Open-hole wire-line Logging

and
Interpretations
 Course Content

1- Introduction
2- The objectives of Open hole wire-line logging

3- The genesis of Reservoir Rocks

3.1 Sedimentary Rocks

3.2 Reservoir Definition
4- Wireline logging techniques
5- Depth measurements and Borehole calipers
6- Natural radiation and GR logs
7- Porosity measuring tools :
7.1 Density
7.2 Neutron
7.3 Sonic
7.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
8- Porosity cross-plots and mineralogy identification
9- Invasion profile
10- Resistivity measuring tools:
10.1 Focused electrode and the Spontaneous Potential (SP) measurement
10.2 Induction
10.3 Dipmeter
11- Formation resistivity factor
12- Porosity-resistivity cross-plots
13- Fluid Saturation
14- Formation pressure measurements
15- Witness of logging operation and Quality control

1
 1- Introduction
Gambling and Energy

On table
How much money To find & produce HC

To have Pillions or more

A few millions

It is so simple through 3 steps:

I- Exploration Finding areas with HC

II- Evaluation Economic or not

Drilling development wells, building facilities,
III- Production and maintaining production

I-Exploration

Concession agreement

Data package of the concession + Seismic

Maps Areas

Drilling Logging DST

Lithology, , Sw,Contacts, HC typing,
HC shows Pay Thickness, Productivity
Dip(amount/direction),
Fm pressure

II-Evaluation

Hydrocarbon in place = (C) (A) (H) (1-SW)

C = constant to convert gas to BCF and oil to Barrels

A = area (acres) Maps
H = pay thickness (ft) Drilled interval
 = porosity (fraction)
(1-Sw) = HC saturation (fraction)
Porosity () & HC Saturation (1-Sw)
Directly Cores measurements

Indirectly Logging measurements

III- Production

Drilling development wells Production facilities

- Producers - Pipe lines
- Injectors - Process area
- Storage tanks
- Others

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 2-The objectives of wire-line logging
 To obtain a permanent, continuous record of the properties of rocks penetrated by the
well bore.
Wire line logs are then combined with drilling data, mud logs, measurements while
drilling and core information in order to choose correct testing and completion intervals
and to properly evaluate the production potential of the well.
Well logs are then used for many years by exploration and production staff both in the
development of reservoirs and in prospecting for new drilling locations.

In a vertical well, the logging objectives of an open hole are generally:

Determining lithology and porosity.
Determining saturation.
Determining the oil-water and gas-oil contact.
Determining pay zone intervals.
Identifying barriers in the reservoir.
Determining pressure and permeability profiles.

3- The genesis of Reservoir Rocks

3.1 Sedimentary rocks
The building materials of the most Hydrocarbon Reservoirs come from sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rocks are made from sediment.
Sediment is loose particulate material (clay, sand, gravel, etc.)
Sediment becomes sedimentary rock through lithification, which involves:
Compaction, Cementation, Re-crystallization (of carbonate sediment)

Types of sedimentary rocks

A- Terrigenous (also called Detrital or Clastic)
B- Chemical/Biochemical (also called Non-clastic)
C- Organic Sedimentary Rocks (Coals)
A- Terrigenous Sedimentary rocks

derived from the weathering of pre-existing rocks.

They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture consisting of:
1- Clasts or Grains (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel)
2- Matrix (mud or fine-grained sediment surrounding the clasts)
3- Cement (the glue that holds it all together), such as:
a. calcite - fizzes in HCl acid
b. iron oxide - reddish brown color
c. silica - neither fizzes nor is reddish brown

3
Terrigenous sedimentary rocks are classified according to their texture (grain size):
1-Gravel: Grain size greater than 2 mm
-If rounded clasts = conglomerate
-If angular clasts = breccia

2-Sand: Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm

Sandstone is most commonly made of quartz and feldspar, but it may contain grains of nearly
any mineral composition, and also grains of fine-grained rock types (such as basalt).
-If dominated by quartz grains = quartz sandstone (also called quartz arenite)
-If dominated by feldspar grains = arkose
-If dominated by rock fragment grains = lithic sandstone (also called litharenite)

3-Silt: Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty) Siltstone

4-Clay: Grain size less than 1/256 mm (smooth)
-Shale (if fissile)
-Claystone (if massive)

B- Chemical/biochemical Sedimentary rocks

This group includes the evaporites, the carbonates (limestones and dolostone), and the siliceous
rocks.
These rocks form within the depositional basin from chemical components dissolved in the
seawater. These chemicals may be removed from seawater and made into rocks by
chemical processes, or with the assistance of biological processes (such as shell
growth).
1. Evaporites - The evaporites form from the evaporation of water (usually seawater).
Rock salt - composed of halite (NaCl).
Rock gypsum - composed of gypsum (CaSO4.2H20), anhydrite (CaSO4)
2. Carbonates - The carbonate sedimentary rocks are formed through both chemical and
biochemical processes. They include the limestones and dolostones.
Two minerals are dominant in carbonate rocks:
-Calcite (CaCO3) -Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
3. Siliceous rocks - The siliceous rocks are those which are dominated by silica (SiO2).
They commonly form from silica-secreting organisms such as diatoms, radiolarians, or
some types of sponges.
-Diatomite - looks like chalk, but does not fizz in acid. Made of microscopic planktonic
organisms called diatoms.
-Chert - Massive and hard, microcrystalline quartz. May be dark or light in color. Often
replaces limestone. Does not fizz in acid.
C- Organic Sedimentary Rocks (Coals)

This group consists of rocks composed of organic matter (mainly plant fragments).
Because of this, they lack minerals (which must be inorganic, be definition). These
are the coals. There are several types of coal

4
 Carbonate rocks can be classified according to the texture and grain size of the rock, known as
Dunham's classification.

3. 2 Reservoir Definition
A reservoir rock is one has both

1- Storage capacity 2- The ability to allow fluids to flow through it

Porosity () Permeability (K)

-Inter-granular (S.st) -Absolute permeability

-Effective permeability
-Solution type (L.st)
-Relative permeability
-Fractures

5
 Porosity ()

- Is defined as the ratio of the void space in a rock to the bulk volume of that rock multiplied
by 100 to express in percent. It is also referred to as the storage capacity of underground
formations.
- Porosity can be classified according to the mode of origin as :
1- Original (primary) – developed during deposition of the sediment
2- Induced (secondary) – developed by some geologic process subsequent to
the deposition of the rock.
- Original porosity is typified by the intergranular porosity of sandstones,
carbonates, and the interparticle and oolitic porosity of some limestones.
- Induced porosity is typified by fracture development as found in some
limestones or by vugs or solution cavities commonly found in limestones or
by dissolution of feldspar in a sandstone.
-Rocks having original porosity are more uniform in their characteristics than
those rocks in which a large part of the porosity is induced

Porosity depends on grain packing, not grain size

Rocks with different grain sizes can have the same percentage
porosity but different permeability.

