REVIEW

Coconut Oil: Chemistry,

Production and Its Applications -
A Review
Gopala Krishna A.G.,* Gaurav Raj, Ajit Singh Bhatnagar, Prasanth Kumar P.K.
and Preeti Chandrashekar

Abstract chemistry, MCT and its applications

taking a holistic approach on the good
C oconut oil is produced by
crushing copra, the dried
kernel, which contains about 60-
and bad effects of coconut oil reported
in the literature.
65% of the oil. The oil has the natural Introduction
Coconut oil is consumed in sweet taste of coconut and contains
tropical countries for 92% of saturated fatty acids(in the Coconut oil is an edible oil that
thousands of years. Studies form of triglycerides), most of them has been consumed in tropical
done on native diets high in (about 70%) are lower chain countries for thousands of years. As
coconut oil consumption show saturated fatty acids known as it has a long shelf life and a melting
medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs). point of 76 °F, it is used in baking
that this population is
MCFAs are not common to different industries. A negative campaign
generally in good health.
vegetable oils with lauric acid at 45- against saturated fats in general, and
Coconut oil has a long shelf
56%. Various fractions of coconut oil the tropical oils in particular, led to
life and is used in baking have medium chain triglycerides and most food manufacturers abandoning
industries, processed foods, are excellent solvent for flavours, coconut oil in recent years in favor
infant formulae, essences, emulsifiers etc. These fatty of hydrogenated polyunsaturated
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics acids are used in the preparation of oils, particularly soy, which contain
and as hair oil. emulsifiers, as drugs and also in trans fatty acids. Studies done on
cosmetics. Its metabolism is different populations consuming diets high in
from that of the normal vegetable oils coconut oil show no adverse effects
containing long chain fatty acids. on the health of the population (1).
Hence, it cannot be generalized as an
oil similar in properties to that of a Coconut oil has >90% saturated
92% long chain saturated fatty acids fatty acids, hence is less attractive
containing oil/fat. More studies are to consumers. Saturated fat is one
required to prove the good effects of that has no unsaturation or double
coconut oil, medium chain bonds and tends to be solid at room
triglycerides (MCT) and the fatty temperature. Coconut oil is rich in
acids on humans especially on the ill short and medium chain fatty acids.
effects on cardiovascular and other Shorter chain length allows fatty
diseases. The review covers the acids to be metabolized without use
production of coconut oil, its of the carnitine transport system.

Department of Lipid Science & Traditional Foods, Central Food Technological Research Institute
(CSIR), Mysore - 570020

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Various fractions of coconut oil are and type 3 (grades 1, 2 and 3), manipulative methods. Part III
used as drugs. Butyric acid is used milling copra for oil extraction. The prescribes detailed laboratory
to treat cancer, while lauric acid is material shall be the kernels techniques for determination of:
effective in treating viral infections. obtained from the fruits of Cocos colour (lovibond scale); sp. gr. (sp.
Hence, the literature is reviewed nucifera Linn. Requirements cover gr. bottle); refractive index;
in the context of increase of fat physical and chemical properties, moisture (by distillation); volatile
related disorders / diseases through packing, marking, sampling and matter (at 105 degree C/1 h);
consumption of highly unsaturated test. impurities (filtration and drying);
oils.
Table 1. Indian specification for coconut oil (4)
Importance of coconut as oil seed
Expressed Solvent-extracted
The coconut palm is the most Characteristics Refined Grade Grade Grade Refined Semi Grade
Grade 1A (Raw) 1B (Raw) 2 (Raw) grade refined 1 (raw)
important perennial source of oil,
which is grown in India. The Moisture & insoluble 0.1 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.1 0.25 1.0
impurities (max) (%)
cultivation of coconut is spread over
Colour Lovibond 2 4 11 30 2 10 30
the entire coastal belt and also some colour scale in Y+5R
interior tracts. Compared to all other Refractive index 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to
oil seed crops coconut has the at 40 °C 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490
highest productivity as well Specific gravity 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to
as consistency in production. at 30 °C/30 °C 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920

Compared to other oil seed crops Saponification value 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
(min)
coconut is less susceptible to
Iodine value wijs) 7.5 to 10 7.5 to10 7.5 to10 7.5 to10 7.5 to 10 7.5 to10 8.0 to13
abnormal climatic condition.
Acid value (max) 0.5 2.0 6.0 8.0 0.5 1.0 10
Coconut oil production in India Unsaponifiable (max) 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.8 1.0
Polenske value (min) 13.0 13.0 13.0 - 13.0 - -
Rotaries and expellers are used
for crushing the dry coconuts Flash point, °C (min) - - - - 225 100 90

(known as copra) for recovery of oil.

The total production of edible grade Ceylon-Standard; CS 32: 1968 free fatty acids; I value (modified
coconut oil in the country is about describes the specification for Wij’s); saponification value;
4.0 lakh tons which is 1.5 lakh tons coconut oil intended for export. unsaponifiable matter and mineral
more compared to that produced in Coconut oil is classified into 4 acidity (titration with 0.01N NaOH
1980’s (2). grades: refined, deodorized to methyl orange) (4).
(neutralized, bleached, final steam
Specification for coconut oil (3) Common methods of production
deodorization); refined (no steam
of coconut oil
Indian-Standard; IS: 6220-1971 treatment); white oil (higher free
specifies the quality parameters of fatty acids); and industrial oil (crude Different types of coconut oil for
copra for grading for different uses oil, not edible without processing). edible purposes are available viz,
in India. This standard prescribes Part I specifies requirement virgin coconut oil from wet coconuts
the methods of grading and the for chemical and physical (unrefined grade); coconut oil from
requirements of copra for extraction characteristics, analytical standards, dry coconuts (unrefined grade); and
of oil and for table use, together appearance, freedom from coconut oil by solvent extraction
with methods of sampling and test. adulterants and suspended matter, method (refined from coconut
The 3 types of copra are defined: packaging and marking. Part II expeller cake). Virgin coconut oil is
type 1 (grades 1, 2 and 3), ball copra describes and illustrates equipment claimed to have more health benefits
for table purpose; type 2 (grades 1 for sampling, with special reference compared to coconut oil extracted
and 2), cup copra for table purpose; to large bulk vessels, together with from copra.

