UNIT 13 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

Structure
13'.1 introduction
Objectives
13.2 Taylor's Theorem
M:tclaurin's Expansion
13.3 Indeterminate Forms
13.4 Extreme Values
13.5 Summary
13.6 Answers/Hints/Solutions

In ll~iit13, you have l e a i ~ Rolle's

~t theorem and have seen how to apply this theorem in
proving mean value theorems. In these theorems only the first derivative of the functions are
involved. In thii unit, you will study tile application of Rolle's 'Theorem in proving theorems
involving th6 higher order derivativa of functions.
Given a real function f(x), can we find an infinite seriesof real-numbers say of the form
ao + a , x +a2 x 2 C a3 x 3 + . . . .: . . . . .
whose sun1 is precisely the given function?
To answer this question we have to approximate a functioil with an infinite'serics of the above
form which is also known as thc infinite polynomial or power series. 'This appioach of
approximating a function was known io Newton around 1676 but it was developed late by
the two British mathematicians Brook Taylor [1685-17311and S.C. Maclaurin [1698-17461.
The functions which can be represented a5 infinite series of the above form are some of the
very special functions.
Such a representation of a fi~nctionrequires a number of dcrivatives of the function i.e. the
derivatives of higher orders particularly at x = 0 which we intend to discuss in this Unit.
Some work done by Taylor in this direction has found recent applications in the mathematical
treatment of Photogranrmetry-lhr sciencr ofsur~ie~ing I!v mews of pho1ograplr.s ttrkaz from
at2 naroplanc.

Besides, we sha!l also demonstrate the use of derivatives for finding the limits of indeterminate
forms and the maximum and minimum values of functions in this unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should, thcrefore, be able to
@ know theorems involving higher order dcrivatives viz. Taylor's Theorem
@ expand functions in a power series v i ~ Maclaurin's'series
.
evaluate the limits of indeterminate forms
find the maximum and minimum values of functions.

13.2 TAYLOR'S THEOREM

In this seclion, we shall discuss the use of Rolle's theorem in proving theorems involving
higher order derivatives of functions, Beforc proving these theorems, you will bc introduced to
the idea of higher derivatives through the following definition :
DEFINITION 1 : HIGHER DERIVATIVES
Let f be a function with domain D as a subset of R,Let Dl Z C$ be the set of p i n t s of D at
which f is derivable. We get another function with domain D l such that its -.slue at any point
c of D, is f'(c). We call this function the derivative off or first d e r i ~duve of f and denote it by
f'. If the derivative of f' at any point c of its domain Dl exists, then it is called second
derivative off at c and is denoted by f" (c). If D2 # C$ be the set of all those p i n t s of D l at
which f' is derivable, we get a function with domain D2 such that its value at any p i n t c of
 Differentiability Therefore, fia) = #(b) = 0 a

A = f(b) - f(a) - (b - a)f'(a) - -

2!

Now,
r) q5 is continuous in [a, b], since f, fl, ...., P-I)and (b - x)P, for all positive integers
p, are all continuous in [a, b];
ii) 4 is derivable in ]a, b[, since f, fr,.....,P I ) and (b - x)Q,for all positive integers p,
are all derivable in ]a, b[; and

Therefore by Rolle's theorem, 3 c E ]a, b[ such that q5' (c) = 0.

7 (b - c)"-' (b - c)'-'
'$r (c) = - (n - l)! f'" (c) + Ap (b - a)'
=0

(b - c)"' (b - a)' ,,,

which gives A = f (c).
p . (n - I)!
Substituting this value of A in (2), we'obtain,
(b - a)"-'
(b - a)2 ftf(a) + . . +
+ (b - a) f ' (a) +- .
f(b) = f(a) , f'"-"(a)
2! (n - I)!

This completes the proof of the theorem,

The expression,
(b - a)" (b - eln-' f'nl (c)
R n = @.(,,-I)!
which occurs in (3), after n terms, is called Taylor's remainder after n terms. he form (4),is
called Schlomilch and Roche form of remainder.
From this we deduce two special forms of remainder after n terms.

i) Take p = n in (4),
(b - a)*
R, = - n!
f'" (c).

This is called Lagrange's form of remainder.

ii) Take p = 1 in (4),
(b - a) (b - c)"'
R, = f'" (c).
(n - I)!
This is called Cauchy's form of remainder.
The Taylor's theorem with Lagrange's form of remainder states :
If a function f defied on [a, b] be such that f'"" is continuous on [a, b] and derivable on
b8b[ then 3 a real number c E ]a, satisfying
f(b) = f(a) t (b - a) f'(a) +?
21
!
Y + .I
(a)- .. .-
. !$

Alternative form of Taylor's theorem with Lagrange's form of remainder is obtained if instead 1

+
of interval [a, b], we have the interval [a, a h]. .
If we put b = a t h then we can write c = a + 0 h for some 8 between 0 and 1 and the
theorem can be restated as :
46 If f'"" is continuo^ on [a, a + h] imd derivable on la, a t h[, then
 Higher. Order Derivatives
h2 hn-r hn
f(a + h) = f(a) + hft(a) + -
2!
fd'(a) + ... + -
(n - I)! P-')(a) + n! f "(a + 0 h),
- (0
I
for some real 8 satysfying 0 < 8 < 1.

Now, let x be any point of [a, b]. I f f satisfies the condition of Taylor's theorcm on [a, b],
then it also satisfies the condition of Taylor's theorem on [a, x], where x > a. Tkcrefore,
, froin (9,we have

(x - 5 ~ ) ~ (x - a)"-I (x - a)"
f(x) = f(a) + (x - a)fl(a) +- fl(a) + ... + P-I) (a) + -
2! (n - l)! n! f'(c), (7)

where c is some real number in ]a, x[.

Note that (7) also holds when x = a because, then (7) reduces to the identity f(a) = f(a),
as the remaining term on the right hand side of (7) vanish.
You may note that we can have forms similar to ( 5 ) , (6) and (7) for Taylor's theorem with
Cauchy's form of remainder.
If in Taylor's theorem, we take a = 0, then we get a theorem known as Maclaurin's
theorem. We give below Maclanrin's theorem with Lagrange's and Cauchy's form of .
remainders. You can also write Schlomilch and Roche form of remainders.

THEOREM 2 : (MACLAURIN'S TIbOREM WITH LAGRANGE'S FORMOF

-ER)
I f f be a function defined on [OZb] such that fcn-') is continuous on [0, b] and derivable
.on 10, b[, then for each x in [0, b], there exists a real number c (0 < c < x) such that

. PROOF : Take a = 0 in (7) above and proof is complete.

We can similarly write Maclaurin's theorem with Cauchy's form of remainder as:
'. '
3 x(x - c)"-I
flx) =flO) + xf'(0) + - f"(0) + ... +
2!
-
Xn-l

(n - I)!
E"-I)(0) +
(n - I)!
Pn)(c).

You may note that

xn 9
K, (x) =- f")(c) = - f r(Ox) (0 < 0 < l),
n! n!
in case of Lagrange's form of remainder and

xn(1- €))"-I
= f(")(ex) (O < e < 11,
I (n - l)!
. in case of Cauchy's form of remainder.
By applying Taylorls theorem or Maclaurin's theorem, also we can prove some inequalities
of real analysis. Earlier, in the last unit, you were given a method of proving the
inequality of examining the sign of derivative of some function. Consider the following
example now.

EXAMPLE 2 : Using Maclaurin's theorem, prove that

SOLUTION : Foi x = 0, result is obvious. Now, let x > 0 and consider f(t) = cost.
Then f has derivatives of all orders, for all t in R. By Maclaurin's theorem with
Diffcre~~tiatrility
remdinder at'tcr Lwo terms applied to f i n [@,XI,
f(xj -
f(O) 3- x f'(0) -
x2
+
2! f" (Ox) where 0 :c d C: I.
Pt~ltingthc values oft; f', f" we have
x-
cos x x ] - -- cos f 0 x )
1
X? x- . X-
Now cos trx 5 1 and ao 1 - - cos Ox 2 I -- - 1.e. cos x 2 1 - -
2 ? 2
I t x < 0. Lhcn - \ > 0 and therefore cos ( - x) 2: I - (!- x)'
'.
,Hence
.I 1

that is cos x 1 1 -- . cos x 2 1 - x E R.

-"--t'

-
You should be able to solvc the following exercise. -
EXERCISE 2
Using h4aclaurin1s tlleorem, show that

Now you will see how to find the Maclaurin's expansiorl of certain elementary functions
of the type, €7, sin x, cos s,(1 -I- x)"' and log (1 + x ) in terms of an infinite series (power
series) 3s a, t a,x + a2x?+ ..., with the help of T a y l o l * ' s . ~Maclaurin's
~~d tlleorems.

We have sezn before that

(x - a)"-1
+- - trw-"(a) + Rn(x),
(n - l)!
where R,(x) is the Taylor's renlainder after n tenns. Put
-
(X (X - a)"-'
Sn(xj= f(a) + (X - a)fl(a) + --
2! f " ( ~ )+ .... + ------ fln-1) (a).
(n - I)!
Then, f(x)= Sn(x)+ Rn(x).