• Cubic packing
• Pore space = 48 % of total volume

• Rhombohedral packing
• Pore space = 26 % of total volume

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 Porosity can be further defined as total or effective.

Total Pore Space

• Total porosity, t =
Bulk Volume

is the ratio of the total pore (void) space in the rock to the bulk volume of the rock

Interconne cted Pore Space

• Effective porosity, e =
Bulk Volume

is the ratio of the interconnected pore (void) space in the rock to the bulk volume

of the rock, each expressed in percent

Carbonate Porosity
• Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is classified into:
• Primary porosity:
Inter-particle
Intra-granular
Inter-crystalline
Mouldic

• Secondary porosity:
Fracture (Fissure)
Channel
Vuggy

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 Carbonate Primary porosity

Interparticle porosity:

Each grain is separated, giving a similar pore space

arrangement as sandstone.

Intragranular porosity:

Pore space is created inside the individual grains which are

interconnected.

Intercrystalline porosity: Produced by spaces between

carbonate crystals.

Mouldic porosity: Pores created by the dissolution of shells,

etc.

Carbonate Secondary porosity

• Fracture (Fissure) porosity:

– Pore spacing created by the cracking of the rock fabric.

• Channel porosity:
– Similar to fracture porosity but larger.

• Vuggy porosity:
– Created by the dissolution of fragments, but
unconnected.

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 Fractures (Fissures)
• Fractures are caused when a rigid rock is strained beyond its elastic limit - it cracks.
• The forces causing it to break are in a constant direction, hence all the fractures are also aligned.
• Fractures are an important source of permeability in low porosity carbonate reservoirs.

Vugs

• Vugs are defined as non-connected pore space.

• They do not contribute to the producible fluid total.
• Vugs are caused by the dissolution of soluble material such as shell fragments after the rock
has been formed.
• They usually have irregular shapes.

9
10
Permeability (K)

Permeability is not measured; it is calculated. The steady-state equation for calculating

permeability (using an integrated form of Darcy’s law) is

Core plug

Formations that transmit fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as permeable
and tend to have many large, well-connected pores. Impermeable formations, such as
shales and siltstones, tend to have smaller, fewer, or no interconnected pores.

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Absolute permeability is the measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid, or
phase, is present in the rock.
Effective permeability is the ability to flow or transmit a particular fluid through a rock when other
immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (for example, effective permeability of gas in a gas-
water reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids as well as the nature of the reservoir affect the
effective permeability.

Relative permeability

(Geology) is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to

absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its relative
permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows for comparison of the different
abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each other, since the presence of more than one fluid
generally inhibits flow.

(Well Completions) A measurement of the ability of two or more fluid phases to pass through a
formation matrix. The relative permeability reflects the capability of a specific formation to produce
a combination of oil, water or gas more accurately than the absolute permeability of a formation
sample, which is measured with a single-phase fluid, usually water.

In formations with large grains, the permeability is high and the flow rate larger.

In a rock with small grains the permeability is less and the flow lower.

Grain size has no bearing on porosity, but has a large effect on permeability.

Reservoir Characterization

has become a vitally important consideration for every aspect of exploration, development and
production of petroleum resources.

Some of the parameters that characterize a reservoir are:

1. Porosity ()

2. Fluid Saturations (Sw)

3. Permeability (K)

4. Reservoir geometry (shape, size, orientation and thickness)

5. Temperature and Pressure

6. Facies and Deposition Environment

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 4- Wireline logging techniques

Commonly are classified by the kind of energy that is input or received including electric, seismic
or acoustic, nuclear, magnetic, gravity, or optical.
Logging tools are also classified according to whether they are for use in open holes or cased
holes. Data from several methods are often combined to evaluate a single geologic or engineering
characteristic.

Wire line (Electric) Logging

Open hole Cased hole

Maintain Fm evaluation Cement evaluation

Maintain Production

MWD/LWD logging

Runs in open holes combinable with the drill string

4.1 Logging system

Logging truck Recording digital data Hard copies & films

cable

Depth measure

cable Survey (run)

may use several different logging
tools recording several different
logs (super-compo)
Logs
Present several different curves
Tools

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4.2 Logging units

Any logging unit has the following components:

-Logging cable
-Winch to raise and lower the cable in the well
-Self-contained 120 volt AC generator
-Set of surface control panels
-Set of down hole tools
-Recording mechanism

4-3 Tool resolution

Each logging tool has two resolution

Vertical Horizontal
Sampling or average reading per depth Depth of investigation

Undisturbed
Intermediate
(0 – 40 in) 15 in
vertical
Flushed
(0 – 6 in) 3 in

Mud cake
(0 – 1in) ¼ in

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 5- Depth measurements and Borehole calipers

Wire-line Depth Control

Depth is one of the most fundamental parameters determined when logging well bores.
The electromechanical cable used in oilfield wire-line service operations must perform four basic
functions:
1. Strength Member: The cable must have sufficient strength to carry an instrument package to
any depth. In most cases the weight of a cable itself is the greatest part of the load.
2. Electrical Power:The conductors in the cable must be adequate to supply electrical power from
the truck to the instrumentation at the bottom of the cable.
3. Electrical Communication:The electrical conductors must be suitable to transmit the electrical
information generated by the down hole instruments to the computer or recorder in the truck.
4. Depth Measurements: The only method of measuring the depth, at which the down hole
instruments are located, is to measure the length of cable that has been put into the bore hole.
Without accurate depth information the instrument data is of little value.

An inelastic or permanent stretch will always

occur with new cable when it is first put into
service. This permanent elongation of the cable
length generally occurs during the first 30
logging runs (or less) for a well-designed cable.

Permanent stretch is approximately 1 ft (0.3 m)

per 1,000 ft (300 m) of cable. After "seasoning,"
the cable will perform as an elastic member
without further creep.

Wire-line Length Calibration

The wireline is accurately
measured in set lengths at a Cable Construction
defined horizontal tension. Each
length is 'marked' on the cable
by locally magnetizing the steel
armor wires.
The lengths used are typically
25 m or 100 ft intervals, and the
tension used for OH logging
cables is typically 1000
Seven Conductor
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Borehole calipers

The Caliper Log is a continuous profile of

the borehole wall showing variations in

borehole diameter.

Caliper logs are required to assist in the

quantitative interpretation of many other

logs that are sensitive to borehole diameter

and wall roughness (rugosity).

Compensated logs such as density and

neutron are corrected for these factors.

The caliper shows where deviations occur

from the nominal drill bit diameter. The

deflections are towards smaller radius

where mud cake has accumulated in

porous formations and the oversize

excursions where caving has taken place.

Shales and coals are lithologies that tend to cave.The absence of mud cake adjacent
to a porous bed may indicate a tight sand or possible overpressure

Caliper Logs can be recorded using 2-, 4-, or 6-arm instruments. These
measurements and their average accurately define the hole shape and size, especially
in deviated and elliptically shaped holes.

Benefits

Borehole geometry for cement volume calculations.

