point of 4.287 kW for two-stroke gasoline base engine. The
76
Specific Fuel Consumption is 244 g/kWh for two-stroke base engine, and
Specific Fuel Consumptions are 222 g/kWh, 218 g/kWh and 225 g/kWh for
2SD4P5H, 2SD6P5H, and 2SD8P5H respectively. It can be observed that the
decrement in Specific Fuel Consumption values is 22 g/kWh, 26 g/kWh and
19 g/kWh for 2SD4P5H, 2SD6P5H and 2SD8P5H respectively over the
Specific Fuel Consumption of two-stroke gasoline base engine.
mm, 6mm and 8mm are shown for 10 % uncooled EGR in Fig.4.10 and for
10 % cooled EGR in Fig.4.11. The Specific Fuel Consumption values were
observed for the various configurations with 10 % uncooled exhaust gas
recirculation, at the optimum brake power point of 4.287 kW for two-stroke
gasoline base engine.
mm, 6mm and 8mm are shown for 15% uncooled EGR in Fig.4.12 and for
15% cooled EGR in Fig.4.13. The Specific Fuel Consumption values were
observed for the various configurations with 15 % uncooled exhaust gas
recirculation, at the optimum brake power point of 4.287 kW for two-stroke
gasoline base engine.
study the mass flow rate characteristics for the two cases: (a) Mass flow rate
for 10 % cooled EGR and orifice diameters 4 mm, 6 mm and 8 mm; (b) Mass
flow rate for configuration with 6 mm orifice diameter and 5 %, 10 %, and
15 % cooled EGR. A close observation of these plots would be sufficient to
confirm the conclusion of best combination.
Brake power vs. mass flow rate variations in the two-stroke engine
using inlet manifold, modified with the orifice of diameters 4 mm, 6mm and
8mm are shown for 10 % cooled EGR in Fig.4.15. It can be observed that the
mass flow rate increases with brake power in all the cases. However, the mass
flow rate for all the modified configurations is always lower as compared to
that of the two-stroke gasoline base engine.
The Mass Flow Rate is 19.815 kg/kWh for two-stroke gasoline base
engine, and Mass Flow Rates are 16.537 kg/kWh, 16.384 kg/kWh and 16.741
kg/kWh for 2SD4P10C, 2SD6P10C and 2SD8P10C respectively. It can be
observed that the decrement in Mass Flow Rate values is 3.278 kg/kWh,
3.431 kg/kWh and 3.074 kg/kWh for 2SD4P10C, 2SD6P10C and 2SD8P10C
respectively over the Mass Flow Rate of two-stroke gasoline base engine at
the optimum brake power. The maximum decrement in Mass Flow Rate
observed in the case of 2SD6P10C configuration is 3.431 kg/kWh over that
of two-stroke gasoline base engine.
Brake power vs. mass flow rate variations in the two-stroke engine
using inlet manifold, modified with the orifice of diameters 6 mm for 5 %,
10 %, and 15 % cooled EGR in Fig.4.16. It can be observed that the mass
flow rate increases with brake power in all the cases. However, the mass flow
rate for all the modified configurations is always lower as compared to that
of the two-stroke gasoline base engine.
The Mass Flow Rate is 19.815 kg/kWh for two-stroke base engine, and
Mass Flow Rates are 16.793 kg/kWh, 16.384 kg/kWh and 17.118 kg/kWh
for 2SD6P15C, 2SD6P10C and 2SD6P15C respectively. It can be observed
that the decrement in Mass Flow Rate values are 3.022 kg/kWh, 3.431
kg/kWh and 2/697 kg/kWh for 2SD6P5C, 2SD6P10C and 2SD6P15C
respectively over the Mass Flow Rate of two-stroke gasoline base engine at
the optimum brake power. The maximum decrement in Mass Flow Rate
observed is in the case of 2SD6P10C configuration, i.e. 3.431 kg/kWh over
that of two-stroke gasoline base engine.