A natural qucstion arises iis to whether we can express f(x) in the form of the infinite series
(X - a)".'
+ +. +
f(a) ( X - a) f'(a) . . . . --- fin-" (a)
I)!(11 -
.. ... +
and if so under what conditions? This question can be split up in the following situations:
i) Under what conditions on f is each term of the series defined?
ii) U,nder what conditions does the series (9) converge?
iii) Under what conditions is the sum of the series (9), f(x)?
We examine these now one by one.
n
i) Each term of the series (2) is defined iff f (a) exists for all positive integers n.
ii) Assuming fU(a)exists .tf n, we have from (8),
S, = f(x) - Rn(x)(assuming the conditions for Taylor's theorem are satisfied in
some interval [a, a h]) +
From this, it follows that < S, > converges iff lim R,(x) exists and the series (9) converges
n-03

' . iff lim R,(x) exists.

I)--

iii) Assuming the series (9) converges, we find from above that its sum is f(x) - lim R,(x).
"-.m

48 Now f(xj - li~nR,~(x)= f(x) iff lim' R,(x) = 0,

n-= n-=
 showing that the series (9) converges to f(x) iff lim R,(x) = 0. Higher Order Derivatives
n-=

Summing up the above discussion, we have the following results.

THEOREM 3 : Iff : [a, a 4- h] -- R be a function such that
i) f("' (x) exists for each positive integer n, for all x E [a, a + h].
ii) lim
0--
kn(x) = 0V x E [a, a + h],
then

for every x E [a, a h]. +

This is called Taylor's infinite series expansion of f(x). We also sometimes call il the expression
for f(x) as a power series in (x - a).
. We give an example to illustrate Taylor's series for a function.

~:EXAMPLE 3 : Assuming the validity of expansion, show that

(x - 7,-/4) - Ir(x - .rr/412
+1 + 2/16 + ~ ' / 1 6 )+~
..... V x E R
7,-
tan-' x = tan-' -
4 4(l

SOLUTION : Let f(x) = tan-'x

= tan-' (7r/4 + x - n/4)
Here a = 7r:/4, h = x - 7r/4.
fyx) exisb "T x and Y n.
1 2x .
Now ff(x)=-
I + xZ, f" (x) = - (1 + X2)2 '""'

By Taylors series,
2
h
f(a + h) = f(a) + h fl(a) + - f"(a) + .....
2!
Putting the values o f f , f', f", ..., we obtain

EXERCISE 3
Assuming the validity of expansion, expand cos x in powers of (x-x14).

If you put a=O in the Taylor's series you will get the following result.

THEORJ3M 4 : Let f : [0, h] + R be a function such that

i) fin)(x)exists for everyt positive integer n and for each x E [0, h];
ii) lni9mm Rn(x) = 0, for each x E [0, h].
xz xn
' xft(0) +
Then, f(x) = f(0) i- fV(O)+ ,..+ -
n!
V(0) + ,...,for every x 6 10, h].

This series i;called the Maclaurin's infinite series expansion of qx).

Note that Taylor's series remains valid in the interval [a - h, a 4- h] and Madaurin's series
remains valid in the interval [- h, h] also provided the requirements of the eqpansion are
satisfied in the intervals.
You may also note that one h a y consider any form of remainder R,(x) in the above
discussion. We shall now ~ n s i d e rMaclaurin's series expansions of the functions ex,cos x and
+
log (1 x).
EXAMPLE 4 : Find the Maclawin series expansion of e: m x and log (1 -k x).
 Differentiability SOLUTION : Expansion o: ex.
Let f(x) = ex, Q x ER. Then I?") (x) = e x , Vx E[-h, h], h > 0 and for all positive integers n.
In otlier words, fcn)(x)exists for each n and for all x in W.
Let us now consider the limit of the remainder, Rn(x). Taking Lagrange's form of remainder,
we have

X"
So, &Rn(x) = lim
n+m
e".
xn
But, &3 = 0 as shown below

Let un= , then

n!

So, by Ratio test, C lunl is convergent and, therefore, Xun is convergent and consequently
'x!
lim un = lim -= 0, if x # 0.
n+m n+m n!
xn
If x = 0, then also i i ,
~! = 0. Therefore J,izRn(x)= 0.

Thus the conditions of Maclaurin's infinite expansion are satisfied...

Also, f(0) = 1 and f")(O) = 1, n = 1.2, .... Hence

Expansion of cosx.
Let f(x) = cos x, Q x ER.
nr
Then fc")'(x)= cos (x +-), for n = 1, 2, ...
2
Therefore, f(0) = 1 and P)(O) = cos (nd2), Q n.
Clearly f and all its derivatives exists for all real x.
Taking Lagranges form of the remainder,

Therefore, IRn(x)( = Iz!~ .I

- cos OX+?)^
l:1
57 + 0 as n + w, V x ER (Proved in the expansion of e .), x

which implies lirn

n+m
R,(x) = 0, Q x EW.

Thus the conditions of Maclaurin's infinite expansion are satisfied,

na
From f ("'(0) = c6s (-i-), we get

= cos ((2m + I
f(zm+qO) ) ) =~0 and f(2m)(0)= cos ((2rn)rd2) = cos m n = (-1".
2
substituting these values in the expansion, we have
xz x4 x6
cosx = 1 - - + - - - + ......+ (-1)" -
x2n
- ..., Q x ER.
50 2' 4! 6 ! - Qn)!
 3. EXPANSION OF log (1 + x) Higher Order Derivatives

Let f(x) = log (1 + x) for - 1 < x 5 1.

(- 1ln-'(n - I)!
(1 + x)"
Then f'"(x) = x > - 1.

We shall consider the following cases:

i) 0.5 x 5 1.
Taking Lagrange's form of remainder after n terms, we have

n
Since 0 I x 5 1, 0 < 8 < 1, therefore

1
Also - 0 as n
n
- -
Hence lim R, ix) = 0.
n--
So the conditions of Maclaurin's infinite expansion are satisfied for 0 5 x 9 1.
ii) - 1 < x < 0,
In this case, x may or may no1 be numerically less than 1 + ex; so that nothing can be said
about the limit of ;ex -
(- )'I as n m. Thus Lagrange's form of remainder does not help to
draw any definite conclusion. We now take the help of Cauchy's form of remainder, which is
X"(1 - e)"--l
Rn(X)= ( n - 111 f'" (ex)

Therefore -
(:;BBx)n-l
- 0 as n - a.

r
Also x"- 0 as n -+ a,
1 1
and -< and'it is independent of n.
1 COX i -'ix 1
Thus lim Rn(x) = 0.
? n--=
Hence the conditions of Maclaurin's series expansion are satisfied also when - 1 < x < 0.
Thus substituting f(0) = 0, f'") (0) = (- 1)"' (n - l)! in the expansion, we get

EXERCISE 4

Prove that sin x = x - - ;;+f +.....+ (-(2n1ln-l- I)! . P I , .. VtxER.

EXERCISE 5
m(m -
Prove that (1 +x )m = 1 f mx f
21
') x Z + .....
for 'all integers m and L iien ( x 1 < 1. /

EXERCISE 6
Assuming the validity of expansion, expand log (1 4-sin x) in powers of x, upto. 4th power of
X.

13.3 INDETERMINATE FORMS

We have proved in Unit 8 (Block 3) that

lim f(x)
f(x) - x - a
lim -- ---
x - a g(x) lim g(x)
x- a

provided lim f(x) and lirn g(x) both exist and lirn g(x) f 0. It may sometimes happen that
x- a x- a X-8'

lirn { f(x)/g(x) ] exists even though lim g(x) = 0. One can easily see that if lim g(x) = 0, then
X- a x-a x- 8

a necessary condition for lirn- f(x)to exist and be finite is that lim f(x) = 0.
X - a g(x)
11-01

In fact, if lirn { f(x)/g(x) ] = k,

x- n

then lim f(x) = lirn [ f(x)/g(x) . g(x) ]

x- a x- n

= lirn { f(x)/g(x) ] . lim g(x)

X-8 X-8

= k-.o = 0.
In this section we propose to discuss the method of evaluatingh { f(x)/g(x) ] when both lirn f(x)
X-8 X-8

f(x) are said to assume indeterminak forms

and lirn g(x) are zero or infinite. In these cases-
x- a g(x)
0/0 or m/m respectively as x -- a.
0
DEFINITION 2 : INDETERMINATE FORM

f(x)
If lirn f(x) =0, lim g(x) = 0 then -issaid 0 w x tends to 'a'
to assume the indeterminate form -
x- a X-8
g(x) 0
'
DEFINITION 3 : INDETERMINATE FORM
00

If lim f(x) = 00, lirn g(x) = 00, then if(x) s said to assume the indeterminate forq ;
00
as ;r
X- a x- 8 ~(x)
tends to 'a'. Other indeterminate forms are 0 x m, .=a - W, oO,1" and m0 which can be
similarly defined. Ordinary methods of evaluhting the limits are of little help. 60me speqial
methods are required to evaluate these peculiar limits. This Special method, geporglly called, L,
Hopital's Rule is due to the French mathematician, L' Hopital(1661-1704). Iq fact, this
method is due to J, Bernoulli, who happened to be a teacher of L' Hopital and hb
(Bernoulli's) lectures were published by the latter in the book form in 1696, but sukgequently
0
Bernoulli's name almost disappeared. Let us consider the indeterminate from - and discuss
a
~ line, of
some related. theorems. Note the differences in the hypothesis of these theoftms B P me
proof should be very carefully noted.
THEOREM 5 : Let f and g be two functions such that
i) lim
a- 1
f(x) = 0, lim
x-l
g(x) = 0, .-

iii 'f (a) and 'g (a) exist, and (iii) g'(a) 2 0. Then h

PROOF : By hypothesis, f and g are derivable at x = a

*
they are continuous at x = a
 and lim g(x) = g(a). Higher Order Derivatives
x- a

Therefore by condition (i), f(a) = 0 = g(a).

f(x) - f(a) = lim f(x) -
Also f' (a) = lirn
x- a x-a X- a x - a

g(x) - g(a) = lim g(x)

and g' (a) = lirn
x- a x- a X- a x - a

... (a) - lim f(x) / (x - a) = lim -

f' f(x) .
g' (a) x - a g(x) / (x - a) x - a g(x) .