Three calibers may logged in one logging job:

1- MSFL

2- Density

3- Dipmeter

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 6- Natural radiation and GR logs

Gamma Ray Tools

(Well Surveys, Inc., developed the first gamma ray logging device in 1935.)

The natural gamma ray response curve is useful for several practical applications of log
data :
1- Determine possible reservoir rock by quickly eliminating the depth intervals occupied by
shale in either open or cased hole.
2- Determine the amount of shale in potential reservoir rock in either open or cased hole.
3- Correlate depth on gamma ray logs in other wells to determine reservoir structural
position in either open or cased hole.
4- Identify radioactive deposits such as potash and uranium ore, bentonite marker beds,
coal seams, and potential organic source beds.
5- Monitor movement of injected radioactive material.

The highest radioactivity usually (but not always) occurs in shales and clays because of
their concentration of potassium, thorium, and/or uranium. Quartz crystals generally
exhibit strongly bonded planes in all directions, crystallizing in pure form and prohibiting
impurities from invading the crystal lattice. Micas and feldspars form a large part of the
Earth's potassium and decompose rapidly to clay minerals. Clays are weakly bonded,
very small in grain size, and have an open lattice that encourages inclusions of the
radioactive elements during and after deposition.
Equipment

The GR sonde contains a detector to measure the gamma radiation originating in the

volume of formation near the sonde. Scintillation counters are now generally used for this

measurement. They are much more efficient than the Geiger-Mueller counters used in the

past. Because of its higher efficiency, a scintillation counter need only be a few inches in

length; therefore, good formation detail is obtained.

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Calibration
The primary calibration standard for GR tools is the API test facility in Houston. A field
calibration standard is used to normalize each tool to the API standard and the logs are
calibrated in API units. The radioactivity in sedimentary formations generally range from a
few API units in anhydrite or salt to 200 or more in shales.

Measurements
GR tools measurements have a vertical resolution of about 1 ft (30 cm), but true vertical
resolution depends on logging speed.
GR instrumentation is very adaptable and can be run in combination with a large variety of
other logging tools.
A major advantage of the gamma ray device is that it can be run in cased holes. Although
the presence of steel casing will reduce gamma ray count rates by about 30%.

The calculation of clay or shale volume in shaly formation:

GR log – GR clean
Vsh =
GR shale – GR clean

Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Tools

Spectral analysis can identify the percentages of potassium and parts per million of
thorium and uranium. Any of the three traces can serve as distinct correlative elements
in certain circumstances. For example, high uranium values identify organic-rich shales
that represent source beds. High potassium content is found in glauconitic sands,
micaceous sands, concentrations of illite clays, algal limestones, etc. Thorium-rich marker
beds such as bentonite can easily be identified with spectral gamma ray data

Measurement Principle
The NGS tool uses a sodium
iodide scintillation detector
contained in a pressure housing
which, during logging, is held
against the borehole wall by a
bow spring.

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Log Presentation
The NGS log provides a recording of the amounts
(concentrations) of potassium, thorium, and
uranium in the formation. The thorium and
uranium concentrations are presented in parts per
million (ppm) and the potassium concentration in
percent (%).
In addition to the concentrations of the three
individual radioactive elements, a total (standard)
GR curve is recorded and presented in Track 1.
The total response is determined by a linear
combination of the potassium, thorium, and
uranium concentrations. This standard curve is
expressed in API units. If desired, a “uranium free”
measurement (CGR) can also be provided. It is
simply the summation of gamma rays from
thorium and potassium only.

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 7- Porosity Measuring Tools

Nuclear Electronic
(Uses radioactive source) (Without radioactive source)

Density Neutron

Acoustic Magnetic
(sound waves) (magnet)

Sonic NMR

7-1 DENSITY

Density logs are primarily used as porosity logs. Other uses include identification of
minerals in evaporite deposits, detection of gas, determination of hydrocarbon density,
evaluation of shaly sands and complex lithologies, calculation of overburden pressure
and rock mechanical properties.

Principle

A radioactive source, applied to the borehole wall in a shielded sidewall skid,

emits medium-energy gamma rays into the formations. These gamma rays collide
with the electrons in the formation. At each collision a gamma ray loses some of
its energy to the electrons and continuous diminished energy. This type of
interaction is known as Compton scattering. The scattered gamma rays
reaching the detector, at a fixed distance from the source, are counted as an
indication of formation density.

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Density measurements correction

To minimize the influence of the mud column, the

skid mounted source and detectors are shielded.
The openings of the shields are applied against
the wall of the borehole by an eccentering arm.
The force exerted by the arm, and the plow-
shaped design of the skid, allow it to cut through
soft mud cakes. Any mud cake or mud remaining
between the tool and the formation is “seen” as
part of the formation and must be accounted for.
A correction is needed when the contact
between the skid and the formations is not
perfect (mudcake or irregularities in the borehole
wall).

Corrections are applied to the bulk density in real time during the logging operation. The
corrected RHOb curve and DRHO (the correction made) are recorded directly on the log.
The distance between the face of the skid and the extremity of the eccentering arm is
recorded as a caliper log, which helps to assess the quality of contact between the skid and
the formation.

Bulk Density Calibration

The primary calibration standard for the instruments is a test pit consisting of
laboratory freshwater-filled limestone formations of high purity and known
densities. The secondary (shop calibration) standards are large aluminum and
sulfur blocks into which the sonde is inserted. These blocks are of carefully
designed geometry and composition, and their characteristics have been related to
the limestone formations. With the blocks, two different thickness of artificial
mudcakes are used to check the automatic mudcake correction. Finally, at the
wellsite, a radioactive test jig is used to produce a signal of known intensity to
verify the detection system.
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Photoelectric Absorption (Pe)

The Litho-Density is an improved and expanded version of the FDC log. In addition to the bulk
density measurement, the tool also measures the photoelectric absorption index of the formation,
Pe. Photoelectric absorption can be related to lithology.
It is a very lithology-sensitive parameter, and it can be used to establish whether a formation is
sand, limestone, dolomite, or a mixture.

Porosity From Density Log

Pma = matrix density

Pb = bulk density log reading
Pf = filtrate density

The bulk density range that is expected in the sedimentary rocks is normally from 2 to
3 g/cm3 from minimum to maximum

Common values of matrix density and photoelectric in rocks

Rock Matrix Density Pe

Sandstone 2.65 1.8 - 2.5
Siltstone 2.65 2.5 - 3.5
Shale 2.20 – 2.60 3.5 - 4.5
Limestone 2.71 >5
Dolomite 2.85 3.5 - 5
Anhydrite 2.96 >5

Common values of filtrate densities

Filtrate (Fluids) Density (g/cc)

Fresh water 1
Salt water (120,000) 1.1
Oil (med. Gravity) 0.8
Gas (160F,5000psia) 0.2

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7-2 NEUTRON

Neutron logs are used principally for delineation of porous

formations and determination of their porosity.They respond
primarily to the amount of hydrogen in the formation. Thus, in
clean formations whose pores are filed with water or oil, the
neutron log reflects the amount of liquid-filled porosity.
The major limitations is: Gas in the formation and/or borehole
Gas zones can often be identified by comparing the neutron log
with another porosity log or a core analysis.
The current tools use americium-beryllium (AmBe) sources to
provide neutrons with initial energies of several million electron
volts.
Three types of neutron logging instrumentation are used in the
wireline industry:
1- Neutron-Gamma (GNT - no longer in use)
2- Sidewall Neutron Porosity tool (SNP - in limited use- runs in
open hole only)
3- Compensated Neutron Tools:
-Thermal neutron ( CNL )
DNL Tool
-Thermal -Epithermal neutron (DNL)

Principle
Electrically, Neutrons are neutral particles, each
having a mass identical to the mass of a hydrogen
atom. The source emits high-energy neutrons into
the formation where they collide with other nuclei,
and with each collision, the neutron loses energy.
The amount of loss is a function of the nuclear mass
with which it collides and the type of interaction. The
greatest energy loss occurs when the neutron
directly strikes a nucleus of similar mass (such as
hydrogen).

