Caldera
Caldera
Caldera
Steam boilers
Types
There are two types of steam boilers
1. Fire tube boiler (hot combustion gas passes through tube with water
surrounding this tube)
2. Water tube boiler (hot combustion gas passes outside the tube and water
through the tube)
Classification
Boilers are classified based on pressure
1. High pressure boilers operate above 15 psig
2. Low pressure boilers operate at 15 psig or below.
Boiler capacity
Boiler capacity is expressed in the following units.
1. Horse Power.
2. Pounds of Steam per Hour
3. BTU per Hour
1HP means energy to convert 34.5 pounds of water to steam from (and at) 212oF at
sea level.
Make up Water
Make up
water Storage
tank
Preheater
Steam Header
Deaerator
Condensate Meter
return
Meter
Super Heater
Storage section
Meter Steam
Drum Continuous Blow
Drain Down
Preheater
Steam
Water return
Boiler tube
Flash
Drum
Mud Drum
Deaerator
The feed water is contacted with steam to strip dissolved oxygen.
The oxygen scavenger is added before the feed water goes to storage system.
Steam Header
The steam from boiler is discharged to a header for distribution to the process system.
The condensate from steam is returned to deaerator.
Metering
These are fitted to know the quantities of water, steam, etc.
Alkalinity
The alkalinity comes from hydroxyl and carbonate ions. Hydroxyl alkalinity
(causticity) is necessary to protect the boilers against corrosion. The high causticity
causes foaming. This excess caustic will attack boiler causing “embrittlement”.
Phosphate program removes calcium as calcium phosphate. This is precipitated and
can be removed by blow down.
The pH should be kept above 11.0 to prevent the formation of sticky sludge that
adheres to boiler surface.
Causticity can be caused by the formation of sodium hydroxide from bicarbonate.
Bicarbonate forms carbonate, carbon dioxide and water at high temperature. The
carbonate hydrolyzes to give hydroxide and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
produced increases the acidity of steam.
F=E+B
F = BC
Then,
BC = E + B
B(C-1) = E
B = E/(C-1)
Example
A boiler with 450 psig operates at 5000 μmhos conductivity. The feed water
conductivity is 250 μmhos. It produces 40,000 lbs of steam/hr
Then C = 5000/250 = 20
%B = 100/C = 100/20 = 5
Example 2
Make up conductivity is 900 μmhos, for the above boiler, then
Chemical treatment
If the above boiler has to be operated with phosphate level of 60ppm (as PO4),
Phosphate loss due to blow down can be calculated:
Deposit formation
The dissolved solids form sludge as water gets concentrated during steam generation.
So solids like Calcium and magnesium salts become less soluble as temperature
increases (CaCO3, CaSO4, MgCO3, Mg(OH)2).
They form scale in the hotter areas of the boiler.
When a steam bubble forms on a heater surface a thin film of water become
concentrated with dissolved materials and the temperature may be 30OF above the
average boiler temperature. This causes precipitation of solids.
Priming carryover
Liquid surge in to the steam drum can cause water to be carried by steam. This
priming is caused by mechanical problems. There is no chemical to control this.
Silica carryover
Silica can volatilize and enter the steam. It forms a deposit when condensed. This is
controlled by maintaining low silica in the boiler water.
Determination of carryover
If steam condensate conductivity is less than 25 μmhos, then carryover will be
insignificant.
High conductivity shows either carryover or leakage into steam condensate system
Hardness must be checked. If hardness is found in condensate then, there is leakage of
raw water into the condensate.
Deaerator water outlet temperature for boiler systems at various pressure at sea
level
Deaerator Deaerator outlet water Deaerator Deaerator outlet water
pressure, psig temperature oF pressure,psig temperature, oF
0 212 11 241.6
1 212.3 12 244.4
2 218.5 13 246.4
3 221.5 14 248.4
4 224.4 15 250.3
5 227.1 16 252.2
6 229.8 17 254.1
7 232.2 18 255.3
8 234.8 19 257.0
9 237.1 20 258.8
10 237.4
Condensate corrosion
Oxygen and carbon dioxide promote corrosion in condensate line. Oxygen corrosion
is prevented by removing it in the boiler and preventing leaks into the condensate.
DEAE: it has a VLDR between that of Morpholine and cyclo hexyl amine. It is a
good choice for moderate length condensate line.