We may remark that condition (i) in the above theorem can be replaced by f(a) = g(a) = 0.

0
THEOREM 6 : (L'Hopital's rule for form)
I f f and g are two functions such that

i, lirn f(x) = lim

x- a
g(x) = 0,

ii) f' (x) and g' (x) exist and g' (x) # 0 for all x in
+
]a - 6, a 6[, 6 > 0, except possibly at a, and
iii) lim - f' exists,
x - a g' (x)

f(x) = lim -
then lirn - f' (XI
x g(x) I-.. g' (x)
-0

PROOF : Define two functions 4 and (v such that

g(x),b'x~]a-6,a+6[andx*a
lim g(x), if x = a,
X3P .
+
1 .I

E ] a - 6, a S [ except possibly at a, 4 and J, are

S~ncef' (x) and g' (x) exlst %' x
continuous and derivable on ] a - 6, a S [ except.possibly at a. +
Also since lirn '(x) = lirn f(x) = 4 (a)
x- a X-n

and lirn $(x) = lim

Xdll X-8
g(x) = !~,t. (a),
therefore gb and 9 are continuous at x = a, as well.

Let x be a point of ] n - 6, a 4-6 [ such that x # a.

For x > a, 4 and satisfy the conditions of Cauchy's mean value theorem on [a, x] so that

$ 1 $8
a
'(x) -'( ) --
-
e
1 '*
- ( l for some c e I a, x [.
(4
But +(a) = lirn f(x) = 0 & 9 (a) = lim, g(x) = 0
x- a x-n

Proceeding to limits
4 (x) - 4' (c) 4' (XI
4 lim -
x- at * (x)
lim -=
,-a+ *' (c)
lim 7
x-,+ * (4
==$' lim -=f(x) f' (x)
lirn -'
.--a+ g(x) ,-a+ g (x)
For x < a, we can similarly prove that

lirn --f(x) - lim -.f' (XI

g(x) x-a- g' (XI
f' (x) f' (XI f' (XI
But lirn -= lim - =lim-
x-a+ g' (x) x-n- g' (x) x - a g (x)

f(x) = lirn -
Hence lirn - f' (XI .. .
x-n g(x) g: ( 4 ,'
 0
You may note that if the expression lirn represents the indeterminate form - and the
g (4 X-a 0
functions f'(x) and g'(x) satisfy the conditions of the above,theorem, then
f(x) = lirn f' (XI
lirn - f" (x)
= lim-
x-ag(x) x-ug (x) x-ag (x)
In fact the above rule can be generalised as follows :
Iff and g are two functions such that
i) .
f'"' (x), g'"' (x) exist and g(r' (x) # 0 (r = 1, 2, . . . . , n) for any x in ]a - 6, a 4- 6 [
except possibly at x = a,
lim f(x) = lim f' (x) = . . . . . - lim f(n-11 (x) = 0
ii) lim g(x) = lim g' (x) = . . . . . - lim g'"-" (XI = o
as x a, -
f'"' (x)
iii) lirn 7 exists, then
x-8 "I (x)
lim fo = lim -.f'"' (x)
X-"(x) x - a g'"' (x)

This is known as Generalised L'Hopital's Rure for form.

0
Note that L; Hopitai's Rule is valid even if x -- m.
In fact, we have
1 .
f(x) - l h f 1
h-- - , where x=7 ,
x+m g(x) Z-+(K 1
i2
1 1
f' (TI(-2)
= lim (by L' Hopital's Rule)
z+O+ I 1
g f ( y ) (- 2)

= lirn ---
z-0t I
9' ( y)
= Iim -.f' (x)
2--+ g' (x)
Now we give examples to illustrate the use of L' Hopitals's rule in evaluating the limits of
0
indeterminate form - .
0
EXAMPLE 5 : Evaluate each of the following limits :

SOLUTION :
i) Let us write
JZ- 2 cos ( r / 4 + x) --
- f(x)
X ~ ( X I'
where f(x) = @ - 2 cos ( ~ / 4-
4 x) and g(x) = x.
lirn f(x) = fi- 2 cos 7r/4 = 0 and lirn g(x) = 0.
x-0 x-0

f(x)/g(x) is, therefore, of the form 0/0 as x -- 0.

Applying L' Hopital's rule,

lim.
&- 2 cos ( ~ / 4+ x) = lim 2 sin [ ~ / 4+ x) = 2sin z=fi
54 x- 0 X x- 0 1 4
 ii) Writing Higher Order Derivatives
tanx-x.-- Lmx-x .- x
x2sin x x3 sill x
we find that
tan x - x tan x - x x
lirn = lirn lim -
A-o x2 sip x x3 x-Q sin x

tan x - x 0
= lirn
x-0 x3 ( ,fo m )
sec2 x - , I
= lim ---- (By L' Hopital's Rule)
x-0 3x2

iii) lim
x-0
x'cos x - log (1
x2
+ x) ( + form )
1
cos x - x----...
sin x -
~
-
1 -b x
= lirn 0
X-0
2x (again -form)
0

- - .1 lim
- sin x - (sin x 4- x cos x) + 1/(1 -tx ) ~
2 x-0 1

EXAMPLE 6 : Determine the values of a and b for which

exists and equals 1/6.

SOLU'rIQN: The given function is of the form (0/0) for all values of a and b when x -- 0.
.'. limyx (a - cos x)3 b sin x +
x- 0 x

= lirn
(a - cos X) + x sin x + b popx
x-0 3x2
The denominator tends to 0 as x tends to 0, the fraction will tend to a finite limit only if the
numerator also tends to zero as x -- 0.
This requires
a-l+b=O
A Supposing (10) is satisfied, we have

a+(b-l)~cosx+xsinx
lirn
f
x-0 3x2

= lim
- (b - I) sin x x cos x + + sin-x
X-o 6~

= lirn
X-0
+ (2 - b) sin x
x cos x
6x ( form )
- x sin x + cos x + (2 - b) cos x
+
= lirn
x-[I 6
--
-.
3-==.b =-
1
6 (given)
*b=2
From (lo), a = - 1.
Now you should be able to solve the following exercises.
 EXERCISE 7
Evaluate the following limits :
sin 3x2
i) lim
x-0 log cos (2x - x)
2

sin h x - sin x
ii) litn
x-0 xtan2x

EXERCISE 8
sin 4x f a sin 2x
If the limit as x -- 0 is finite, find the value of 'a' and the limit.
x3
q EXERCISE 9
What is wrong wit4 the following application of L' Hopital's rule :

Find also the correct limit.

00 00
Next we consider the indeterminate form -, L' Hopital's rule for - form is similar to that
OC, 00

03
for 0/0 form. We only state the result for form without proof.
m
THEOREM 7 : (L' Hopital's rule for form) .
:Iff and g be two functions such that

1 ii) f'(x) and g'(x) wrist, g8(~)+0, %' x E ] a - 4 a f S [, S > 0 except possibly at a,

-
and
iii) lim ' exkts; then
-
l3' (x)
lim-f(x) - f' (x) .
x-a g(x) x-k g (x)

The above theorem tells us that lim 3,

g(x)
when f(x) and g(x) bath tend to infinity as x - a,

can be dealt with in the same way as (%1 form. In fact forms ( $) ( $) and can be

interchanged and care should be taken to select the foim which would enable us to evaluate
the limit quickIy.
I
The above theorem also holds in the case of infinite limits.
Now we consider examples to illustrate the application of L' Hopital's rule for finding the limit
00
of indeterminate form 2

EXAMPLE 7
Evaluate the following limits :
log tan 2x
%*l M m r
ii) lim
x--
-
locr (a> 0)
xo

SOLUTION : (i) Writing

log'tan 2x - f(x)
--,
56 1% tan x g(x) ,

I
 where f(x) = log tan 2x and g(x) = log tan x, we find that the given expression is of the form Higher Order Derivatives

log tan 2x = lim 2 cot 2x sec2 2x

:. lirn
x-ot logtanx "O+ cotxsec 2 x
2 sinx cosx = lim - 1 -
= lim - 1.
x-O+ sin 2x cos 2x x-O+ cos 2x

log x
lim 7(d > 0) is
ii) x+x , m
fonn.