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Table 2. Codex standards for coconut oil (5) purposes. Traditionally, virgin coconut
Characteristic Coconut oil oil is produced by fermentation
Colour – Platinum cobalt scale (max) 50 method, where coconut milk expelled
Relative density at 40°C/20° C 0.908-0.921 from freshly harvested coconuts is
Refractive Index at 40°C 1.448-1.450 fermented for 24-36 hr, and during this
Moisture & other volatiles at 105°C 0.1 period, the oil phase gets separated
Free fatty acids, calculated as lauric acid % by mass (max) 0.3 from aqueous phase. Further, the
Peroxide value (millequivalents of active oxygen per kg) Not more than 15 resulting wet oil is slightly heated for
Iodine value 6.3-10.6 a short time to remove the moisture
Sap. value 248-265
and finally filtered. The main
Unsaponifiables, % by mass, max g/kg ≤ 15
disadvantages of this process are low
Reichert value 6 – 8.5
oil recovery and fermented odor,
Polenske value 13 –18
which masks the characteristic coconut
flavor of the oil.
Copra milling by traditional Hydraulic presses
methods In conventional methods for
These are used in the large
virgin coconut oil, freshly extracted
The extraction of oil from copra installations. They are of two main milk is centrifuged to obtain cream
is one of the oldest seed crushing types-open or Anglo-American which is heated upto 60-80°C before
operations. In India and Sri Lanka presses and the closed or cage type centrifuging to obtain the oil.
copra is still crushed for oil presses. In this the space between the Systematic research work has been
extraction in the primitive chekkus plates above ram and the head is carried out at CFTRI for the
as well as in rotary ghanis, expellers divided by plates between which production of several value added
and hydraulic presses. copra is put wrapped in press clothes. products from coconut, one of them
The chekku is a fixed wooden or The common method is to extract being virgin coconut oil. In the
stone mortar inside which revolves oil from copra or the dry coconuts. CFTRI process, virgin coconut oil is
on a hard wooden pestle. The pestle Conventionally coconut oil is obtained by ‘wet processing’ without
is attached to a long pole which is produced by expelling dry copra, heat, shear and chemicals with
moved round via bullocks, donkey followed by refining during which an overall yield of 87.5%.
or by human labor. About 20 – 40 oil is exposed to high temperature. Physicochemical properties and fatty
kg of copra can be handled by a The copra based refined coconut oil acid compositions were evaluated.
chekku. or the solvent extracted and refined Sensory studies are also carried out
coconut oil will have a bland taste and found that virgin coconut oil is
Copra processing by continuous superior to the commercial sample.
due to the refining processes.
pressing Scale-up runs were carried out for
Wet coconut processing the production of virgin coconut oil.
This is done with the help of
expellers. The oil expeller is The wet coconuts are subjected to The process technology has been
essentially a mechanical screw pressing to ooze the oil out along with transferred to several user industries
press in which the oil is expelled coconut milk. This is processed through Coconut Development
from the copra by the pressure afterwards without employing heat, Board, Cochin.
exerted by a continuous rotating shear, chemicals, refining and is Physico-chemical characteristics
warm shaft in the barrel or cage of known as virgin coconut oil. Virgin of coconut oil
the press. The barrel is built with coconut oil has applications in
pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. It is Solubility
openings to allow the escape of oil
and these can be adjusted colorless with characteristic coconut Coconut oil is insoluble in water.
according to the type of seed being flavor and finds several applications At temperature above its melting
crushed. in medicinal, cosmetics and cooking point it is completely miscible with