The low boiling point of DEAE + water mixture makes DEAE suitable for low
pressure boilers as well as high pressure boilers.
Cyclo hexyl amine: it has a high VLDR. It protects extremely long condensate system
is necessary to treat long systems with Morpholine to protect the early part of the
system where steam starts condensing. Cyclo hexyl amine can also be used in low
pressure boilers.
Cyclo hexyl amine should not be used when feed water alkalinity exceeds 75 ppm
because of the low solubility of cyclo hexyl amine bicarbonate. This bicarbonate
deposits in flow areas at the far end of the condensate return. This can be avoided by
reducing feed water alkalinity or by using DEAE.
A mixture of Morpholine and cyclo hexyl amine can be used to provide full protection
in medium and large system. The optimum blend is determined by measuring actual
pH at various locations in the condensate return system.
If sample from far section have a low pH than other samples, increase cyclo hexyl
amine in the mixture and vice versa.
Another pH survey should be made whenever the ratio is changed; an initial blend of
1 part of CHA and 3 parts of Morpholine is a good starting point.
Note: Temperature corresponding to pressure can be found out from standard steam
tables
Conversion
Kg/cm2g can be converted to psig by multiplying with 14.223
Example
A boiler has normal pressure 12 kg/cm2g. To convert this to psig,
Capacity
Boilers are expressed in hp, lbs steam/hr, kgs steam/hr, BTU/hr or MBTU/hr
Conversion
Note: 1Boiler Horse Power (BHP) = 13.1547 times a normal horse power
Example
100hp = 100 x 34.5 = 13450 lbs of steam/hr
100hp = 100 x 33475 = 3347200 BTU/hr = 3347.2 kBTU/hr
Example
A MP steam boiler of class 12kg/cm2 has design capacity 4000 kg/hr. There are two
such boilers operating simultaneously. The following data are given for the boiler
operation.
Condensate return, % = 25%
Cycle factor = 40
Feed water specification:
Dissolved oxygen = 0.2ppm
Calcium hardness = 4ppm
Feed water alkalinity = 17.5ppm
Monitoring
Sulfite residual = 20ppm
Ortho phosphate = 14ppm
Calculation
1. Pressure
The data shows the boiler is 12kg/cm2 pressure
Converting to psig
12 x 14.223 = 170.68psig
For such boilers the limits are
TDS = 3500ppm
Silica = 150ppm
Sulfite – 20-40ppm
Phosphate = 30-60ppm
Hydroxyl Alkalinity = 20-200ppm
2. Capacity
The capacity of the boiler is 4000kg/hr.
Converting to Tons/day
4000 x 24/1000 = 96Tons/day
There are 2 boilers, then total
= 96 x 2 = 192Tons/day
Example calculation
So total steam generated is 192 Tons/day
3. Blow down
Cycle of Concentration is given as 40
% Blow down = 100/C= 100/40 = 2.5
Steam generated = 192 Tons/day
So blow down = 192 x 2.5/100 = 4.8 Tons/day
192 T/d
Steam generated (E)
4.8 T/d
Blow Down (B)
Deaerator
1. Phosphate Requirement
For sodium hexa meta phosphate 1ppm Hardness require 0.0056 lbs of phosphate
per gallon feed water.
So for 4ppm (given Data) hardness the required phosphate is:
Phosphate calculation is based on sodium hexa meta phosphate and sulfite on sodium
sulfite just for convenience.
Chemical treatment
If Nalco 1742 is used for phosphate treatment then dosage is calculated as follows.
100 ml of Nalco 1742 contains 3.728gms of PO4. Nalco 1742 contains sodium tri
polyphosphate. Tri polyphosphate contains 76.4% of PO4 (refer the table given
above).
The dosing pump shows number of stroke per minute. The calibration chart of a
metering pump is shown below. The chart shows relation between pump strokes per
minute and the amount of liquid pumped as dosing rate, liters of liquid per hour.
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
PUMP STROKES
In the above example the dosing pump should be set at a stroke rate of 7strokes per
minute for the pumping of 0.815Lt per hour.