1 /x
Therefore its value is equal to lirn
x--
-
@.Xa-'

- EXERCISE 10
Evaluate the following limits :
7T
log (x - - )
2
i) lirn
X-T~Z+ tanX
log sin x
ii) lh
1-0-
- -
C2t X

Now we consider the indeterminate forms 0. m and m - a.These can be converted to 0 / 0 or

w/w forms as shown below :
i) lim f(x) = 0 and lirn g(x) = m, then
x-P x-n
lim f(x) . g(x) is 0 . w form.
x-n
We tan write
f(x) . g(x) = - f(x) or g(x)
-3
l/g (x) l/f (x)
0 m
which are respectively - or po forms and hence can be evaluated by L' Hopital's rule.
0

ii) If lirn
X-'0
f(x)l = lim
I-R
g(x)=. m, then
lirn { f(x) - g(x) ) is - m form.
x-0
0
This can be reduced to - form by writing
0

and then we can apply L'Hopital's rule.

The following example will clarify the procedure. First we consider 0 , form
~
EXAMPLE 8
Evaluate:
i) lim x log x
1-0s.
7l-X
ii) lim sec - log (l/x).
1- 1 2
SOLUTION :
i) Take f(x) = x and g(x) = log x.
Then lirn f(x) = 0 and lirn g(x) = - *,
x-O+ x-01
so that the given form is 0 X =.
We can write it as
 Lug x
Iim x fog x = lim
r-O+ .--ot
---l/x '
09
( - form)

<
: lim -- -
-- lim x = 0.
x-o+ - ]/xZ x-0

ii) Taking fjx) = log (l/x) and g(x) = sec (in;i2),

We get that the given form is 0 X as x 1. -
.'. lim
x-l
sec (,lrx/2) lug (1/ x )
= lim -9(l/x) 0
( - form)
*-.I cos (7rx/2) 0
-- I/x
= lirn
x- 1 - sin (nx/2). 7r/2
= 2:n.

EXERCISE 11
Evaluate the following limits :
i) F3sin x log x2
ii) lirn (1 - x) tan (7rx/2).
x-1

Now we considcr example for w - = form.

EXAMPLE 9 : Evaluate

SOLUTION
1 1
i) Let f(x) = and g(x) = -.
log (x - 3) x- 4
Both these tend to = as x 4. -.
Thus the given limit is 03 - form.
We can write it as
(x -- 4) - log (x - 3) 0
lim (- form)
x-4 (X -4)10g(x- 3) 0

x- 3
= lirn -
I

x-4
log (x - 3) +-
x- 4
x- 3
x- 4 0
= Iim ( -form)
~-4(x-3)log(x- 3 ) + ( x - 4 ) 0
1 --- .1
' = lim
I - x-41+log(x-3)+1 2
1 1- sin x - cos x
ii) lim (sec x ---- ) = lim
.-..a cos x (1 - sin x)
(it is rn - co form)
X + X ~ I- sin x
- cos x + sin x - 1
i
I
= lirn
- sin x (1- sin x) - cos2x -
-1 1
- - -1
it . 2 -1pIII

ii EXERCISE 12
!
Evaluate the following limits :
i
1 1
I
1 58
'1 j'
 Higher Order Derivatives

Finally we consider the Indeterminate forms I", mO, o0

For all these forms we have to evaluate
lim [,f(x) I""',
x- a
where lim f(x) = 1, oc or 0 and lim g(x) = m or 0,0(respectively).
X- a x- a
We can write
y = [f(x)~~(~'
Therefore log y = g(x) log f(x)
lim log y = lirn [ g(x) log f(x) 1.
x-a , x- a

In each of these three cases, right hand side is 0 . form which can be evaluated.
Let lim [ g(x) log f(x) ,] = .I.
x-.n
Therefore linl log y = 1
x-8

which implies
log [ lim y ] = I
x-a
=+ lirn y = e'
x-n
=+ lim [ f(x' I A
'dX) = e I
X-8

The following example discusses these indeterminate forms.

EXAMPLE 10 : Evaluate

ii) lim (sec x)'Ot

-
x n/2-
iii) lim (1 - X 2 ) 2 / (1-x)
l~~
x-1-

SOLUTION :
i) It is of the form 1"
Let y =
tan x 1/x2
(T)
Therefore log y =

tan x
lirn log y = Vrn
x-0 -0' x2

tanx x
= lirn
. x-0 . 2x
x secLx - tan x 0
= lim
1-0 2x2tanx
- (-0
form)

2x sei2x tan x
= lirn
x-o 2 [ 2x tan x +
x2 secZ x ]
sec2 x tan x
= lim
x-0 +
2 t a n x xsec 2 x
tanx 0
= lim ( - form)
a-0 sin 2x4- x 0

= lirn
sec2 X = -1.
~-02cos2x+1 3
 which gives lirn y = elt3
x-0
ii) It is of the form mO.
Let y = (sec x)"' "
So log y = cot x log sec x.
log sec x O0
Therefore lim
x-r/2-
log Y = lim
x-T/~-
-
tanx
( - form)
M

-. 1 sec x tail x
- lirn set x
x-.ir/z-
sec2x
= lirn (sin x cos x) = 0.
x-r/Z-

which implies log = lim y = 0 3 lirn y = eo = 1,

.x-r/2- x-dl-

iii) It is of the form 0'.

Let = (1 - X2) Z/log (I-*)
2 2
So log y = log (1 - x )
log (1 - x)
log (1 - x2)
= 2.
log (1 - x)
log (1 - jc2) w
lim log y = 2. lim ( - form)
1-1- x-I- log(1-xl

= 2. lim
- 2x41 - x2) (By L' Hopital's Rule)
x-1- - l/(l - x \
= 2*lim -=X 2
1+x
x-I

which gives lirn y = e2.

:-I

EXERCISE 13
Evaluate the following limits :

ii) lirn (cot x ) " ~

x+w
iii) lim (cos x)'"".
14iT/Z-

13.4 EXTREME VALUES

In this section, we shall be concerned with the applications of derivatives and Mean
Value theorems to the determination of the values of a function which are greatest or
least in their immediate neighbourlioods; generally known as local or relative maximum
and minimum values. The interest in finding the maximum or the minimum values of a
function, arose from many diverse directions. During the war period, the cannon operators
wanted to know if they could somehow maximize (and if so, to what extent) the distance
travelled horizontally i.e. the range, when a cannon-ball is shot from the cannon. The
position of the angle at which the cannon was inclinded to the ground mattered the most
in such cases. Another direction was the study of motion of planets. It involved maxima
and minima problems such as finding the greatest and the least distances of the planets
from the sun at a particular time and so on.

We shall find below the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence o maxima
or minima. First we define extreme values of a function.

DEFINITION 4: EXTREME VALUE OF A FL~CTION

Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let c be any interior point of I.
60
' I) f is said to have a local or relative.maximum value (a local or relative maximum) at
x = c if 3 a number 6 > 0 such that
Higher Order Derivatives

+
i.e. f(c) is the greatest value of the function in me interval ]c - 6, c 6 [
i.e. f(c) is a local maximum value of the function f if 3 6 > 0such that
f(c) > f(c 4- h)- +
f(c h) - f(c) < 0 for 0 < (hl < 6.
2) f is said to have a local or relative minimum value (a local or relative miilimw) at x = c
if 3 a number 6 > 0 such that
$ + x E ] c - 6 , c + 6 [ , x # c =f(x)>f(c)
+
or equivalently f(c h) - f(c) > 0 for 0 < (hl < 6.
or f(c) is the least value of the function fin the interval ] c - 6, c -t 6 [.
3) f is said to have an extreme value (an extremum or a turning value) at x = c, if it has
either a local maximum or a local minimum at x = c.
The following simple examples will clarify your ideas about maximum and minimum values.

EXAMPLE 11 : Let f be a function defined on R as

f(x) = x 2 T x E R,
then f has a local minimum at x = 0. From the graph (Fig. l), the values in the
neiglibourhood of the value at x = 0 is greater than 0.

EXAMPLE 12 : Let f be a function defined on R as

f(x) = sin x V x € E;
then f has a local milli~nulnat x = - n/2 and a local maximum at x = n/2, In fact, f has a
+
minimum at x = 2n7-r - =/2 and a maximum at x = 2nn ~ / 2 n; being ally mteger as is
evident from the following Figure 2:

X x)

Fig. 2
 EXAMPLE 13 : Let f be a function f defined as :
f(x) = x3tf x E R;
then f has neither a maximum nor a minimum at x = 0. At x = 0 f(0) = 0. If we take any
interval ] - d, d[ about the point 0,then it contains points XI, x2 such that xl > 0 and xz < 0.
Now f(x1) > f(0) = 0 and f(x2) < f(0) = 0.
Note that while ascertaining whether a value f(c) is an extreme value of f or not, we compare
f(c) with the values off in any small neighbourhood of c, so that the values of the function
outside the neighbourhood do not come in question.

Y
Fig. 3

Fig. 4
Thus a local maximum (minimum) value of a function may not be the greatest (least) of all
the values of the function in a finite interval. In fact, a function can have several local
maximum and minimum values and a local minimum value may even be greater than a
, maximum value. A glance at the above Figure 4 shows that the ordinates of the points P I , P3,
Ps are the local maximum and the ordinates of the points Pz, P4 are the local minimum values
'of the corresponding function and that the ordinate of P4 which is a local minimum is greater
than the ordinate of P I, which is a local maximum.
Further you must have noticed that the tangents at the points P I , P2, Pj,P4 PSin the above
figure are paralIel to the axis of x, so that if CI, c2, c3, c4, cs are the abscissae of these points,
then each of f'(cl), ~'(cz),f'(c3), fP(c4), ~'(cs)is zero.
We proceed to establish the truth of this result below :
THEOREM 8 : A necessary condition for f(c) to be arl extreme value of a function f is
r

that f'(c) = 0, in case it exists.