This collision effect has been described as the

billiard effect. Count rates at the detector(s)
increase when hydrogen concentration is low and
decrease when the concentration is high.This
count rate can be related to fluid-filled porosity.
Compensated devices use a short- and long-
spaced detector, and the ratio of their count rates
can be processed to produce a linear-scaled
porosity index.
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Neutron Calibration
A neutron logging tool in the different limestone blocks is expected to be adjusted to
certain values of API units. The University of Houston maintains the test facility, and
service companies are expected to build their individual neutron calibration systems to
emulate the established values in this pit. Water-filled limestone blocks were selected for
the following reasons :
1- Water was available, contains hydrogen, and would not be expected to exhibit the
effects of gas or some lightweight crudes and condensates.
2- Limestone is readily available in a relatively pure form of CaCO3, whereas lithology
and porosity control of other rock types are not.
3- Known high-porosity limestones and tight low-porosity limestones were available
from quarries to provide some porosity variation between 100% (large tank full of
water) and essentially terminal pore space (1.9%).

Calibrating facilities within the service company are often more complex, including
sandstone, dolomite, and other rock types in addition to limestone.

The hydrogen index : is the hydrogen content of any material referenced to fresh water

Determining Porosity From Neutron Logs

Subject to various assumptions and corrections, values of apparent porosity can be derived from

any neutron log. However, certain effects, such as lithology, clay content, and amount and type of

hydrocarbon, can be recognized and corrected for only if additional porosity information (from

sonic and/or density logs) is available. Any interpretation of a neutron log alone should be

undertaken with a realization of the uncertainties involved. The combined correction for all factors,

usually small, yields a value of corrected neutron porosity index. Chart Por-14c provides the

corrections to the CNL and DNL thermal neutron measurements for borehole size, mudcake

thickness, borehole and formation-water salinities, mud weight, standoff, pressure, and

temperature.

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Example:
Uncorrected neutron porosity = 34 p.u.
12-in. borehole
1⁄4-in. thick mudcake
100-kppm borehole salinity
11-lbm/gal mud weight (natural mud)
150°F borehole temperature
5-kpsi pressure (water-base mud)
100-kppm formation salinity
1⁄2-in. standoff

For the conditions listed above, the corrections

are
D
Borehole size –2 3⁄4 p.u.
Mudcake thickness 0.0
Borehole salinity +1
Mud weight +1 1⁄2
Borehole temperature +4
Pressure –1
Formation salinity –3
Standoff (Por-14d) –2

Net correction –2 1⁄4

Corr porosity= 34 – 2 1⁄4 = 31 3⁄4 p.u.
(apparent limestone units)

Quality Indicators
When Neutron and Density are run in combination, they are usually plotted on compatible
scales to show little or no separation in clean water-filled formations of the expected type
lithology. Gas or light hydrocarbons will cause negative separation (i.e.  N < Pb). The
presence of shale gives positive separation ( N > Pb). When logging on a limestone
matrix the curves should overlay in clean water-bearing limestone. In a clean water
bearing sandstone,  N should be 6 to 8 p.u. lower than Pb, depending on porosity.
Dolomite and dolomitized limestone should show positive separation ( N> Pb), depending
on the porosity and degree of dolomitization.
Visual comparison of the  N and Pb curve separation with PE curve values in known
lithologies provides a quick-look method to determine the accuracy of the logs.

25
Scale : 1 : 200 HYT-45
DB : INTER_ACTIVE (6)
Density/Neutron log example
DEPTH (5898.FT - 6010.FT) 5/11/2006 11:38

GR (API) DEPTH RHOB (G/CC)

0. 150. FT 1.95 2.95
CALI (in) NPHI (PU)
6. 16. 0.45 -0.15
BS (in) PE (B/E)
6. 16. 0. 20.
SP (mv) DRHO (G/CC)
-80. 20. -0.75 0.25

5900

5950

6000

Electronic Neutron Tool

Accelerator Porosity Sonde (APS)

The APS uses an electronic neutron source
instead of a chemical source. Because the
neutron source has a large yield, it allows the
use of epithermal neutron detection and
borehole shielding to obtain porosity
measurements that are affected only
minimally by the borehole environment and
formation characteristics, such as lithology
and salinity. Five detectors provide
information for porosity evaluation, gas
detection, shale evaluation, vertical-
resolution improvement and borehole
corrections.
26
7-3 Acoustic Tools

Acoustic or Sonic Logs

In its simplest form, a sonic tool consists of a transmitter that emits a sound-pulse and a receiver
that picks up and records the pulse as it passes the receiver. The sonic log is simply a recording
versus depth of the time, Dt, required for a sound wave to traverse 1 ft of formation.Known as
the interval transit time, transit time, Dt or slowness.
The interval transit time for a given formation depends upon its lithology and porosity. This
dependence upon porosity, when the lithology is known, makes the sonic log very useful as a
porosity log.
Integrated sonic transit times are also helpful in interpreting seismic records. The sonic log can
be run simultaneously with many other services.
The Dt measurement is the reciprocal of the velocity of an acoustic sound wave, and it is often
integrated from total depth to the surface (or shallowest depth possible) for time comparison to
surface seismic records.
Velocity (v) is normally measured in feet per second (meters per second), while Dt is measured
as microseconds per foot (microseconds per meter). Therefore,
Dt = 1,000,000 / v

27
Principle
The propagation of sound in a borehole is a complex phenomenon. It
is governed by the mechanical properties of several separate
acoustical domains. These include the formation, the borehole fluid
column, and the logging tool itself.
The sound emanated from the transmitter impinges on the borehole
wal1. This establishes compressional and shear waves within the
formation, surface waves along the borehole wall, and guided waves
within the fluid column.
In the case of well logging, the borehole wall, formation bedding,
borehole rugosity, and fractures can all represent significant acoustic
discontinuities. Therefore, the phenomena of wave refraction,
reflection, and conversion lead to the presence of many acoustic
waves in the borehole when a sonic log is being run.