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most of the non-hydroxylic solvents high saponification value, high Chemistry of fatty acids and
such as light petroleum, benzene, saturated fatty acids content and is a triglycerides
carbon tetrachloride etc. In alcohol, liquid at room temperatures of 27°C.
Medium chain triglycerides
coconut oil is more soluble than most Unsaponifiable matter
common fats and oils. Medium chain triglycerides
All natural fats contain minor (MCTs) are a class of lipids in which
Chemical composition quantities of substance other than three saturated fats are bound to a
Coconut oil contains a high fatty acid glycerides. The glycerol backbone. What distinguishes
proportion of glycerides of lower unsaponified constituent is mostly MCTs from other triglycerides is the
chain fatty acids (Tables 3, 4 & 5). sterols. The unsaponifiable fact that each fat molecule is between
The oil is highly stable towards constituent of coconut oil include a six and twelve carbons in length (9).
atmospheric oxidation. The oil is small amount of tocopherols and MCTs are a component of many foods,
characterized by a low iodine value, phytosterols (Table 3). with coconut and palm oils being the
dietary sources with the highest
Table 3. Physico-chemical Characteristics of coconut oil concentration of MCTs. MCTs are also
Virgin coconut oil Unrefined coconut Refined coconut available as a dietary supplement (10).
from wet coconut Oil from copra oil
Appearance Colorless Slight brownish Colourless MCTs have a different pattern of
Odour Coconut smell Coconut smell Odourless absorption and utilization than long-
Melting point °C 24 24 24 chain triglycerides (LCTs) that make
Moisture (%) <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 up 97 percent of dietary fats. For
Iodine value (cg I2/g) 12-15 12-15 10-12 absorption of LCTs to occur, the fatty
Peroxide value (meq. O2/kg) 0-1 0-1 0-1 acid chains must be separated from
Saponification value(mg KOH/g) 245-255 245-255 250-255 the glycerol backbone by the lipase
Phospholipids(%) 0.1 0.1 0.0
enzyme. These fatty acids form
Unsaponifiable matter(%) — 0.42% 0.19%
micelles, are then absorbed and
Tocopherols mg/kg 150-200 150-200 4-100
reattached to glycerol, and the
Phytosterols mg/kg 400-1200
Total phenolics mg/Kg 640 618 20
resultant triglycerides travel through
Fatty acid composition(relative %) the lymphatics en route to the
Saturates 92.0 92.0 92.0 bloodstream. Up to 30 percent of
Monounsaturates 6.0 6.0 6.0 MCTs are absorbed intact across the
Polyunsaturates 2.0 2.0 2.0 intestinal barrier and directly enter
the portal vein. This allows for much
Table 4. Fatty acid composition of coconut oil and some other vegetable oils quicker absorption and utilization of
Vegetable oils C8:0 C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0 C22:0 Others
MCTs compared to LCTs. MCTs are
transported into the mitochondria
Coconut 7.0 5.4 48.9 20.2 8.4 2.5 6.2 1.4 - - -
independent of the carnitine shuttle,
Palm kernel - 1.2 51.6 22.9 12.2 1.3 10.8 - - - - -
Sunflower - - - - 6.3 3.0 43.7 47.0 - - -
which is necessary for LCT-
Rice bran - - - 0.4 22.9 1.8 42.5 30.5 1.4 0.5 - mitochondrial absorption. Oxidation
Safflower - - - 0.3 11.9 2.3 29.2 55.9 0.4 - - of MCTs provides 8.3 calories per
Sesame - - - - 10.3 5.8 42.9 41.0 - - - gram, while LCTs provides 9.2
Groundnut - - - - 14.0 3.8 41.9 34.7 1.0 1.2 3.4 calories per gram (11).
Palm - - 0.2 1.1 42.6 3.8 41.9 10.4 - - -
Coconut Oil as a source of
Olive - - - - 12.0 2.5 75.7 7.9 0.5 - - 1.4
Soybean - - - - 11.6 4.0 18.8 56.1 8.5 - - 1.0
medium-chain triglycerides
Grape seed - - - - 7.2 4.8 19.4 68.1 0.1 - - 0.4 All fats and oils are composed of
Linseed - - - - 7.1 2.0 19.9 17.3 53.7 - - 0.4 triglyceride molecules, which are tri

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Table 5. TAG (triacyl glycerols or triglycerides) molecular species in coconut oil from India, Malaysia and considered essential nutrients for
Indonesia (12 & 13) infants as well as for people with
TAG Coconut RBDCNO MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL IND IND IND IND IND serious digestive problems like
Species Oil (I) (MAL) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
cystic fibrosis (15, 16). Like other
CaCC 1.1 - - - - - - - - - - -
essential nutrients, one must get
CaCLa 3.4 - - - - - - - - - - -
them directly from the diet.
CCLa 12.8 13.1 16.6 15.1 16.4 15.9 16.2 14.4 14.3 16.7 14.7 16.1
CpCpLa - 1.2 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.4 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.7 0.9 Literature on coconut oil
CpCLa - 3.5 4.0 3.9 4.2 4.2 4.2 3.3 3.6 4.3 3.7 3.5
Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri
CLaLa 17.8 17.2 21.4 19.8 19.7 19.8 20.0 19.5 19.2 21.1 19.9 20.3
Lanka, Mexico, West Malaysia, and
LaLaLa 20.7 21.9 25.8 23.3 24.1 22.8 23.6 23.5 23.6 23.5 23.6 23.9
Papua & New Guinea are the 7
LaLaM 16.1 17.2 15.1 15.6 13.8 14.6 13.6 15.4 16.5 14.2 16.2 14.8
LaLaO 1.8 2.3 1.3 1.5 2.0 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.2 1.6
countries which produce major
LaMM 10.1 10.2 8.6 9.5 7.8 9.1 8.2 9.1 9.4 7.4 9.5 8.6
quantities of coconut in the world.
LaMO 2.1 2.1 0.9 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.2 Coconut is available in two forms
LLO/LaMP 6.2 5.8 4.8 4.8 5.0 4.9 4.8 5.7 5.5 4.8 5.4 4.7 viz., wet and dry materials
LaOO 1.6 1.4 0.3 1.8 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.1 commonly known as wet coconut
LOO/LaPP 2.9 3.0 0.4 1.3 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 and dry coconut or copra. The oil can
PLO 0.9 - - - - - - - - - - - be extracted from both these raw
MOO - 0.7 - 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 materials. However, in India and
MPO 0.8 - - - - - - - - - - - Srilanka, it is a general practice to
OOO 0.2 - - - - - - - - - - - use only copra for oil extraction and
POO - 0.3 - 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 the oil is used for food and cosmetic
POP 0.8 - - - - - - - - - - - purposes. In Phillippines, the oil is
PPP 0.2 - - - - - - - - - - -
extracted from wet coconut also and
is known as virgin coconut oil. In
esters of glycerol and fatty acids. The diet (14). It is the MCT in coconut oil some countries solvent extraction of
fats upon hydrolysis yield fatty acids that make it different from all other fats the dry coconut followed by refining,
and glycerol. There are two methods and for the most part gives it its unique bleaching and deodorization is
of classifying fatty acids, character and healing properties. carried out to get the refined
monounsaturated fatty acids, and Almost all of the medium-chain bleached and deodorized coconut
polyunsaturated fatty acids. The triglycerides used in research, oil. The technology for the
second method of classification is medicine, and food products come production of coconut oil through
based on molecular size or length of from coconut oil. expellers is well developed and
the carbon chain in the fatty acid. many medium scale industries in
MCT are easily digested,
The vast majority of the fats and absorbed, and put to use nourishing India produce oil by this method.
the body. Unlike other fats, they put However, some small scale
oils whether they are saturated or
industries produce the oil by
unsaturated or from an animal or a little strain on the digestive system
processing fresh coconut also using
plant, are composed of long-chain and provide a quick source of energy
local expeller press. Problems of
triglycerides. All fats we eat consist of necessary to promote healing. This
sediments and rancidity persist in
LCT while, coconut oil is unique is important for patients who are
these oils.
because it is composed predominantly using every ounce of strength they
of MCT. The size of the fatty acid is have to overcome serious illness or The literature on coconut oil
extremely important because injury. It’s no wonder why MCT are which has been reported as
physiological effects of medium-chain added to infant formulas. MCT are published papers and patents from
fatty acids in coconut oil are distinctly not only found in coconut oil but also 1970 onwards were reviewed and
different from the long-chain fatty are natural and vital components were classified under the following
acids more commonly found in our of human breast milk. MCT are heads:

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A. Production Methods and Oil feeding the expeller presses; coconut to obtain refined oil and to
quality handling and filtering of crude oil; simultaneously recover coconut
oil cooling system; and extraction by products including solid coconut
A number of reviews are
the solvent method. Loncin et al (20) products for human consumption
available on the different types of
reviewed the utilization of palm oil which has also been patented in
extraction and processing methods
and coconut oil in the form of India. Castellanos and Asturias (26)
for the preparation of coconut oil,
interesterified fat. The utilization of investigated the wet milling
coconut flour, protein and coconut
transesterified palm oil with 25% processes for the extraction of oil
cake and meal. Cornelius (17) has
coconut oil for production of cooking from decorticated fresh coconut
reviewed the aspects of coconut
fat of uniform consistency little under a variety of experimental
processing such as growing,
affected by temperature. (solid fat conditions to get oil of better quality
harvesting, handling, storage,
index at 10, 20 and 30 degree C being and it required less refining.
composition of nut, processing,
45.6, 33.6, 9.2, consistency in 0.1 mm Hagenmaier et al (27) identified the
primary products (copra, ball copra,
ASTM penetration depth after 9 days’ critical unit operations in the wet
desiccated coconut, fibre and shells),
storage at 15, 21 and 25 degree C was processing of fresh coconuts for the
coconut oil (extraction methods,
19, 38 and 44). Due to its low recovery of oil and food grade
composition of coconut oil), uses of
oxidation during heating, liquid oil is protein.
oil, coconut cake and meal,
suitable for table and frying use.
nutritional aspects, and the coconut Solvent extraction
industry in the 7 major producing Enzymatic process
Cancel et al (28) has standardized
areas (Philippines, Indonesia, India, Coconut oil is extracted from conditions for coconut oil extraction
Sri Lanka, Mexico, West Malaysia, coconut paste by a new enzymatic from coconut milk press-cake.
and Papua & New Guinea). Dendy process (1) and the method used less Gonzalez et al (29) studied the
and Grimwood (18) have reviewed energy than the conventional solvent extraction of residual oil
the various processes for wet processes. A Sri Lankan inventor (21) from wet coconut meal using
treatment which have been proposed has developed a simple method for isopropanol. Bernardini (30) has
for extraction of oil and protein from making high quality coconut oil and described a new single solvent direct
fresh coconut meat: The Chayen, desiccated coconut. Using more extraction process (by CMB,
Robledano, ICAIT, Krauss-Maffei, manpower and little or no electricity, Pomezia) which obviates the need
Roxas and Sugarman processes, it involves breaking the coconut, for pressing. Aliwalas and Buccat
integrated processes, methods used scraping it and drying in a specially (31) studied the filtration-extraction
by the Texas A&M University and designed solar drier. The desiccated of granulated coconut on a bench
the Tropical Products Institute, coconut produced can be used for scale. Claudio et al (32) carried out
London. The problem of obtaining mechanical extraction of colourless, laboratory scale studies on the
cheap protein-based food products, odourless coconut oil suitable for preparation of a highly nutritious
coconut milk and cream, frozen direct consumption (22). Mojika (23) coconut flour from granulated
milk, syrup, etc. is then examined. developed a simple process for coconut. Preliminary feeding expt.
A few indications are given producing coconut oil and food grade indicate a PER comparable with
regarding the nutritive and chemical copra cake which has been patented. casein. Prepared foods (cakes,
aspects of coconut protein. Baltasar Nambiar (24) developed a method for doughnuts, cookies, pastries) with
(19) has reviewed the extraction the production of refined oil from the 20-30% wheat flour replaced by
process of coconut oil by the dry milk of fresh ripe coconuts and has coconut flour obtained high taste
processing technology. Coconut oil been granted an Indian patent. rating.
extraction employing dry processing
technology is discussed under the Wet processing of coconut Fatty acid composition
following headings: preparation of Nambiar (25) has developed a Banzon and Resurreccion (33)
raw material; drying or cooking; method of processing fresh ripe carried out a study on the fatty acid
July 2010 20 l
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distribution in coconut oil obtained (CECO). However, high temperatures coconut oil can be used as a natural
by four processing methods and used in the hot extraction of coconut antioxidant through the blending
secured from four Philippine types oil favor the incorporation of more process. Bhatnagar et al (37) have
of coconuts. There was no observed thermally stable phenolic observed that addition of coconut oil
change in the fatty acid distribution antioxidants into coconut oil. to either safflower oil, sunflower oil,
in samples of coconut oil obtained Therefore, the consumption of rice bran oil increased the oxidative
by 4 methods, namely: solvent HECO may result in improvement stability of the resultant blend.
extraction, fermentation, freeze- of antioxidant related health benefits Phase separation
thawing and heating. Neither was compared with the consumption of
there such a change observed in CECO. Murthi et al (38) studied the
coconut oil samples obtained from storage stability of edible oils and
Moura (6) studied the changes in their blends. Among the blends,
4 types of coconuts.
some components of the sesame oil or groundnut oil blended
Phenolics and antioxidant activity unsaponifiable fraction of coconut oil with refined cottonseed oil showed
Kapila and Dissanayake (34) during refining. 8 lots of coconut oil the least increase in FFA. PV of raw
studied the phenolic compounds were sampled at 5 points in the refining edible oils and their blends tended
present in the nonsaponifiable process. The unsaponifiable matter to rise steadily to a maximum,
fraction of coconut oil by high- (UNS) comprised hydrocarbons declining gradually thereafter.
performance liquid chromatography (including squalene), aliphatic Acceptability became poor for raw
with florescence detection. Mass alcohols and triterpenoid alcohols, edible oils after 120 days, when the
spectra of the phenolic compounds sterols and a final group containing PV was between 5.9 and 16 m-
were also obtained separately by free fatty acids (FFA), campesterol and equiv./kg, and for refined oils after
LC–MS to confirm the presence of some unidentified components. 90 days (PV was 4.4-9) and for the
the phenolic compounds. Caffeic Tocopherols were not detected in the blends after 90-120 days (PV 4-45).
acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid coconut samples analysed. Manalac The consumer preference in various
and catechin were observed in and Harder (36) analysed the areas was for oil blends containing
coconut oil. Phenolic acid fraction tocopherol content of coconut oil from cottonseed oil with sesame oil or
of the coconut oil prepared by a commercial processing plant at groundnut oil, coconut oil with palm
boiling coconut milk (traditional different stages of refining. One olein, and rapeseed oil with mustard
coconut oil) was more complex sample of crude oil containing oil. Blends containing palm oil were
compared with that of coconut oil 721.06µg/g lost 94.5% resulting in less acceptable, as a waxy solid mass
prepared by pressing copra 38.9µg/g in the final product. separates out in these oils.
(commercial coconut oil). Total It is observed from the above Coconut oil emulsions
phenol content of traditional coconut literature reports that there is
oil was nearly seven times higher Garti and Arkad (39) studied the
variation in the composition of
process of preparation of cloudy
than that of commercial coconut oil coconut oil with respect to natural
coconut oil emulsions containing
(618 ± 46 vs. 91 ± 11 mg kg )1 ), antioxidants level with the method dispersed TiO2 using atomizer.
suggesting that the phenol content used for its extraction which may Rogov et al (40) studied the viscosity
varies with the extraction method. have a bearing on the nutritional of the fat components of margarine
Kapila, Chamil and Sagarika (35) quality of the oil. emulsions. Technological procedures
compared the antioxidant activities B. Blending of coconut oil with in margarine manufacture (dosage,
of coconut oil extracted under hot other vegetable oils transport, mixing) are affected by the
and cold conditions. The coconut oil viscosity of the fat component.
Oxidative stability
extracted under hot conditions Viscosities of some fats (hardened
(HECO) contained more phenolic Coconut oil addition to other fat, qualities 1, 2 and 3, coconut oil,
substances than the coconut oil vegetable oils improves their vegetable oil blends, etc.) and of the
extracted under cold conditions oxidative stability indicating that fat components used for margarine