 FROOF : Hex, we assume. f is derivable at c. Lei, further, f(c) be a local maximum value o! f. Higher Order Derivatives
~ h u there
s exists a real number 6 > 0 such that

f(c t - 11) - f(c)

for 11 :> 0, we have
NOW -P
(
h
f(c -k h) - i(c)
and for h I) we h ~ v e
: q 7
-- 3 0
h
From ( : 3 ) and (13j, we have
flc .+-h) -- fjc) f(c -I- 11) - f(c)
iitr~ ---- .:0 and lian - 2 0,
x. >aF h l~-+i!-. h
which gives
fyc) < 0 and fl(c)2 0.
Therefore, f'cc) = 0.
It call bc sin~ilarlyshown that f'(c) = O, if f(c) is a local minimurn value off:
'Tlie vanishing of f'(c) is only a necessary but mot a sufficienl condition for f(c) to be a,,
cstl.crne value as we now show with the help of the following example.
Consider a function, f, defirled by
f(x) = x' U x E K
Then
-
T'(x) 3xL,
f'(0) =. 0. Also f(0) = 0.
Clearly for x > 0, f(x) > 0 f(0) -
and for x < 0, fix) < 0 = f(0)
thus [(O) is not a local cxlrema value even though f'(0) - 0.

- -
Further you can note that a fu~lctionmay hnve a local maxi~nuinor a local minimum value at
a point without being derivable at that poiilt. For example, if f(x) I x 1 "d- x EJ, then f is
not derivable at x .=: 0, but has local minimum at x 0.
Y

!
We may remark that in view of the above theorem, we find that if a fnnclion f has a local
exlrerne value at a point x = c, then either*f 1s not derivable at x = c or f'(c) = 0. Thus in
order to investigate the local ~naxitnaand minima of a function f, wc have to first find out the
values of x for which f'(x) does not exist or if f'(x) exists, then it vanishes. (These values are
generally called the critical values of f.) We then examine for which of these values, does the
function ;ictually ]lave n local mfixirnu~nor a local minimum, The points where firit derivative
of a Suuactic~nvanish nre callecl stationary poink.
DEFINPlrION 5 ; STATIONARY VALUE OF A FUNCTION
x = c is called a stationary point for the function f if f'(c) = 0. Also f(c) is then c: e
stationary value.
I .
You have seen that if a function f is derivable at an interior point c of its domain and
I
f'(c) = 0, then f muy not h ~ v an
c extreme value nt C. To decide whether f has an extreme
I

Differentiability value ornot at such a point, we need some method. By knowing the sign of the derivative on
the left and right of the point we can decide whether f has a local maximum or local minimum,
at the point. This is the purpose of the next theorem.
THEOREM 9 (FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST)
Let a function f be derivable on an interval ] c - 6, c 4- 6 [, 6 >0, and let f'(c) = 0. If
i) i'(x)>OVxE]c-&,c[andf'(x)<OYxE]clc+6[,thenfhasalocal
maximum at x = c.
ii) f ' ( x ) < O V x E ] c - & , c [ a n d f ' ( x ) > O Y ~ E ] ~ , c - k 6 [ ~ t h e n f b a s a l o c a l
minimum at x = c.
PROOF :
i) Let b be an arbitrary point of ] c - 6, c [. Then f satisfies the conditions of Lagrange's
mean value theorem in [b, c], so that . ,..
f(c) - f(b) = (c - b) f'(a) for some a E ] b, c [.
Since f'(x) > 0, 'd x E]C- 6 , c[,
therefore ff(a) > 0,
and so f(c) - f(b) > 0.
N o w b is any point of ]c - 8 , c[,
.', f(c) - f(x) > 0, X E]C -8, c[.
+
Let now d be an arbitrary point of ] c, c 6 [. Then f satisties the conditions of
Lagrange's mean value theorem in [c, dl, so that
f(d) - f(c) = (d - c) f' (P) for some P E ] c, d [.
f'(x)<d-tt xE ] c , c f 6 [
.'. f'(P) < 0.
So, f(d)- f(c) < 0.
Now d is any point ]c, c + 8[,
therefore f(x) - f(c) < 0, 'v' x x] c, c + 6 [ .
From (14) and (15), we find that

,
+
V x E ]c - 6, c 6 [, x # c -7L f(x) < f(c)
=3 f has a local maximum at x = c
ii) You can similarly prove it.'
If 3 6 > 0 such that
xE]c--6,c[*f'(x)>O
and x E ] c, c 6 [ + f'(x) < 0,
then we say that f'(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x passes through c.
Simila~ly,if 3 . 6 > 0 such that
x E ] c - 6,c[ -?.f'(x)<O
and x f ] c, c 4- 6 [ f'(x) > 0,
then we say that f'(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x passes through c.
In view of this terminology, the above theorem can be stated as follows :
Let f be derivable OQ an open interval I and let f'(c) = 0 at some point c E I. If ff(x) changes
sign from positive to negative (negative to positive) as x passes through c, then f has a local
maximum (minimum) at x = c.
You may note that the conditions of the above theorem are sufticient but not necessary. For
example, consider the function f, defined by
+ 1
f(x) = x4 (2 sin -) when x # 0,
X
and f(0) = 0.
This function f is derivable everywhere, f'(x) does not change sign from negative to positive as
x passes through 0 and yet f has a local minimum at x = 0. ,
You may further note that, if fl(x) does not change sign?.e., it has the same sign throughout
the interval ]c - 6, c + 6 [ ,for some 6 > 0, then f is either strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing throughout this neighbourhood and, so, f(c) is not an extreme value off.
Geometrically interpreted, the above theorem states that the tangent to a curve at every point Higher Order Derivatives
in a certain left handed neighbourhood of the point P whose ordinate is a local maximum
(minimum) makes an acute (obtuse) angle and the tangent at any point in a certain right
handed ncighbourhood of P makes an obtuse (acute) angle with the axis of X. In case the
tangent on either side of P makes an acute angle (or abtuse angle, the ordinate of P is neither a
local maximum nor a local minimum.
The following example shows the application of the above theorem for finding extreme values
of a function.
EXAMPLE 14 : Examine the Function f given by

for extreme values.

SOLUTION : Here f(x) = (x - 2)4 (x +

1)'
T ~ U Sfyx) = 4 ( -
~ 2)' ( X +
1)' i- 5 (X - 2)4 (X + 114
= (x - 2)'(x +
114(9x - 6)
So f'(x) = 0 for x = - 1, 2/3, 2.
Thus we expect the function to have extreme values for these values of x.
Now ff(x) >Ofor x < - 1,
and f'(x) > 0 when x is slightly greater than L- 1.
'

Therefore f has neither maximum nor minimum at x = - 1.

Next f'(x) ch,lnges sign from positive to negative at x = 2/3, therefore f has a local maximum
at x = 2/3.

Also f'(x) changes sign from negative to pos~tiveat x = 2 and therefore it has a local
minimum thereat. '

EXERCISE 14 : Examine the polynomial function given by

lox6 ---24x5 + +
15x 4 - 40x3 108 'V' x E R
for local maximum and minimum values.
We can also decide about the maximum and minimum values of a function at a point c from
the sign of second derivative at c, This, you will see, In the next theorem, called the second
derivative test.
'THEOREM 10 : (SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST)
+
Let f be derivable on an 'interval ] c - 6, c 6 [ and f'(c) = 0.
i) If f"(c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at x = c.
ii) If fN(c)> 0, then f has a local minimum at x = c. .

PROOF : The existence of f"(c) implies that f and f' exist ~ n ared conl~nuousat x = c.
Continuity at c implies the existence off and f'in a certain neighbourhood, ] c - 61, c +
61 [,
0 < 61 < 6.
(i) Let f"(c) < 0.