Log Presentation
Acoustic velocities vary from about 6,250 to about 25,000 ft/sec (corresponding Dt values are 160
to 40 µsec/ft); a ratio of 4 from minimum to maximum that is expected in the sedimentary rocks
normally encountered in subsurface oil and gas exploration.
Comparable bulk density range is normally from 2 to 3 g/cm3 from minimum to maximum.
The interval transit time is usually recorded on a linear scale.The integrated travel time is given by
a series of pips, usually recorded at the edge of Track. Each small pip indicates an increase of 1
ms of the total travel time; a large pip is recorded every 10 ms. The travel time between two
depths is obtained by simply counting the pips. The integrated travel time is useful for seismic
purposes.
Fm Vma (ft/sec) DT ma DT ma
(msec/ft) (used)
Sonic Velocities In Formations Sandstone 17,000-or less 58.8 – 56.0 57
In sedimentary formations the speed of sound Sandstone 18,000-19,500 55.5 – 51.0 55

depends on many parameters; principally, it Limestone 21,000-23,000 47.6 – 43.5 47

depends on the rock matrix material (sandstone, Dolomite 23,000 43.5 43

limestone, dolomite . ..) and on the distributed Anhydrite 20,000 50.0 50

porosity. Ranges of values of sonic velocity and Salt 15,000 66.7 67

transit time for common rock matrix materials Casing (Iron) 17,000 57.0 57

and casing are listed in the table.

The values listed are for nonporous substances.

28
Porosity Determination from Sonic log (Wyllie Time-Average Equation)

After numerous laboratory determinations, M.R.J. Wyllie proposed, for clean and consolidated
formations with uniformly distributed small pores, a linear time average or weighted-average
relationship between porosity and transit time:
Dt log = Dtf + (1 – )
Dtma
Where:  = (Dt log - Dtma ) / (Dtf - Dtma )
 = porosity
Dt log = acoustic transit time log reading(µsec/ft)
Dtma = acoustic transit time of the rock matrix
(µsec/ft) Fm DT ma DT ma
Dtf = acoustic transit time of interstitial fluids (msec/ft) (used)
(µsec/ft) Sandstone 58.8 – 56.0 57
Fluid Dtf(µsec/ft Sandstone 55.5 – 51.0 55
Water with 20% NaCl 189 Limestone 47.6 – 43.5 47
Water with 15% NaCl 200 Dolomite 43.5 43
Water with 10% NaCl 208 Anhydrite 50.0 50
Water (pure) 218 Salt 66.7 67
Oil 238 Casing (Iron) 57.0 57

Disturbing Factors with Conventional Acoustic Devices

Acoustic tools and measurements have several drawbacks. Noise, cycle skips, Dt stretch, velocity
inversion, gas effect, and dip angle with respect to the borehole are potential problems that deter
effective acoustic transit time measurements.
Cycle Skips
Sometimes the first arrival, although strong enough to trigger the receiver nearer the transmitter, may
be too weak by the time it reaches the far receiver to trigger it.
Instead, the far receiver may be triggered by a different, later arrival in the sonic wave train, and the
travel time measured on this pulse cycle will then be too large. When this occurs, the sonic curve
shows a very abrupt and large excursion towards a higher dt value; this is known as cycle skipping.
Such skipping is more likely to occur when the signal is strongly attenuated by unconsolidated
formations, formation fractures, gas saturation, aerated muds, or rugose or enlarged borehole
sections.

29
Uses of Acoustic Log Data (Sonic)

Conventional Sonic log data are useful in a number of interpretations :

1. Determine the primary porosity of reservoir rock
2. Improve correlation and interpretation of seismic records
3. Identify zones with abnormally high pressures
4. Resolve difficult correlation problems
5. Assist in identifying lithology
6. Estimate secondary pore space
Advanced Sonic
7. Delineate regional tectonics from acoustic profiles
8. Indicate mechanical integrity of reservoir rocks and formations that surround them
(in conjunction with density data)
9. Estimate rock permeability

7.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

The molecular structure (spin dynamics) of protons can be altered and quantified through
exposure to an external magnetic field and irradiation with radio frequency (RF) photons. The
time (T1, T2) required for protons to readjust to equilibrium following magnetic and RF
alteration is a function of the type of fluids present, the volume of fluids present, and the surface
to volume ratio of the pores (pore geometry). Additionally, in the presence of a magnetic
gradient, protons diffuse to a different frequency resulting in faster decay, a property shown to be
inversely proportional to viscosity.
Value of Magnetic Resonance
• Lithology Independent Porosity
– Does Not See Matrix
– Not affected by Neutron Absorbers
– Do Not need m, f
• NMR Sees Fluids (Hydrocarbon
Identification)
– Hydrogen Index
– Polarization and Echo Spacing
– Diffusion Coefficient of Fluids
• NMR Measures Pore Size Distribution
– Irreducible Water Saturation
– Permeability
– Bound / Free Fluid Porosity

30
 8- Porosity cross-plots and mineralogy identification

The measurements of the neutron, density, and sonic logs depend not only on porosity but

also on the formation lithology, on the fluid in the pores, and, in some instances, on the

geometry of the pore structure.

Accurate porosity determination is more difficult when the matrix lithology is unknown or

consists of two or more minerals in unknown proportions. Determination is further

complicated when the response of the pore fluids in the portion of the formation

investigated by the tool differs appreciably from that of water. In particular, light

hydrocarbons (gas) can significantly influence the response of all three porosity logs. Even

the nature or type of pore structure affects the tool response.

The neutron and density logs respond to total porosity-that is, the sum of the primary

(intergranular or intercrystaJline) porosity and the secondary (vugs, fissures, fractures)

porosity. The sonic logs respond only to primary porosity.

To determine porosity when any of these complicating situations exists requires more data than

provided by a single porosity log. Fortunately, neutron, density, and sonic logs respond

differently to matrix minerals, to the presence of gas or light oils, and to the geometry of pore

structure.

Combinations of these logs and the photoelectric cross section index, (Pe) measurement from

the Litho-Density log and the thorium, uranium, and potassium measurement from the (NGS)

natural gamma ray spectrometry log can be used to unravel complex matrix or fluid mixtures

and thereby provide a more accurate porosity determination.

When the matrix lithology is a binary mixture (e.g., sandstone-lime or lime-dolomite or

sandstone-dolomite) the point plotted from the log readings will fall between the corresponding

lithology lines

31
32
33
 9- Invasion profile

The formation of mud filter cake on the borehole wall is very desirable because the mud cake
effectively prohibits filtrate particle invasion. Particles that manage to invade the formation with
filtrate (Fig.) enter pore-throat constrictions and begin to trap and bind other particles until the
pore tunnel is bridged (Fig.). If water-sensitive authigenic clays occupy the pore system, invasion
of freshwater mud filtrate causes swelling and movement of the clay, which blocks pores and
seriously impairs effective permeability (Fig.).
Invasion has an effect on all wireline logs.
This is especially true for shallow reading tools such as density, neutron, sonic, and micro-log
resistivity tools, which measure in the zone where mud-filtrate and original pore fluids coexist.