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emulsion preparation were following process for oil extraction specification for a vegetable oil
determined at 40 degree C. The from coconut meat: (i) wet method blend.
viscosities of different fat blend (using a De Laval centrifuge), (ii)
A.17.24. “Blended Edible
emulsions applied in Russian hydraulic pressing, (iii) pressing plus
Vegetable Oil” means an admixture
margarine formulations were also solvent extraction, (iv) filtration
of any two edible vegetable oils
determined and are tabulated. extraction (direct solvent extraction).
where the proportion by weight of
Oil extraction efficiencies obtained
Nutritional effects of coconut oil any edible vegetable oil used in the
were: (i) 79.56% (increased to 96.3%
blends admixture is not less than 20 per
by subsequent solvent extraction),
Bellenand et al (41) studied the cent. The individual oils in the blend
(ii) 76.47%, (iii) 99.65%, (iv) 96.58.
effects of coconut oil on heart lipids shall conform to the respective
Protein contents of isolates from (i)
and on fatty acid utilization in standards prescribed by these rules.
ranged from 59 to 75%. Protein
rapeseed oil. The cardiac lipidosis The blend shall be clear, free from
efficiency ratio (PER) biological
was proportional to the content of rancidity, suspended or insoluble
value (BV), true digestibility (TD)
erucic acid in the diet. At 60 days, matter or any other foreign matter,
and net protein utilization (NPU) of
the high level of 22:6 in the cardiac separated water, added colouring
coconut flour from (ii), (iii) and (iv)
phospholipids of rats fed rapeseed oil matter, flavouring substance,
were: PER 2.42, 2.55, 2.42; BV 77,
was reduced by the addition of mineral oil, hydrocyanic acid, castor
84, 79; TD 76, 74, 72; NPU 68, 64,
sunflower oil but not by coconut oil. oil and tricresyl phosphate. It shall
66. Values for coconut isolate
Thus, the blending of rapeseed oil also conform to the following
prepared by heat coagulation of
with coconut oil apparently is less standards, namely;
cream or aqueous portion of fresh
desirable than that of rapeseed oil coconut milk from (i) were: PER Based on the PFA specifications,
and sunflower oil. McCutcheon et al 1.50, 2.20; BV 72, 80; TD 88, 92; a process has been developed at the
(42) studied the cardiopathogenicity NPU 59, 65. The traditional rural Central Food Technological
of rapeseed oils and oil blends method gave an oil extraction Research Institute, Mysore under
differing in erucic, linoleic and efficiency of 82.45, and a protein sponsorship from the Coconut
linolenic acid content on male Wistar isolate with PER 1.25, BV 62, TD Development Board, Cochin and is
rats using semipurified diets. Lowest 86 and NPU 58. ready for commercialization.
lesion incidence was obtained with
Reena Rao and Lokesh (46, 47), C. Edible applications of
safflower oil and hydrogenated
Anitha Nagaraju and Lokesh (48, 49) coconut oil
coconut oil. It has been postulated
and Reena and Lokesh (50) have
that linolenic acid plays a role in the Coconut oil has a high degree of
used immobilized lipase systems for
etiology of cardiac necrosis observed saturation with a high content of
the synthesis of structured lipids
when rats are fed diets containing saturated fatty acids. Because of
from coconut oil and omega 6 and
low erucic acid rapeseed oils. high content of saturated fatty acids
omega 3 fatty acids and carried out
Theuer (43) developed fat nutritional evaluation of the same in coconut oil is highly resistant to
compositions for infant formulas rats. They found beneficial effects in oxidative rancidity, coconut oil is
containing vegetable fats with a fatty the lipid profile after enzymatic used as a component of infant milk
acid simulating that of human milk. acidolysis of coconut oil with omega powders because of its easy
Grandadam (44) developed 6 and omega 3 fatty acids. digestibility and stable flavor.
processes to recover the proteins of Coconut oil is extensively used in
Indian Specification for blending the food industries as a
the coconut from copra cake, or
of vegetable oils confectionery fat particularly in the
directly from fresh coconut meat by
different processes. The improved As per the Prevention of Food preparation of ice creams. In
Itipat process of double pressing Adulteration Act 1954 Rules imitation chocolates coconut oil is
allows recovery of 93.45% of the oil and Regulations and updated used in place of cocoa butter along
and 91.9%. Aliwalas (45) studied the amendments following is the with cocoa powder.
July 2010 22 l
 REVIEW