This implies that f' is a strictly decreasing function at x = c.

s ( 0 < 62 < 61)such that:

Thus there c ~ s t 62
<
ff(x) f'(c) 440'V' x E ] C, c i- 6 2 [ (16)
and ff(x) > ff(c) = O ' f x E ] C - 6 2 , [~ (17)
+
Now (16) gives ff(x) < 0 'f tf- € ] c, c 62 [ which implies that f is 8 decreasing function in -
[ c, c i- ] and (2).gives f'(x) > 0' 3 x € ] c - 82, c [ which implies that f is an increasing
function in [ c - 62, c 1, so that at x = c f has a local maximum.
(ii) Ycu can similarly work out the proof.
We may remark that the above theorem ceases to be helpful if for some c, both f'(c) and f"(c) '
are zero. T o provide for this deficiency, we need to consider higher order deiivatives. We
make use of the Higher Mean Value theorem i.e. Taylor's theorem to obtain gencralisntion of
this result after the following remark.
 Differentiability lt n not poss~bleto draw ally conclus~onregarding extreme values of a function at a polnL
x = c if fP'(c),= 0.

i) Let lhe function, be defined by

3 '
f(x) = x , tf x E R

Here f'(0) = 0 = fM/O)and the functisa f has neither a local maxinlum nor a lccal minimuni
at x = 0. '

ii) Let the function be defined by

f(i) = x", '.c x E R.
Here f'(0) = 0 '= f" (0) and f has a local minimum at x = 0.
Similarly f(x) = - x4, 'v' x E R has a local maximum at x = 0.
Now we give general criteria For fillding extreme values and the second derivative test is also
special case of this.
THEOREM 11 : (GENERAL CMTERIA)
Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let c be an interior point of I. Let
(i) f'(c) = f" (c) = . . . . fn-I (c) = 0
and (ii) fn(c) exkt and be different from zero,
then if n is even, f(c) is a local minimum or a local maximum value o f f according as fn(c) >0
or fn(c) < 0;if n is odd, f(c) is not an extreme value off.
PROOF : Since fn(c) exists, we have that
f, f' f ",. . . . , fn-.lall exlst and are continuous at x = c.
Also continuity at x = c implies the existence off, f', f", . . . fn-I in a certain ncighbau~*hood
] c - 61, c t 6~ [ of'c (61 > 0).
As f n ( ~ ) ' #0, 3 a neighbourhood ] c 6, c t 6 [ (0 < 6 < 61) such that
for f "(c) > 0,
fn-'(x) < fn-'(c) = O ' v ' x E ] c - 6, c[
and fW1(x)>fn-'(c) = OY x E ] c , c 4- 6 [ (18)
and for f"(c) < 0,
fn-'(x)> fn-'(c) = 0 - V x E l c - 6, C [ (19)
and f"-'(x) < fn-'(c) = 0 +f x € ]c, c 6 [ +
Again for any real number h, where I h 4 < 6, we have by Taylor's theorem with Lagraqge's
form of remainder after (n - 1) terms,
'

h2 hn- I
f(c+ h)= f(c) + hfl(c) + - f"(c) -1 ....+
24 (n - I)!
-
fen-')(c+Bh) (O<O.:l).
From which we get
hn-I
+
f(c h) - f(c) = ---- fn-'(c Oh)
(n - I)!
+ (21))
where c + 0 h E ] c - 6, c -t6 [. (Putting ft(c), f"(c), . . . . . fn-' (c) equal to zero). i

;
f

1
ti
Let n be odd :
Cleariy hn-I > 0 for any real number h and further, when f"((c) > 0,we deduce f r o p (18) that
+
for h negative c Oh E ] c - 6, c [ and fW1(c-I-Oh) < 0 and for h positive,
I

it' +
fn-'(c Oh) > 0.
!i
+
So from (20), f(c h) < f(c) T c f h E ] c - 6, c [
+ +
and f(c h) > f(c) V c h E ] c, c 6 [ +
which shows that f(c) is not an.extrerne value.
When fn(c) < 0,it may similarly be shown that f(c) is not an extreme value.
Let n be even :
In this case, h"' is positive or negative according as h is positive or negnt: ,, . ~ deduce
e from
(18) and (20) as before that if fyc) > 0, then for every point
+
c h E ] c - 6, c f 6 [, f(c h) > f(c) +
which means that P has a local minimum at .x ---- c.
. It may similarly be shown from (19) and (201 that f has a local maximum at = if fnlc)< 0. Higher Order Derivatives
The second derivative test can be deduced from this general criteria by taking n = 2. From
this theorem, we see that extreme values exist only if the first non-vanishing derivative is of
even order. In the following example, you will see the application of this general criteria.
- 3)' (x + 1)4for extreme values.
EXAMPLE 15 : Examine the function (x

SOLUTION : Let f(x) = (x - 315(x 114 +

I
Then f'(x) = (x - 314 (x f (9x - 7),
f"(x) = 8(x - 313 (X + (9x2 - 14x l), +
+
f"'(x) = 24 (x - 312(X 1) (21x3 - 49x2 7x 13), + +
fW(x)= 24 (x - 3) ( 3 - ~ 1) (21xL 49x2 7x 13) +
+ +
168 (x - 312 (x 1) (9x2 - 14x l), +
'
and f (x) = 48(3x 5) (21x3 - 49x2 f 7x 13)
v
+
+
336 (x - 3) (3x - 1) (9x2- 14x 1) +
+ +
336 (x - 3)' ( X 1) (9x - 7),
7
Now f' vanishes for x = - 1, - 3. 7
9
Let us now test these for extreme values.
At x = - 1, fW,isthe first non-vanishing derivative and
fW(- 1) = - 24.4.4.64 < 0.
Therefore x = - 1 is a point of local maxima.
7
At x = -, f" is the first non-vanishing derivative
9

);1
and fff = 8. ( $) - 9j-
3 16 40,0.

7
$0 x = -
9
is a point of local minima.
At x = 3, the first non-vanishing derivative is fv, and !i is of odd order.
Thus x = 3 is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima for the function.

EXAMPLE 16 : Show that the function sin x (I + cos x) has a local maxim4 at x = n/3,
(0 s x527.r).
SOLUTION : Lct f(x) = sin x (1 i- cos x) Y x E [ 0 , 2 n 1.
+
Then ff(x) = cos x (1 cos x) - sin2 x = cos x 4- cos 2x
and
f"(x) = - sin x - 2 sin 2x. 7

'I'r
Therefore f has a local maxima at x = - 4

3
Try the following exercises.

EXERCISE 15
Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function f defined by
i) f(x) = 4x-' - (P - I)-',v
lc€R - {O, 1).
ii) f(r)= sinr + -2- s i r 1 2 ~ + ~ ~ i n 3 xE[O,rr]
1 1
xT
EXERCISE 14
Show that the function f denned by
f(x) = xm (1 - x)" x X R,
where m and n are positive integers has a local maximum value at some point of its
domain, whatever the values of m and n may be.
EXERCISE 17
Show that the local maximum value of ( $)'
. --.
Differentiabilitv We end this section by gwing a method of finding greatest and least values of a function in an
interval provided the function is derivable at all interior points of the interval.
The greatest and the least values of a function are also its extreme values in case they are
attained at points within the interval so that the derivatives must be zero at the corresponding
points.
The greatest value of a function is also called global or absolute maximum. Similarly the least
value of a function is also known as global or absolute minimum.
If cl, c2, . . . . , ck be the roots of the equation, f'(x) = 0 which belong to ]a, b[, then the
greatest and the least values of the function fin [a, b] are the greatest and the least members ,
respectively of the finite set
, . . . . , f(ck), f(b)l.
Ma), ~ ( c I )f(c21,
Consider the following example.
EXAMPLE 17 : Find the greatest and the least values of the function f defined by
f(x) = 3x4 - 2x3 - 6%' 6x 1 + +
in the interval [O,2].
SOLUTION : W e have
f(x) = 3xL 2x3 - 6x 2 t 6x 1 +
Therefore f1(x) = 12x3- 6x2 - 1 2 f~ 6
= 6(x - 1) (x t 1) (2x - 1)
==3f'(x) = Oforx = I , - 1, 4- 1/2.

The number - 1 does not belong to the interval [O, 21 and is not to be considered. Now

(;)::
f(1) = 2, f - = - t f(0) = 1 and f(2) = 21.
Thus the greatest value o f f in [O, 21 is 21 and the least value is 1.
Try the following exercise.

EXERCISE 18
Find the least and the greatest value of the function f defined by :
f(x) = x4 - 4x3 - 2x2 t .12x 1 +
in the interval [ -. 2, 5 1.

13.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, some theorems involving higher order derivatives of a function have been proved
and also the applicatio~of derivatives for finding the limits of indeterminate forms and finding
the exteme values of a function has been discussed.

-
In Section 13,2, Taylor's Theorem has been proved with the help of Rolle's Thgorern.
According to this.theorem, iff : [a, b] R is a function such that its (n - l)[h derivative f"'
is continuous in [a, b] and derivable on ]a, b[, then thece is at least one real npmber c E la, b[
such that .
+9 + +
2
(b - a)"-'
f(b) = f(a) t (b - a) f'(a) f"(a), .,,.. f "'(a)
(n - 1)l

+ (b -p(nalp-'(b -I)! G)"-~ f n ( 4

p being any positive integer.

(b - a)P (b.- c)"-~

The term - f "(c) is called Taylor's Remainder after n tcrms and deooted
p(n - l)!
by Rnand this form of remainder in due to Schlomitch and Roche.,By putting p = n and .
68 p,= 1, we get respectively Lagrange's and Cauchy's form of remainder. If we put a = 0 is
 Taylor's theorem, we obtain Maclaurin's theorem, In the same section, you have seen how to Higher Order Derivatives
-
obtain Maclaurin's series expansion of a function. If f: [a, b] R is a function such that 'fn(x)
exists for any positive integer n and for each x E[0, h] and lirn Rn(x) = 0 for each x E [O, h],
n-==
then for all x in [0, h] ,

*
which is Maclaurin's series for f(x). Using this result, Maclaurin's series expansions of e" sin x,
+ +
cos x, log (I x), (1 x)lnhave been obtained as :

X2ntl
x3
sin x - x - -
3!
+-
xS
5!
..... + (- 1)" (2n + 1)1 + .....%'x E R,
2 4
cosx = 1 - - + - -t- .,...+ (- 1)11-+ .....+tx G R
x x x2S

2! 4! (2n)!