Sulfite treatment to remove dissolved oxygen
Sulfite is at 20 ppm level: Blow down loss
Lost by blow down = 4.8x1000x20/1000, 000 = 0.096 kg/day = 0.21168 lb/day
Nalco product N780 contains sodium meta bisulfite. This on dilution by 100 times
will give a solution containing 0.357% sodium bisulfite.
The dozing pump scale is in number of stroke per minute. The calibration chart of an
oxygen scavenger pump is given below. The chart shows relation between pump
strokes per minute and the amount of liquid pumped as dosing rate, liters of liquid per
hour.
9
8
DOZING RATES, Lt/Hr
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
PUMP STROKE PER MINUTE
From the calibration curve, for 1.33lt/hr dozing, the pump should be set at 11.5
strokes per minute.
General information on boiler treatment - summary
A complete program for boiler water may need the following treatments
The treatment methods authorized for meeting these need include the following steps.
1. Softening of Make up water – removal of Ca & Mg.
2. Phosphate addition – to prevent formation of CaCO3 and CaSO4 scales
3. Synthetic polymer addition – formation of sludge with proper characteristics.
4. Alkalinity addition – (sodium hydroxide) to prevent magnesium scale
formation
5. Sulfite addition – to prevent oxygen corrosion
6. Amine addition – to prevent CO2 corrosion.
7. Anti-foam agent addition – control foam in steam drum
8. Blow adown adjustment – to ensure a silica content in low to prevent
carryover.
9. TDS level in low – to minimize foaming
10. The causticity and suspended solids low enough to prevent foaming or
carryover.
Example 1
A boiler operates at 150 psig. The feed water contains 4 ppm silica and 225 ppm TDS.
What is the parameter that control COC?
By the table for 150psig boiler, the limits are TDS = 3500 ppm and Silica = 150 ppm
Maximum COC
Silica COC = B/F = 150/4 = 37.5 COC
TDS COC = 3500/225 = 15.6COC
COC based on TDS is the lower one. So it will be the controlling parameter for this
boiler. So maintain TDS below 3500 to keep silica below 150 ppm.
Example 2
A boiler operates at 450 psig. Feed water has silica 4ppm and TDS 225 ppm.
What is the parameter that control COC?
By the table for 450psig boiler, the limits are TDS = 2500 ppm and Silica = 40 ppm
Maximum COC
COC based on silica is lower. Maintain the boiler blow down to keep silica below 40
ppm.
But it is easier to measure TDS than silica. So it will be more convenient to control
TDS. So keep TDS to occur below 10COC.
For 10COC, TDS = 225 x 10 = 2250 pm
If conductivity is checked, then 2250/0.7 = 3214 μmhos
Example 3
A 150psig boiler produces 40000 lbs of steam /hr. the blow down is calculated based
on maximum COC of 15.6
Example 4
A boiler of 450psig and with 40000 lbs of steam /hr, has maximum COC = 10.
Calculate blow down.
B= E/(C-1) = 40000/10-1 = 4444 lbs/hr
Blow down per day = 4444 x 24 = 106656 lbs/day
Blow down in gal/day = 106656/8.33 = 12804 gal/day.
Example 5
A boiler of 150 psig used sodium hexa meta phosphate and kept at 60 ppm phosphate
level. The blow down calculated is 65760 lbs/day. Calculate phosphate loss.
Phosphate loss = 65760 x 60/1000000 = 3.95lbs/day
Sodium hexa meta phosphate contains 90.5% phosphate
Required chemical = 3.95/0.905 = 4.36 lbs/day
If di sodium phosphate is used it contains 65.7 % of phosphate,
Required chemical = 3.95/0.657 = 6.01 lbs/day.
Example 6
A boiler 450 psig make a blow down of 106656lbs/day and phosphate level is 60
ppm. Calculate phosphate loss.
Loss = 106656 x 60/1000000 = 6.4 lbs/day
Chemical required (sodium hexa meta phosphate) = 6.4/0.905 = 7.07 lbs/day.
Di sodium phosphate = 6.4/.657 = 9.74lbs/day
The total dose of feed water is the sum of the requirement for maintaining 30 – 60
ppm phosphate level and the hardness reaction.
The chemical dosage should be gradually increased or decreased as necessary (about
10% per day) to maintain the desired level.
Example 7
A boiler 150psig has capacity 40,000 lbs steam/hr and the blow down is 2740 lbs/hr.
calculate total feed water. Feed water has hardness of 5 ppm. Calculate phosphate
required.