Indian Specification for blending of two oils materials. These MCTs can also be
a. Moisture and volatile matter Not more than 0.2 per cent by weight
used as a glaze and polishing agent
b. Acid Value
for confectionery products such as
Nature of oil Acid value gummy- type candies. Solid MCTs
1. Both raw edible vegetable oils in the blend Not more than 6.0 can help to enhance aeration
2. One raw edible vegetable oil and one refined edible properties in bakery products (55,
vegetable oil in the blend Not more than 5.0 56).
3. Both refined edible vegetable oils in the blend Not more than 5.0
c. Unsaponifiable matter:
MCT derivatives- structured
1. Blend with rice bran oil Not more than 3.0 per cent by weight lipids
2. Blend with other edible vegetable oils Not more than 1.50 per cent by weight Medium chain triglycerides can
d. Flash point (Penske Martin closed method) Not less than 250ºC
be used to custom design fats. MCTs
1. Test for argemone oil shall be negative for the blend with conventional long chain fats give
2. However, blend may contain food additives permitted in these rules and Appendix ‘C’.
products with unique physical and
Use in the synthesis of medium Functional benefits of medium nutritional products. MCT derivatives
chain triglycerides chain triglycerides show unique properties compared to
their corresponding physical blends.
Medium chain triacylglycerols Medium chain triglycerides are They may contribute nutritional and
are unique categories of lipids widely used in the flavor industries functional benefits to value added
produced by the esterification of as they are more polar and therefore foods (57, 58, 59).
glycerol with medium chain fatty more hydrophilic and can dissolve
acids, which come from high lauric a variety of polar substances that are D. Non-edible applications
oils. Coconut and palm kernel oils insoluble in conventional fats and of coconut oil
are the only commercially important oils. Hydrocarbons, esters and One of the major non-edible
sources of medium chain fatty acids natural oils as well as alcohols, applications of coconut oil is in the
(52). These oils are hydrolyzed to ketones and acids are miscible with soap industries; one important
liberate their fatty acids from MCTs. These properties make chemical derivative of coconut oil
glycerol, and then the fatty acids are MCTs superior carrier for flavors, is methyl esters of coconut fatty
separated by fractional distillation. vitamins and colors when compared acids, which are produced by
The lower boiling or top fraction of
to conventional oils. MCTs have a treating coconut oil with methyl
the fatty acids contains the medium
lower molecular weight than alcohol. These methyl esters
chain acids (53).The esterification
conventional oils. This gives MCTs constitutes an important raw
reaction between glycerol and the
a lower viscosity than conventional material for the chemical industries
medium chain fatty acids is carried
oils, even at low temperatures. as they are more stable and are
out at high temperatures with or
without use of a catalyst. The water MCTs oils have no unsaturated fatty easier to separate by fractional
liberated in the reaction is removed acids present; therefore they are distillation. Coconut oil has many
continuously to drive the reaction to exceptionally stable to oxidation. other industrial uses in the
completion (54). When the MCTs have excellent keeping pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, plastics,
esterification reaction is complete, qualities and therefore help to rubber substitutes, synthetic resins
excess fatty acids are removed from increase shelf- life of finished etc. Coconut oil has also been found
the reaction mixture by vacuum products. MCTs are ideal for useful for mixing with diesel. These
distillation. To remove the volatile treating the surfaces of crackers to mixture in the proportion as 30:70
odor and flavor components as well act as a moisture barrier. They has given excellent road
as any residual fatty acids, the crude adhere well to surfaces, including performance of diesel vehicles.
MCTs are deodorized to get a final metals. They are excellent release Methyl esters of coconut oil fatty
product that has a bland flavor and agent for surfaces that come into acids is also being used as lubricants
is odorless and colorless. contact with food products or raw and biodiesel in aviation industry.