The mass flow rate improves for all the three configurations compared
to the base engine. For all the three configurations, the improvement is
significant up to medium load range and is attributed to lower fresh charge
losses during scavenging. At higher outputs, more exhaust entry leads to a
drop in trapped charge density, and higher combustion temperature
counteracts the improvement in mass flow rate.
Table 4.3 gives the comparison of the mass flow rate at optimum brake
power for 2SD6 configuration, and 10 % cooled EGR (P10C) conditions. For
2SD6 configuration, 10 % cooled EGR (P10C), the mass flow rate is lower
89
experiments were carried out for mass flow measuring of EGR with
simplifying adjustment (manual designed EGR system) on the engine. The
performance was measured based on brake thermal efficiency and brake
specific fuel consumption. The emission species measured were NOx,
unburnt hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. The tests were conducted at
2600, 3200 and 4000 rpm. The findings showed that EGR would be one
option to increase thermal efficiency and reduce brake specific fuel
consumption and NOx concentrations in the engine exhaust, but with a rise
in EGR rate beyond the optimum value, the CO and UHC concentrations in
the engine exhaust would increase.
EGR over the emission value for two-stroke gasoline base engine without
EGR.
can be observed that the increment in emission values are 1.9 %, 2.9 % and
3.1 % for 2SD4C, 2SD6C, and 2SD8C respectively at 10 % EGR over the
emission value for two-stroke gasoline base engine without EGR.
It is also observed that the Carbon Dioxide emission has the same value
in all the configurations, i.e. 2SD4, 2SD6 and 2SD8 for both uncooled and
cooled exhaust gas recirculation at 15 %. Further increase in EGR beyond 10
% results in an adverse effect on density and impurity levels resulting in
deteriorating efficiency levels. The proportional reduction in air-fuel flow
leads to insufficient air mass resulting in oxygen starvation and deficient
combustion and emission of the product of combustion, carbon dioxide. With
the result, a saturation limit is reached for carbon dioxide formation.
Martin et al., (2012) classified the exhaust gas constituents into three
categories, harmful to health, objectionable and potentially objectionable.
Among them, the objectionable constituents are either odorous or irritating
and include aldehydes and other compounds resulting from the partial
oxidation or reaction of the fuel. These compounds appear as smoke. The
potentially objectionable constituents are those materials which may react
directly or indirectly to form irritating and lachrymating pollutants. Certain
hydrocarbons may react in the presence of oxides of nitrogen and ozone to
form eye and nose irritants; hydrocarbons must be considered in this
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15 % EGR over the emission value for two-stroke gasoline base engine
without EGR.
slow and requires rich mixture resulting in high HC and CO emission. At part
load conditions lean mixtures are permitted thus reducing the HC and CO
emissions.
The Nitrogen Oxides emission is 1250 ppm for without EGR conditions
for two-stroke gasoline base engine. Nitrogen Oxides emissions are 1095
ppm, 920 ppm and 1025 ppm for 2SD4UC, 2SD6UC and 2SD8UC
respectively at 5 % EGR. It can be observed that the decrement in emission
values are 155 ppm, 330 ppm, and 225 ppm for 2SD4UC, 2SD6UC, and
2SD8UC respectively at 5 % EGR over the emission value for two-stroke
gasoline base engine without EGR.
The Nitrogen Oxides emission is 1250 ppm for without EGR conditions
for two-stroke gasoline base engine. Nitrogen Oxides emissions are 950 ppm,
840 ppm and 908 ppm for 2SD4UC, 2SD6UC and 2SD8UC respectively at
10 % EGR. It can be observed that the decrement in emission values are 300
107
ppm, 410 ppm, and 342 ppm for 2SD4UC, 2SD6UC, and 2SD8UC
respectively at 10 % EGR over the emission value for two-stroke gasoline
base engine without EGR.