Borehole and mud filtrate effects

Logs run in holes drilled with an engineered mud system will yield better results than logs run
in holes drilled with a simple mud system in which low cost is the primary objective. Wells in
which the objectives of an engineered mud system are accomplished will generally yield high
quality logs.

Such objectives include a smooth gauge hole, a thin tight mud cake, low fluid loss, and a good
match between mud particle size and pore throat size to minimize whole mud invasion through
spurt loss.

The problems affect logs are summarized in the following table

Simple mud effects Impact on logs

Rough, Washed out holes Poor contact by pad tools on the well-bore wall

Enlarged holes Calipers & bow springs unable to push pads against borehole
wall.
Thick mud cake Excessive mud cake signal on pad tools, especially density

High fluid loss Deep invasion by mud filtrate reducing quality of resistivity

34
 10-Resistivity Measuring Tools

Depends on Mud Type

WBM OBM
saline or low saline & low saline WBM

9.1 Electrode Devices 9.2 Induction Devices

Dual Latero log (DLL) Dual induction (DIL)
Micro logs (MSFL) Array induction (AIT)

Water salinity based on dissolved salts in parts per million (ppm)

Fresh water Brackish water Saline water Brine
< 5000 5,000 – 30,000 30,000 – 50,000 > 50,000
Sea Water = 35,000 ppm

35
 Resistivity Measuring Tools

1-Electrode 2-Induction

MSFL DLL DIL AIT

LLS LLD ILM ILD A-90 A-30

Rxo
Rt Rt

10.1- Electrode Devices

Focused electrode devices designed to minimize
influences from the borehole fluid and adjacent
formations. Dual Laterolog (DLL) and Micro-
Spherically focused (MSFL) devices belong to this
family of tools.
Laterolog tools are generally recommended for use
in salt muds, lower porosities, and high-resistivity
formations.
Laterolog tools send an electric current from an
electrode on the sonde directly into the formation.
The return electrodes are located either on surface or
on the sonde itself. Complex arrays of electrodes on
the sonde (guard electrodes) focus the current into the
formation and prevent current lines from fanning out
or flowing directly to the return electrode through the
borehole fluid. Most tools vary the voltage at the
main electrode in order to maintain a constant current
intensity. This voltage is therefore proportional to the
resistivity of the formation. Because current must
flow from the sonde to the formation, these tools only
work with conductive borehole fluid. Actually, since
the resistivity of the mud is measured in series with
the resistivity of the formation, laterolog tools give
best results when mud resistivity is low with respect
to formation resistivity, i.e., in salty mud.
36
Invasion Corrections to the Dual Laterolog and an Rxo Device

The dual laterolog tornado chart (Fig) is used by entering

the ratios of RLLD/Rxo on the y-axis and RLLD/RLLS) on the x-
axis. The microresistivity devices can be used to determine
resistivity of the flushed zone (Rxo).
This chart provides a method of obtaining Rt from the Dual
Laterolog readings where RLLD is greater than Rxo.
RLLD, RLLS and Rxo should be corrected for borehole effects
before entering this chart.

Example:
Given: RLLD = 63, RLLS = 10, Rxo = 3 ohm-m
RLLD/Rxo =63/3= 21 , RLLD/RLLS =63/10= 6.3

Determine: di = 50 in, Rt/ RLLD = 1.5

Rt = 1.5 x RLLD = 1.5 x 63 = 94.5 ohm-m

The Spontaneous Potential (SP)

It is not a device. It is a logging measurement in WBM

only.
The SP log, known variously as a "Spontaneous Potential",
"Self Potential" or "Shale Potential" log
SP curve is recording of naturally occurring physical
phenomena in in-situ rocks.
The SP curve records the electrical potential (voltage)
produced by the interaction of formation connate water,
conductive drilling fluid, and certain ion-selective rocks
(shale).
The SP log, is simply a voltmeter measurement of the
voltage or electrical potential difference between the mud
in the hole at a particular depth and a copper ground stake
driven into the surface of the earth a short distance from the
borehole. A salinity difference between the drilling mud and
the formation water acts as a sort of natural battery and will
cause several voltage effects.

37
 This "battery" causes a movement of charged ions
between the hole and the formation water where there is
enough permeability in the rock. The most important
voltage is set up as a permeable formation permits ion
movement, reducing the voltage between the formation
water and the mud. Sections of the borehole where this
occurs then have a voltage difference with other
nonpermeable sections where ion movement is
restricted. Vertical ion movement in the mud column
occurs much more slowly because the mud is stagnant,
not being circulated while the drill pipe is out of the
hole. The copper surface stake provides a reference
point against which the SP voltage is measured for each
part of the borehole. There can also be several other
minor voltages, due for example to mud filtrate
streaming into the formation under the effect
of an overbalanced mud system.
This flow carries ions and
is a voltage generating current.

These other voltages are secondary in importance to the voltage resulting from the salinity

contrast between mud and formation water.

As the SP logging tool is drawn up the hole it measures the voltage difference between the

reference stake and the mud opposite shale and sandstone or limestone sections. The resulting

log curve reflects the permeabilty of the rocks and, indirectly, their lithology. SP curves degrade

over time, as the ions diffuse up and down the mud column. It also can suffer from stray

voltages caused by other logging tools that are run with it. Older, simpler logs often have better

SP curves than more modern logs for this reason. With experience in an area, a good SP curve

can even allow a skilled interpreter to infer sedimentary environments such as deltas, point bars

or offshore tidal deposits.

38
 10.2- Induction Devices

Conductivity devices were first constructed for use in oil-based drilling fluids. Electrode devices
will not function in oil-based muds because the drilling fluid acts as an electrical insulator. The
propensity of old electrode measurements led to the linear presentation of resistivity on
induction logs.

Although induction measurements are made in

conductivity units, they are reciprocated to resistivity
values. Induction logs utilize several coils arranged
physically to focus an induced current into the
formation.
The following is a simple explanation of a two-coil
measurement system (Fig). The high-frequency
alternating current sent through the transmitter coil
sets up a magnetic field that induces secondary
currents into the surrounding formation. Induced
currents flow in circular ground loop paths coaxial
with the transmitter coil, and in turn, create magnetic
fields that induce signals in the receiver coil.
Received signals are essentially proportional to the
formation's conductivity, and the induction
instruments can be called
conductivity-seeking devices. Effects
of direct coupling between transmitter
and receiver coil are balanced by the
measuring circuitry.

Today, the logarithmic scale is the most acceptable scale for recording resistivity curves. Its
standard form is a split four-cycle grid covering the range from 0.2 to 2000 ohm-m.