l 23 Indian Coconut Journal

 REVIEW

E. Clinical Applications of Healing properties of coconut oil Saturated fatty acids of coconut oil
medium chain triglycerides and having medicinal properties
Coconut oil is antiviral, anti-
saturated fatty acids Roughly 45 to 50% of fatty acids
fungal (kills yeast too) and
Malabsorption antibacterial. It attacks and kills of coconut oil form lauric acid.
viruses that have a lipid (fatty) Lauric acid is known to kill viruses
Children with cystic fibrosis
coating, such as herpes, HIV, and bacteria that are enveloped in a
supplemented with up to 75 ml of
hepatitis C, the flu, and phospholipid membrane. Examples
MCTs per day experienced greater
mononucleosis. It kills the bacteria of viruses with a fatty capsule are:
weight gain and reduced fecal fat
that cause pneumonia, sore throats, influenza viruses and HIV. Coconut
compared to a trial period on a
dental cavities, urinary tract itself contains about 75% fiber, not
control diet (9). When MCTs are
infections, meningitis, gonorrhea, bran fiber from wheat and grains
given concurrently with a pancreatic (which contains phytic acid that
enzyme preparation, absorption is food poisoning and many more
bacterial infections (63). It kills the absorbs calcium and other mineral
improved (58). MCTs have been from your body before it is
used in other malabsorption fungus/yeast infections that cause
candida, ringworm, athletes foot, excreted), but dietary fiber that feeds
syndromes, including short-bowel beneficial colon flora. As the fiber
syndrome, celiac disease, and thrush, jock itch and diaper
rash. is metabolized by the naturally
hepatic disease (15). occurring bacteria, they by default,
HIV/AIDS Use of saturated fats in therapeutic crowd out other potentially harmful
applications pathogens and produce short chain
MCTs may help with weight
Saturated fatty acids can be fatty acids (SCFA’s) like acetic acid
maintenance in AIDS patients. An (minute amounts of vinegar and
enteral formula containing 85 used to: boost the immune system,
for weight management, as butyric acid (originally isolate in
percent of fat calories from MCTs butter) both compounds are known
(35% of total calories from fat) led antimicrobials, to support the
to have varying degrees of anti
to decreases in stool fat, number of structure of gut mucosa, and as
microbial activity. These fatty acids
bowel movements, and abdominal dietary adjuncts in cases of chronic
are absorbed directly into the colon
symptoms, as well as increased fat degenerative disease, such as
and serve as energy in that way.
absorption compared to baseline cardiovascular disease, liver
Butyric acid has been shown to have
(59). No improvement was seen in disease and cancer. As far as the
anti-tumor properties. Many
subjects taking a control LCT- integrity of the gut mucosa is researchers have reported that
containing formula. Another concerned, the use of short and coconut oil lowers cholesterol. The
controlled trial confirmed these medium chain fatty acids can cholesterol-lowering properties of
results (60). MCT-containing reduce mucosal irritation coconut oil are a direct result of its
caloric supplements do not appear characteristic of aliments such as: ability to stimulate thyroid function.
to cause weight gain in AIDS IBS, ulcerative colitis, and In the presence of adequate thyroid
patients compared to a control diet. dysbiosis, to name a few. In hormone, cholesterol (specifically
In 1978, Kabara and others (61) particular, short chain fatty acids LDL-cholesterol) is converted by
reported that certain medium chain are antihistaminic and may find use enzymatic processes to the vitally
fatty acids, such as lauric acid have in the treatment of allergic-type necessary anti-aging steroids,
adverse effects on other pathogenic conditions, such as asthma, pregnenolone, progesterone and
microorganisms, including bacteria, urticaria and food sensitivities. DHEA. These substances are
yeast and fungi. These fatty acids Studies have also shown that short required to help prevent heart
and their derivatives actually chain saturated fatty acids can be disease, senility, obesity, cancer and
disrupt the lipid membranes of the used in the treatment of dental other diseases associated with ageing
organisms and thus inactivate them caries, peptic ulcers, BPH, genital and chronic degenerative diseases
(62). herpes, and hepatitis (64). (64).