The Nitrogen Oxides emission is 1250 ppm for without EGR conditions
for two-stroke gasoline base engine. Nitrogen Oxides emissions are 960 ppm,
870 ppm and 920 ppm for 2SD4UC, 2SD6UC and 2SD8UC respectively at
15 % EGR. It can be observed that the decrement in emission values are 290
ppm, 380 ppm, and 330 ppm for 2SD4UC, 2SD6UC, and 2SD8UC
respectively at 15 % EGR over the emission value for two-stroke gasoline
base engine without EGR.
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The Nitrogen Oxides emission is 1250 ppm for without EGR conditions
in the two-stroke gasoline base engine. Nitrogen Oxides emissions are 9850
ppm, 820 ppm and 905 ppm for 2SD4C, 2SD6C and 2SD8C respectively at
5 % EGR. It can be observed that the decrement in emission values are 265
ppm, 430 ppm and 345 ppm for 2SD4C, 2SD6C, and 2SD8C respectively at
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5 % EGR over the emission value for two-stroke gasoline base engine
without EGR.
The Nitrogen Oxides emission is 1250 ppm for without EGR conditions
in the two-stroke gasoline base engine. Nitrogen Oxides emissions are 800
ppm, 700 ppm and 738 ppm for 2SD4C, 2SD6C and 2SD8C respectively at
10 % EGR. It can be observed that the decrement in emission values are 450
ppm, 550 ppm and 512 ppm for 2SD4C, 2SD6C, and 2SD8C respectively at
10 % EGR over the emission value for two-stroke gasoline base engine
without EGR.
The Nitrogen Oxides emission is 1250 ppm for without EGR conditions
in the two-stroke gasoline base engine. Nitrogen Oxides emissions are 830
ppm, 740 ppm and 770 ppm for 2SD4C, 2SD6C and 2SD8C respectively at
10 % EGR. It can be observed that the decrement in emission values are 420
ppm, 510 ppm and 480 ppm for 2SD4C, 2SD6C, and 2SD8C respectively at
10 % EGR over the emission value for two-stroke gasoline base engine
without EGR.
Jerzy Kowalski and Wieslaw Tarelko (2009) have dealt with a model
of the NOx formation in the combustion chamber of a two-stroke engine. It
consists of both the thermodynamic model of a combustion process and the
kinetic model of chemical reactions taking place during an engine working
process. Engine working parameters are sufficient to work with this model
and study the formation of NOx emission. These results have shown lower
NOx formation.
Ajinkya and Nilesh (2016) have found that Monatomic nitrogen (2N)
reacts with oxygen to form NOx. More is the temperature more N2 will
dissociate, and more NOx will be formed. At low temperature, less amount
of NOx is created. In addition to temperature, NOx formation depends on
pressure and air-fuel mixture. At low load condition, the engine requires high
EGR ratio because recirculating gases contains a high amount of oxygen and
low carbon dioxide while at high load the oxygen in exhaust gas decreases
and inert gas constituents star increasing with increased temperature. At high
EGR rate of about 44% reduces NO emissions but significantly affect fuel
economy. About 2000 ppm of oxides of nitrogen is present in the exhaust of
the engine. Mostly this contains nitrogen oxide (NO) and a small amount of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and other combinations.
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7.11 Summary
• Orifice dimension 6 mm
• Percentage recirculation 10 %
• Exhaust condition required: Cooled gas through the heat exchanger
With turbulent exhaust entry before fresh charge into the combustion
chamber leads to rising in pressure and results in an improved rate of
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Mixing of the EGR and fresh air mixture is very important since by
controlling the EGR stratification, the combustion timing can be controlled.
In a homogeneous cooled EGR, fresh air and EGR gases are mixed upstream
of the intake port and thus well mixed before injection. Homogeneous EGR
supply is more advantageous for overall performance improvement namely
combustion efficiency, fuel economy and a significant reduction in NOx
emissions. The use of these technologies ensures rapid combustion of the fuel
in the combustion chamber, lower emissions and thereby an increase in the
fuel efficiency.
We can hope for more creative technologies, which can achieve still
better results because there is no end to innovation.
More and more people should come forward to use mass transport over
preference to personalized transport.