F = E + B = 40000 + 2740 = 42740 lbs/hr = 42740 x 24 = 1025760 lbs/ day
= 1025760/8.33 = 123140 gal/day.
Feed hardness is 5 ppm.
From above table phosphate required for 1000 gallons of feed water/ppm hardness is,
0.0056 lbs for sodium hexa meta phosphate.
So chemical requirement is 5 x 0.0056 = 0.028 lbs/1000 gallons
For 123140 gal/day, 0.028 x 123140/1000 = 3.45lbs/day.
To maintain a phosphate level of 60 ppm, the required sodium hexa meta phosphate is
4.36 lbs/day (Refer example 6)
So total hexa meta phosphate required = 3.45 + 4.36 = 7.81 lbs/day
Example 8
Calculate sodium hydroxide needed in the example 7.
The amount of sodium hydroxide required for 100 pounds of phosphate is 78.4 lbs
(for sodium hexa meta phosphate)
So sodium hydroxide needed for 7.81 lbs on phosphate is 7.81 x 78.4/100 = 6.12 lbs
of sodium hydroxide.
Example 9
A boiler 450psig requires 9.74lbs per day of anhydrous disodium phosphate to replace
loss in blow down. Calculate sodium hydroxide needed.
From the above table, 28 ponds of anhydrous disodium phosphate is required per 100
pounds of phosphate chemical.
For 9.74 lbs of phosphate, NaOH needed is = 9.74 x 28/100 = 2.73 lbs/day.
Example 10
A boiler 150psig requires 7.81 lbs hexa meta phosphate to maintain 60 ppm PO4 level.
Calculate polymer requirement (use above table).
Table shows 0.1 pounds of polymer per pound of sodium hexa meta phosphate.
For 7.81 lbs of phosphate the required polymer is = 7.81 x 0.1 = 0.781lbs/day of
100% polymer.
If the polymer used is 50%, then the requirement is = 7.81 x 0.1 x 100/50 =
1.56lbs/day.
Example 11
For the boiler, 150psig, in example 3, the required blow down is 65760 lbs/day.
Calculate the sulfite required.
For boilers of class 150psig, the required sulfite range is 20 to 40 ppm as SO3. if we
take middle value, then it is 30ppm.
Sulfite required is = 30 x 65760/1000000 = 1.97 lbs/day.
For each pound sulfite (SO3), 1.575 pounds of sodium sulfite is required.
Then = 1.97 x 1.575 = 3.10lbs/day.
Example 12
For boiler, 450psig, in example 4, the blow down rate is 106656 lbs/day. Calculate the
required sulfite.
The required sulfite level is 20-40ppm SO3.
Sulfite = 106656 x 30/1000000 = 3.20lb/day.
Sodium sulfite = 3.20 x 1.575 = 5.04lbs/day.
For a boiler that uses make up water and blow down the calculation steps are as given
below:
1. Estimate the blow down rate based on the COC and steam rate.
2. Determine phosphate required to maintain a level 30-60ppm of PO4 in the
boiler based on the chemical loss due to blow down.
3. Determine the phosphate required to react with the hardness in the feed water.
4. Determine the sodium hydroxide required, based on the total phosphate added
to the system (blow down loss + hardness reaction).
5. Determine the synthetic polymer required.
6. Determine the sulfite dose based on the blow down loss
7. Determine amine dose based on feed water rate and amine level
Example 13
Boiler spec:
Pressure = 150psig
Steam generation = 40,000 lbs/hr
Feed water spec:
TDS = 225 ppm
SiO2 = 4 ppm
Hardness = 5ppm
Mixing
The proper mixture for this boiler include, sodium meta phosphate, polymer and
sodium sulfite. The sodium hydroxide is not included in the mixture as it varies. And
it should be added separately.
The mixture proportion is:
Phosphate = lb of chemical x 100/lb total = 7.81 x 100/(7.81 + 1.56 + 3.10) =
781/12.47 = 762.6%
Polymer = 1.56 x 100/12.47 = 12.5%
Sodium sulfite = 3.1 x 100/12.47 = 24.9%
Feeding
Conclusion
Most of the topics are covered in the above presentation. Any further doubt in the
subject matter will be cleared in the next session.