July 2010 24 l
 REVIEW

Anti-Cancer Effects of Coconut effects of the oil has also been Section B. Sci. and Engg., 1971 32 (6)
Oil reported especially in cardiovascular 3424-3425 order no. 72-1709.
diseases due to the presence of less 7. Lucita R Lauretes, Felicito M
In 1987 Lim-Sylianco (64) Rodriguez, Consorcia E. Reano,
of unsaturated fatty acids in the
published a 50-year literature review Genardo A Santos, Antonio CLaurena,
triglycerides of the oil. It is Evelyn Mae Tecson Mendoza.
showing the anti-cancer effects of
hypothesized that due to lower Variability in fatty acid and
coconut oil. In chemically induced
amount of PUFA, there is a triacylglycerol composition of the oil of
cancers of the colon and breast, coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) hybrid and
possibility of atherogenecity
Cohen et al (65) showed that coconut their parental. J. Agric. Food Chem.,
development during long term usage
oil was by far more protective than (2002) 50 1581-1586.
of the oil. However, more research
unsaturated oils. For example 32% 8. Frank D Gunstone, John L Harwood,
is needed to clearly understand the Albert J Dikstra. The lipid handbook.
of corn oil eaters got colon cancer
many good effects of the oil. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
whereas only 3% of coconut oil
eaters got the cancer. Animals fed Acknowledgements 9. Babayan, V.K. Medium chain
triglycerides. In dietary fat requirements
unsaturated oils had more tumors. The authors thank Dr. V. Prakash, in health and development. (CJ Beare-
This shows the thyroid-suppressive Director, CFTRI, Mysore and the Rogers, ed) AOCS press, Champain,
and hence, immuno-suppressive Coconut Development Board, Kochi Illinois (USA) 1988 73-86.
effect of unsaturated oils. for enthusing us to write this review 10. J. A. Heydnger, D. K. Nakhasi, Medium
chain Triacylglycerols. J. of Food
Conclusions and Dr. B.R. Lokesh, Head, Dept. of Lipids, (3) 1996 251-257.
Lipid Science & Traditional Foods, 11. Ralph Hoahland,George G. Snider,
Coconut oil is consumed in
for critically going through the Digestability of certain higher saturated
tropical countries for thousands of
manuscript. fatty acids and triglycerides. J. Nutri.,
years. Studies done on native diets 1943 26(3) 219-225.
high in coconut oil consumption References
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show that this population is generally 1. Thampan, P.K., Glimpses of coconut Belur R. Lokesh, Changes in
in good health. Coconut oil has a industry in India, Coconut triglyceride molecular species and
Development Board, Cochin 1988. thermal properties of blended and
long shelf life and is used in baking
2. http://www.seaofindia.com/. Import interesterified mixtures of coconut oil
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chain fatty acids in the form of Specification, Grading for copra for Nasimah, I. Amin, Chemical properties
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The oil has small amounts of 4. Specification for coconut oil. Ceylon,
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tocopherols and tocotrienols and Bureau of Ceylon Standards. 1968. medium chain triglyceride lipid
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5. Codex Alimentarius (FAO/WHO),
have antiviral and antibacterial Codex Standards for Named Vegetable 16. Marie-Pierre St-Onge, Robert Ross,
effects and excellent healing Oils, Codex Stan 210-1999. Codex William D. Parsons, Peter J.H. Johns,
Alimentarius, V.8-2001. Rome, Italy, p Medium chain triglycerides increase
properties. It gets easily absorbed in
11-25. energy expenditure and decrease
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18. Dendy DAY, Grimwood BE, Coconut C., Studies on solvent extraction of atomizer. J. Dispersion Sci. and
Processing for the production of residual oil from wet coconut meal Technol., 1986 7 (5) 513-523.
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and feed products. Oleagineux, 1973 28 102 (1/2) 31-43. Kuznetsova N.M., Viscosity of the fat
(2)93-98. 30. Bernardini E., Direct extraction of oil components of margarine emulsions.
19. Baltasar S.F., Coconut oil extraction from oilseeds without pressing. Riv. Maslozhirovaya Promyshlennost, 1984,
employing the dry processing Itali. de. Sost. Gras., 1970 47 (8) 385- No. 11, 19-20.
technology. Phillip. J. Coconut Studies, 391 41. Bellenand J.F., Baloutch G., Ong N.;
1977 2 (4) 40-42. 31. Aliwalas A.R., Buccat C.P., Filtration- Lecerf J., Effects of coconut oil on heart
20. Loncin M., Palm oil. Fette Seif. extraction of granulated coconut on a lipids and on fatty acid utilization in
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1978, Philippines-Patent 11661/C. phenolic content in coconut oil dry methods of extracting oil from
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K. F., Identification of the critical unit Fatty Acid Composition, Oxidative groundnut oil or olive oil exhibit greater
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with balanced amounts of fatty acids 55. S. Ghosh, D.K. Bhattacharyya, Medium 61. Isaacs C.E., Thomas H., The role of
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Crazy for coconut oil

For hundreds of years coconut oil has been a staple in the diets of those who live in tropical regions as an important
Theof
source administrator revealed that
nutrients. Coconuts and the PCA-Davao
extra Reseach
virgin coconut oil Center
are pureconducted a Field
foods that Release
can play Evaluationrole
an important where
in aa total
well
of 1,948 parasitoid adults were released in infested barangays in Region XI and parallel laboratory tests.
balanced diet.
"The parasitoids collected in the field inflicted about 30-50 percent parasitism on the pest&apos;s larva or pupa"
Research has shown that unrefined coconut oil can be very beneficial. Some of its benefits include: nutrient absorption,
Garin noted adding that laboratory results showed that around 7 to 47 adult parasitoids emerged from one larva/pupa 18
boosting energy, promoting weight loss, preventing cardiovascular disease, blood glucose levels, hypoglycemia,
to 26 days from injection for parasitization.
strengthening of bones, promoting healthy skin and hair, proper digestion and metabolism, skin conditions and moisturizing
the "With
skin. the earwigs, we now have three indigenous species for biological control of this foreign pest" the administrator
enthused as he underscored the need to adopt a long-term integrated pest management system.
Coconut oil is nature's richest source of medium chain triglycerides. It has antiviral, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal
The administrator further stressed that use of chemical insecticides through trunk injection or spraying should only be
properties. Recently, the western world has discovered coconut oil for its ability in promoting weight loss and preventing
in severe cases and at first treatment, with the long term and sustainable approach to be comprised of biological control,
premature aging. Coconut
use of entomophatogen oil contains
fungi, short practices
good farming and medium-chain fatty acids controls.
and strict quarantine that are advantageous in losing weight and
because it is easy to digest it supports the healthy function of the thyroid and enzymes systems. Its antioxidant properties
"Our research centers are now mass rearing these parasitoids for immediate use in areas that may suffer recurrence of
have been shown to slow the aging process. It is safe for cooking at high temperatures. And it is delicious!!
Brontispa infestation" he concluded.
(http://www.innisfilscope.com)
http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pr040109.php

l 27 Indian Coconut Journal