39
Array induction tool (AIT – 90, 60, 30, 20, 10 inch )

40
10.3 Dipmeter

Formation MicroScanner (FMS)

It is consists of four orthogonal imaging pads each containing 16
microelectrodes which are in direct contact with the borehole wall
during the recording. The button current intensity is sampled every
0.1 in (2.5 mm). The tool works by emitting a focused current from
the four pads into the formation. The current intensity variations are
measured by the array of buttons on each of the pads.
Processing transforms the current intensity measurements, which
reflect the microresistivity variations of the formation, into high
resolution gray or color images of variable intensity. Black and
white (darkest or lightest color) indicate low and high
microresistivity, respectively. The tool also includes a General
Purpose Inclinometry Cartridge (GPIT) which provides
accelerometer and magnetometer data in order to allow one to
define the tool position and spatial orientation of the data. Sixteen-electrode arrangement
In smooth boreholes with very homogeneous bedding the depth of for the four-pad tool.
investigation is about 10 in (25 cm). The vertical resolution is 0.2 in
(5mm).

Applications
•Mapping of bedding planes, fractures, faults, foliations, and other
formation structures and dip determination.
•Detailed correlation of coring and logging depths.
•Precise positioning of core sections where core recovery is less
than 100%.
•Analysis of depositional environments.

41
The dipmeter tools, however, can detect the very thin events that are related to sedimentary features.
With the introduction of electronic computers, dipmeter data can be interpreted in much more detail.
Dips are computed at many more levels, and computations are made by correlating the dipmeter
curves over shorter intervals.These short-interval correlations reveal the fine structure of current
bedding and other sedimentation-related dips. When long-interval correlations are made, this
detailed information is averaged out, and essentially what remains is the structural dip.
Dipmeter results are usually presented in “arrow” plots (or “tadpole” plots ). The stem on each
plotting symbol indicates the direction of the dip. The displacement of the symbol from the left
edge of the plot represents magnitude of dip angle. Vertically, the symbols are plotted versus
depth.
It is common practice to identify various characteristic patterns on the plots by coloring them. In
the dipmeter interpreter the various patterns are called by the color names. the red, blue, and
green patterns. In a red pattern, successive dips increase progressively with depth and keep about
the same azimuth. In a blue pattern, successive dips with about the same azimuth decrease
progressively with depth. A green pattern, corresponds to structural dip. It is consistent in azimuth
and dip magnitude.

42
 11- Formation resistivity factor

It has been established experimentally that the resistivity of a clean, water-bearing formation (i.e.,
one containing no appreciable amount of clay and no hydrocarbons) is proportional to the
resistivity of the brine with which it is fully saturated. The constant of proportionality is called the
formation resistivity factor, F. Thus, if R0 is the resistivity of a non-shaly formation rock 100%
saturated with brine of resistivity Rw, then F = Ro/Rw
For a given porosity, the ratio Ro/Rw, remains nearly constant for all values of Rw, below about 1
ohm-m. For fresher, more resistive waters, the value of F may decrease as Rw, increases. This
phenomenon is attributed to a greater proportionate influence of surface conductance of the rock
matrix.
For a given saturating brine water, the greater the porosity of a formation, the lower the resistivity
Ro of the formation, and the lower the formation factor F (from Eq. 2-l). Therefore,
the formation factor is inversely related to porosity. It is also a function of pore
structure and pore-size distribution.

Archie proposed, based on observations, a formula relating porosity,& and formation factor,
F; the relationship is

where m is the cementation factor or exponent. The cementation exponent and the constant
a are determined empirically.
Over the years, experience has generated general acceptance of the following formation
factor-porosity relationships (dependent on lithology or pore structure):

for compacted formations

The first relationship is popularly referred to as the Humble formula; the second, as the
Archie formation factor relationship.
To eliminate the fractional cementation exponent, the Humble formula is sometimes
simplified to

of expressing the Humble formula yield quite similar results

43
 12- Porosity-resistivity cross-plots
Assuming that at least some of the points arc from 100% water-bearing formations, the line
for Sw = 1 is drawn from the pivot point ( = 0, Rt = 8) through the most northwesterly
plotted points. The slope of this line defines the value of Rw.
As shown on the Fig., for  = 10%, Ro = 6.5 ohm-m. For this formation, the most appropriate
F-  relation is F = I/  2. Thus, for  = 10%, F = 100. Since Rw = Ro/F, Rw = 6.5/100 = 0.065
ohm-m, as shown.
For other Sw values, Rt and Ro are related by the equation
Rt = Ro/Sw2. For Sw = 50%, l/Sw2 = 4, and Rt = 4 Ro This relation establishes the line for
SW = 50%.
On the Fig., for the same porosity as before ( = 10%), Rt = 4 Ro = 4 x 6.5 = 26 ohm-m gives
a point that defines the line for Sw = 50%. Other Sw lines may be defined in a similar manner.
If the matrix composition remains constant over the formations under investigation, the basic
measurement from the sonic, density, or neutron logs can be plotted directly versus Rt, with
similar results.
This is possible because of the linear relationship between porosity and bulk density, sonic
transit time or neutron hydrogen index response.

44
log  versus log Rt

Pickett plot

The log-log crossplot defines the water line (Sw = 1) by the lowest resistivity data if porosity and
water salinity remain constant (Fig.). The slope of the water line defines the m exponent, and the
intersection of the line with 100% porosity defines Rw. Points plotting to the right of the water
line should be hydrocarbon bearing.
The plots can be made with acoustic, density, or density-neutron crossplot data. This plot is
simply a standard Pickett plot being used to clarify the results. If a known Rw is used, the water
line should intersect at the proper value. The a and m values should be approximately the same
as those used in the original analysis

45
 13-Fluid Saturation
Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore volume occupied by a given fluid
Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation
–Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
–Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
–Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and gravity
–Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone

In-Situ Saturation

Volume of fluid
S=
Pore volume

Saturation

•Amount of water per unit volume =  Sw

•Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume =  (1 - Sw)

Saturation calculations
Determining water and hydrocarbon saturation is one of the basic objectives of well logging.
Clean Formation
All water saturation determinations from resistivity logs in clean (non-shaly) formations with
homogeneous intergranular porosity are based on Archie’s water saturation equation,
The equation is

Where:
Rw, is the formation water resistivity,
1 Rt, is the true formation resistivity, and
F is the formation resistivity factor. F is usually obtained
from the measured porosity of the formation through the
relationship
2

Combining Eqs, 1 and 2, the Archie saturation equation may be written as:

For Sxo, the water saturation in the flushed zone, a similar expression exists:

where
Rmf. is the mud filtrate resistivity and
Rxo is the flushed zone resistivity.
46
Water Saturation Equations

The causes of low-resistivity pay include:

1- Thinly bedded sand-shale sequences with reservoir bed thickness less than the vertical
resolution of the resistivity tool. The tool measurement volumetrically averages sand and
shale conductivities, resulting in resistivity bias to the high conductivity shale beds. Thus the
computed apparent high bulk water saturations are not representative of the reservoir layers.
2- Low resistivity reflects high capillary-bound (or irreducible) water resulting from small
pores, typically associated with fine grained rock fabrics. The computed apparent high water
saturations may be accurate, but the water is entirely immobile and the reservoir will produce
hydrocarbons without any water-cut.
3- Dispersed clay provides an additional conductive pathway through the pore system,
adding conductivity (reducing resistivity) via cationic exchange mechanism, and increasing
the pore surface area and irreducible film water. Electrical properties of reservoir can
be severely affected, and if not properly accounted for, the computed apparent water
saturation values will be too high.