(1 + x)" = 1 + rnx + m(m2!- x2 + ....., 1x1 < I .

0
In Section 13.3, methods for finding limits of Indeterminate forms O, z,0, rn, oo - m, ;1 .
0
mo, 0' have been given. All these an based on L'Hopital's Rule for g form. If lim f(x) = 0,
1-8
\

lirn g(x) = 0, then f(x) 0

- is said to assume the indeterminate forms - as x tends to 'a'.
1 -n g(x) 0
0
L'Hopital's Rule for - form states that if lim f(x) = lim g(x) =. 0, f'(x), g'(x) exist and
0 x-01-0

gt(,x) # 0 for all x in ]a - 8, a + S[ (6 > 0) and limagJ(x) exists, then lirn- g(x)
X-B
f(x1 -
%-a
- ft(x)
lim- -
g'(x) x-n
TYI
7

L'Hopital's rule for form is similar.

In Section 13.4, application of derivatives for finding extreme valuts of a function is given. Iff
is a function defined on an open interval I,and c is any interior point of I, then f is said to have
a local or relative maximum at c if there exists a number 6 > 0 such that x E ]c - 6, c 6[, + ,

x # c --J f(x) < f(c). Likewise, f is said to have a local or relative minimum at c if there
exists a number 6 > 0 such that x E jc - 6, c 6[, x # c + *
f(x) > f(c). f is said to have
an extreme value at c if it is either a local maximum or a local minimum at c. You have seen
that the' necessary condition for f to have an extreme value at c is that f'(c) = 0 provided it
exists. The condilion f'(c) = 0 is not sufficient for f to have an extreme value at c. For
example the function f defined by f(x) = I x ( Y x E R it has a local minimum at x = 0 but
f'(0) does not exist. For deciding whether a function f has an extieme value at a point c, we
have the following general test.
Suppose that f is a function defined on an interval I and c is an interior point of I such that
* f'(c) = f"(c) = ..... fT1-'(c)= 0 and f n(c) # 0.Then if n is odd, then f does not have an
. , extreme value at c and if n is even, then f has a local maximum 01. local minimum at c
' accordiog as f n(c) < 0 or f n(c) > 0.

E 1) f is derivable for ail x in R and ft(x) = cos x'tf x ER. So the first derirjative f' has domain
R. The function cos x is also derivable at all points of R. So the second derivative f" has
also the domain R and
f"(x) = - hi11 \ .
x L R.
In general the nth derivative f has also @main R. We can write ff(x) = sin (x n/2), +
+
fU(x)= sin (x 2 . 7r/2) and in general.
fn(x) = sin (x n 1 + z-
), V x E R.
E 2) (i) If x = 0, the statement is trivially true,
consider x > 0.
By applying Taylor's Theorem to the function f defined by f(t) .=sin t in [0, x] and
writing- the remainder after 3 terms, we get
x2 3

f(x) = f(0) 4- x fl(0) +

f"(0)
x
+
f"(6 x) where 0 < 6 < 1)

x3
i.e. sin x = x - - cos (Ox) (putting the values off, f', f", f"'). Since cos Ox 5 I,
3!
whatever Ox may be and x > 0,

Again, applyiigTaylor's theorem to the function fin [O,x] and writing the remainder
after 5 terms,, we get
x3 x3
sin x = x - x + j l c o s ( 6 1 x), where0 < dl < 1.
Since cos (81 x)I1, whatever 81 x may be and since x > 0, therefore

From (21) and (22) we have

S
x3 x3
x--<sinx
3! -
I x -
3! 3!
x
-+
-wheneverx> 0
Let now x < 0. Set y = - x, then y > 0.
From (23), we have

Put y = -x in it and simplify. You will get

E 3) (i) Let f(x) = cos x

Here a = n/4, h = x - n/4.

Now f'"(x) = cos (x
nT
2 ' +
Therefore f'"(-)
4
'r
= cos (-
4
T
+ n7r
Put n = 1,2, 3, ..... we get
7r 7r 7r T
ff(7r/4) = - sin -, f "(-) = - cos 7fU'(7r/4) = sin - , .....
4 4 4

Assuming the possibility of expansion, we have by Taylor's Series,

2
f(a .+ h) = f(a) -I-.hf '(a) + h f "(a) + .....
I I

i.e. na x = cos
n
- + (x -
' lr
( - sin - )
IT
+-
1 = ) { - cos - )
(x - T 2 7r
4 4 21 4

+ -(x3!1 7r
- T )sin -
4
lr
""'

sion of cos x.
E 4) Prmed.as in the expansion of cos x, in Example 4 by takirig Higher Order Derivatives
nn
f(x) = sin x, fn(x) = sin (x 4- 2).
E 5) Two case3 arise :
(i) m is a positive integer.
t = (1
~ ef(x) + a x E R.
We find that V n E N,
f'"(x)exists-V x ~ R R I Y ~ = ~ 'OV
~ ( nx>) n ~ a n d Y x E E .
Therefore Rn(x) = 0 for all n > m.
Which implies lim R,(x) = 0 and, we have
I!--

+
xm
f(x) = f(O) 4- xfl(0) ..... x f ' " " ( ~ ) , ~x E R,
since the.other terms all vanish. Substituting the values of
f(x), f(O), f'(O), .... fim'(0),we have

(ii) m is not a positive integer.

In this case, we find that if we write
+
f(x) = (1 x)", whenever m # - I,
+
then f'"(x) = m (m - 1) ,....(m - n 1) (1 x)'~-", +
Thus for each positive integer n,'f'"' is defined in [- h, h] for each h E 10, l[.
If R,(x) denotes Cauchy's form of Taylor remainder after n terms we have

We know that for ( x I < 1,

1-8
Also 0 < ----
I + ex
< 1 forO<8< 1 andfor- 1 < x < 1.
Therefore

Next (1 + ex)"-' < (1 + Ix I)'-' if m > 1 as 0 < 8 < 1,

1
and (1 + ex):-' = < when m < 1.
(1 + ~ x ) ' - ~(1 - Jx I)'-"

Hence the conditions of Maclaurin's infinite expansion are satisfied. Making the
substitutions,
f(0) = 1, f'(0) = rn, f "(0) = m(m - l), ..... '
fn(0) = m(m - 1) ..... (m - n 4- 11,
we get
(1 f x)' = 1 mx + + m(m - 1) x2 +. m(m - l)(m - 2) 3
, 2! 3!
x + .,...
for Jx 1 < 1.
Note that when m is not a positive integer, the expansion is not pbssible if
1x1 > 1,forthenas n --*,
m(m - 1) .....(m - n 4- 1) xnand so R,(x), does not tend to z&o,
(n - l)!
Differentiability E 6) Let f(x) = log (1 + sin x)
COS X
Then f'(x) = -$,;,

1
fP'(x) = - 1 + sin x
COS X
f"'(x) = (1 + sin x)'
sin x + sin2x 4- 2 COS'X
fW(x) = -
. (1 + sin x13

Putting x = 0, we get
f(0) = 0, f'(0) = 1, f"(0) = - 1, f"'(0) = 1, fN(0)= - 2.......
Substituting these values in
x2
f(x) = f(0) +
xf'(0) t 7f"(0) ......we get +

sin 3x2 0
') (- form)
!i5,lag tos (2x2 - x) 0
6x cos 3x2
lim
X - a -. tan (2xZ - x) (4x - 1)

x(2x - 1) 1
-
= 6 lim cos 3x2. lim
x 4 .+ lim
tanx (2x - 1) X+O (2x - 1)(4x - 1)

sinh x - sin x 0
iii lim
x-to xtdx (iyfom)

= lim sinh x -3sin x

x-bo x

sinh x - sin x 0
(- x
-+ 1 as x -+ 0)
= liln (- form)
x-bO -- x3 0 tan x
cos h x - cos x 0
= lim (- form)
r-o 3x2 . 0

= lim
sin h x sin x 0+
(- form)
X- o 6~ 0

' 1
(1 + x)"" e +-
2
ex
iii) lim ' is (0/0) form as
x-0 xZ

Let y = (1 t x)""
 1 Higher Order Derivatives
Therefore, log y = - log (1 + x).
X

where o (x3)stands for those terms of x containing x3 or higher powers.

Thus the given limit becomes

Now
lim
sin 4x + a s i n . 2 ~( -0 form)
3
x -- 0 x 0
4 cos 4x -I-2a cos 2x
= lim
x - (1
I
3x2
--
its denominator tends to zero for x 0, f i e fraction will tend to a finite limit only if
the numerator also tends to zero as x 0. This requires
4 + 2 a = O *a=-2.
0
When this is satisfied, we have - form and the given limit
0
-;116sin4~-4asin'2x 0
= lim ( - form)
x -0 6~ 0
- 64 cos 4x - 8a cos 2x
= lx i-y 6
- - 64 .- 8a = - B ( a = - 2).
6

3x1 - 4
The expression -
'

2x+ 1
is not of the form 0/0 as x -- 1.
3x2 - 4
Therefore it is not correct to apply L'Hopital's rule to evaluate lim ------
x-1 2x 1 + .
lirn (3x2 - 4)
In fact lirn
3x2-4
- = lim(2x+1) x- I
=-.- 1
x-12x+I 3
x-l

log (x --
7r
2
)
09
i) lim ( form)
x-=I~+ tanx
Differentiability

= lim
x-tat
-
cos x 2
0
, ( form)

2 cos x (- sin x)
=, lirn
x-r/Z+ I
= 0.
00
ii) It is form. Apply L' Hopital's Rule. The limit is 0.

E 11) i) Given form is 0.a.

2
lirn sin x log x
x-0
log x2
= lirn
x-0
- ( form)
COSeC X
- 2
= lirn
x-o X C O S ~ C ~ ~ ~ ~ X

sin x tan x
-
- 1 Ii q - 2 x .

Q'
ii) The given form is 0.m. Convert it to -form and then fmd the limit, The limit is
0
2

1
E 12) i) The limit is - -
2
1 1
ii) lim(T--~)(m-"form)
x-0 x tanx
tan2 x - x2 0
=.lim ( - form)
K-o x2tan2x 0
-tan x - x
2 2
x 2
= lirn
K O x4, (G?
tan x - x2
2
x 2
= lim Urn(-)
'-0 X4 1-0 tan x
tan2x-x2 0
= lim
r-o X4 ( 7 form)
tan x. sec2 x - x
= lirn (By L'Hopital's Rule)
x-to w

= lirn
SecZ x + 3 tanZ x secZ x 1 - = lim
tan2x + 3 t d x sec2x
XUJ w K-M 6x2
ianx 2 1 + 3 s e c 2x 2
=lim(-) =-
x 4 x 3

is 1" form.
a
R sec2(-)
Let y ,= [sin' (-i---ax )] 2 - bx
Then
?r
log y = secv- log s i n z ( L )
2-bx 2-sx
 -

R
' Higher Order Derivatives
log sin2 (-
lim log y = lim 2-$ 0
X+O x~ (-ij-form)
X
i c0s2 (- 1
2- bx -
T ra
2cot (- )-
2 - ax,, (2 - ax12
>z.lim
x -0
2n nb
- sin ( -)
2 - bx (2 - bx)'
cot (-)
2a
--- 2 - ax (2 - bx12
- lim
b x-o
. lim
,-o (2 - ax)2
sin ( - 2 ~ ).
2 - bx
n-
2a
cot ( -
2- ax) 0
-
- -- lim ( -form)
b a-0
277 0
sin (-)
2 - bx
n: .na
2a
- cosec2 ( - 1
2 - ax (2 - ax)2
-- - lirn
b x-o
27r 27rb
ms(-
2 - bx ) (2 - b ~ ) ~

---.-2a a
-
b 2b
2
- a
---
b2
=+ lim y = e- n'/b'.
1-0

ii) 1. iii) 1.
E 14) f (x) = 60 x2(x f

+
~ - 2). Apply first derivative test and show that at x = 0, f
I ) (x
has neither local maxima nor local minima and at x = 2, f has local minima.
4
E15) i) f(x)=---- VxER-(0.1)
x x-1
-4 1
=+ ff(x)= 7+ (X--l)i
Now f'(x) = 0 * x = 2, 2/3.
8 2
Also f"(x) = --
X~
-
(~-1)~
Clearly then f has local maximum at x = 2 and local minimum at x = 2/3.
ii) Maximum at x = 7r/4 and 3 ~ / 4 minimum
, at x = 27r/3.

E 16) Here f(x) = x m ( l - x ) " ~ Ex R

Therefore f'(x) = mxm-' (1 - x)" - nxm (1 - x)"-I
- Xm-l (1 - x)"-' (m - mx - nx)
-
If both m = n = 1,
1
' thenf'(x)= 1 - 2 x = 0 -J x= - 9

I 'I 2
- ' and f"(x) = - 2 < 0 i.e. f has a local maximum at x = 1/2 in this case.
Therefore we can assume either m > 1 or n > 1.
In any case, f'(x) = 0 yields x = m/(m n) and i'(x) +
changes sign from positive to negative at this point.
Thus f has a local maximum at x = m/(m n).
 For extreme valuer, dydx '= 0, which means
log x f 1 = 0 * x = e-'.
Now (24)
-dy= - y (log r + lj
dx

=+ -
dZy
2 = - dy (log x
dx 5
+ I ) - -xY
d2y = - e'"
At x = e- I, we have 7 . e< 0
dx
Therefore at x = e-I, y has a local maximum and the maximum value of y is el"
 !
In this block, you have been introduced to the rigorous notion of the derivative of a function.
'Also, the relationship between the continuity and differentiability have been explained.
Further, the algebra of the derivatives has been discussed. All these have been deslt with in
Unit 11. In Unit 12, certain mean-value theorems have been discussed while in Urrit 13, the
results of these theorems have been extended to higher derivatives in the form of Taylor's
q theorem and Maclaurin's series. Further, these theorems have been used to give the power
: series expansions of some algebraic and transcendental functions m well as evaluating the
limits of indeterminate forms and extreme values of some functions. Now try the following
questions so as to test for yourself your conceptual understandingof the material.
1) Give an example of each of the following :
a) A functio~lwhich is not differentiable at ode point of its domain.
b) A function which is not differentiable at two points of its domain.
c) A function which is not differentiable at three points of its domain.
2) State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) A continuous function is always differentiable.
b) A differentiable function is always continuous.
c) Every monotonic function is differentiable.
d) Every differentiable function is monotonic.
3) Give an example of each of the following :
a) Two functions f and g such that f -tg is derivable but f and g may not be derivable
b) Two functions f and g such that f . g Is differentiable but f and g may not be
differentiable.
c) Two functions f and g such that f - g is differentiable but f and g may not be
differentiable.
d) Two functions f and g such that f/g is defined and differentiable but f and g may not
be differentiable.
I
4) Give an example OF a function f such that it is not derivable but I f I is derivable at every
point of the domain.
1 5) Give an example of each of the following :
, a) A function f to which Rolle's theorem is applicable.
b) A function f tb which Rolle's theorem is not applicabie.
6) Ilsing the Maclaurin series expansions of sin x and cos x, find the power serics expansion
of co: 2x and sin x cos 2x.
7) Is stationary value of a function necessarily an extreme value? Justify your answer.
8) Prove that
i) if f-is continuous in [a, w[ and f'(x) > 0 Y x E ]a, -[, then f is strictly increasing in
[a, =-[.
ii) if f is continuous in [a, w[ and f'(x) < 0 Y x € ] a, m [, then F is strictly decreasing in
[a, cx, [.
I 9). What is wrong with the following use of L'Hopitd's Rule
x3.- 4x2 3x2- 8x;- Gx-8- 4
lim
a--0 9x2- 2x
= lim
x-0
- lim
18x - 2,. x - 0 18
-
-- -
9
1 1
10) Which indeterminate form is lim [ (4 4 - ) 7- 1. Find the limit.
x - ~ x sin x

1) a) F(x) = I x 1 V x E R. f is not differentiable at one point '0' of its domain.

b) f(x) = 1 x 1 4 1 x 4 1 ( 'v'x E R. Differentiable except at the points - 1 and 0 of
thc domain.
c) f(x) L- ( x I + + +
( x 1I I x - 1 ( VXE R. Differentiable except at the
points - 1, 0 and 1 of the domain

2) a) False. The function f givcn,by f(x) = 1 x - 1 ( Y x E R is continuous but not

differentiable at I.
Differentiability b) True.
c) False. The function f : R -- R defined by

I 1 when x > 0
f(x) = - 1 when x'< 0
0 when x = 0
is monotonic but not differentiable at 0.
d) False. The function f : R -- R defined by
x3
f(x) =-- 4xVx E R
3
is differentiable in R but it is monotonic because f'(x) = x2 - 4 = (X- 2) (x + 2)
which is positive if x > 2 or x < - 2 and is negative for - 2 < x < 2 and
consequently f is mdilotonically increasiog for x I - 2 and x 1 2 and f is
monotonically decreasing; in [ - 2 , 2 1.

3) a) Take f(x) = I x I and g(xj = - 1 x I Y x E R.

b) Take f(x) = g(x) = ( x I V x E,R.
1 when x is rational
4) consid& f(x) =
I
- 1 when x is irrational
So f is not derivable at any point of R but I f I is derivable and I f I '(x) = 0 V x E R.
5) a) Takef(x) = x4,a = - 1, b = 1
b) Take f(x) = sin x; a = - n/2, b = r/2..
6 ) cos22x = ( + 4X ) = 71 [ 3/2 + 2 cos 4x + -12 cos 8x ]
1.

1
sin x cos 2x = - (sin 3x - sin x)
2
Now expand cos 4x, cos 8x, sin 3x, sin x in power series.
7) Consider the function f(x),= (x V x <R.
f'(1) = 0 and so f(1) is a stationary value. But f(x) > f(1) for lx >>.Iand f(x) < f(1) for
x < 1 and consequently f(1) is not an extreme value.

8) Proceed exactly in the same way as that for the finite interval [a, b].
. .
3x2 - 8x 0.
9) lim is not of - form. L Hopital's ruk cannot be applied.
, x-0 18x - 2 0
10) It is .o - 00 form. The given limit can be written as
4x sin x 4-sin x - x 0
lim
h-0 , x sin x 0
-
Now it is form. Apply L'Hopital's rule and you will get
a

the limit as 4.
NOTES