47
 14- Formation pressure measurements

Reservoir Pressure

•Lithostatic pressure is caused by the pressure of rock, transmitted by grain-to-grain

contact.
•Fluid pressure is caused by weight of column of fluids in the pore spaces. Average =
0.465 psi/ft (saline water).
•Overburden pressure is the sum of the lithostatic and fluid pressures.

1955 1975 1990 2005

48
Typical Pressure Test

49
Drawdown mobility

where
Pss = steady-state drawdown pressure drop
Cpf = drawdown proportionality factor
q = pretest flow rate.

The drawdown proportionality factor

depends on the packer-probe configuration.
Common values include:
•5660 for a conventional or long-nose probe and for a standard
or reinforced packer
•2395 for a large-diameter or Martineau probe
•1107 for a large-area packer.

50
51
GOC

OWC

52
 Supercharge

Low formation permeability prohibits near wellbore pressures to equalize quickly

Poor or leaky mud cakes (lack of competent mudcake) allow continual pressurization or
“charging” of formation

Competent mudcake when kmc < < kf

53
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester (MDT)

Applications
- Formation pressure measurement and fluid
contact identification (using a CQG* Crystal
Quartz Gauge)
- Formation fluid sampling
Multiple samples in one trip
Filtrate pumpout prior to sampling
Fluid resistivity and temp.
measurements at the probe
Quantitative sample contamination
measurement with optical
spectroscopy techniques
- Permeability measurement
- Mini-drill stem test (DST) and productivity
assessment (Multiprobe and inflatable dual
packer module options
- In-situ stress and minifrac testing

Live Fluid Analyzer module

The LFA module provides real-time downhole fluid analysis by

measuring multiple optical properties of the fluid to quantify the amount
of reservoir and drilling fluids in the flowline.

54
 Vertical Seismic Profile

VSP refers to measurements made in a vertical wellbore using geophones inside the wellbore
and a source at the surface near the well. In the more general context, VSPs vary in the well
configuration, the number and location of sources and geophones, and how they are deployed.
Most VSPs use a surface seismic source, which is commonly a vibrator on land and an air gun in
offshore or marine environments. The check-shot survey uses only the direct path travel time. In
addition to tying well data to seismic data, the vertical seismic profile also enables converting
seismic data to zero-phase data and distinguishing primary reflections from multiples.
There are numerous methods for acquiring a vertical seismic profile (VSP).
(A) Zero-offset VSPs have sources close to the wellbore directly above receivers.
(B) Offset VSPs have sources some distance from the receivers in the wellbore.
(C) Walkaway VSPs feature a source that is moved to progressively farther offset and receivers
held in a fixed location.
(D) Walk-above VSPs accommodate the recording geometry of a deviated well, having each
receiver in a different lateral position and the source directly above the receiver.
(E) Salt-proximity VSPs are reflection surveys to help define a salt-sediment interface near a
wellbore by using a source on top of a salt dome away from the drilling rig.
(F) Drill-noise VSPs also known as seismic-while-drilling (SWD) VSPs; use the noise of the
drill bit as the source and receivers laid out along the ground.
(G) Multi-offset VSPs involve a source some distance from numerous receivers in the wellbore.

STACK
A processed seismic record that contains traces that have been added together from different
records to reduce noise and improve overall data quality. The number of traces that have been
added together during stacking is called the fold

Walk-above VSPs
Offset VSPs Walkaway VSPs

Zero-offset VSPs

Salt-proximity
VSPs Drill-noise VSPs Multi-offset VSPs

55
Sidewall cores

A core taken from the side of the borehole, usually by a wireline tool.
Sidewall cores may be taken using:
1- Percussion cores are taken by firing hollow bullets into the formation.The bullets are attached
to the tool by fasteners, and are retrieved, along with the core inside, by pulling up the tool and
the fasteners. Percussion coring tools typically hold 20 to 30 bullets, but two or three tools can be
combined on one run in the hole. cores from typical percussion tools are 1 in. [2.5 cm] in diameter
by 1 3/4 in. [4.4 cm] long
2-Mechanical tools use hollow rotary drills to cut and then pull out core plugs.Up to 75 plugs can
be recovered on one run. With full recovery, cores from typical mechanical tools are 0.91 in. [2.3
cm] in diameter by 2 in. [5 cm] long.

Sidewall cores should be obtained and analyzed in any reservoir of possible interest. In
situations where reservoirs are missed during full diameter coring operations or there has
been insufficient core recovery, sidewall cores provide a relatively inexpensive alternative.
Many reserve classification controversies could be avoided if a sufficient number of
sidewall cores were collected during the formation evaluation program.
Currently, rotary (or drilled) sidewall cores are dramatically underutilized in the industry.

Percussion cores

Rotary (or drilled) sidewall cores

56
 15- QUALITY CONTROL
A good evaluation is only possible with good quality log data

The following should be considered

1- Preparation for the logging
2- Pre logging
3- While Logging
4- Post Logging

1- Preparation for the logging

First of all, the witness should be fully aware of the logging program and all required data. The
witness should do the following:
 Call the wireline contractor early enough to allow time to travel to the rig site and time to
check the operation of logging equipment once on location.
 A copy from the lithlog and mudlog should be ready to be used as a guide during the
logging operation.
 A special care should be done for taking a representative mud sample, which
recommended to be taken from the flow line 15 minutes before the end of last circulation.
Make sure that the logging engineer receiving the mud sample, mud filtrate and mud cake
in a fresh condition for accurate resetivity measurements.
 Discuss the hole condition with the drilling supervisor covering points such as tight spots,
dog-legs, lost circulation material, and stuck pipe lubrication. Keep a record of such
problems and give this information to the logging engineer.
2- Pre logging

 Give the logging engineer the well information (as per the wireline contractor well data sheet).
 Discuss the logging program, log presentation, scales, digital data format requirements,
etc., with the logging engineer using the litholog and mudlog.
 Verify that both primary and backup tools are checked prior to the start of the logging job.
 Check that the master calibrations match the tool numbers and are current (generally less
than 1 month old).
 Check with the logging engineer on tolerance limits of calibrations and tool surface
checks, especially the new generation tools.
 Check on the tool combinations before run in hole, total length, number of standoff and
centralizers (if any) and their positions.
 Check on a minimum of two thermometers on every trip in the hole and ensure that the
logging crew checks them.

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3- While Logging

Check with the logging engineer the before survey calibration which must be within
tolerance.
Check the calculation of the cable stretch for accurate depth measurements. Also the
determination of the cable strength rating and weak point rating and record them.
Check the acoustic and caliber readings inside the casing (DT STEEL = 57 usec in free
pipe, caliber = casing ID).
In case of bad hole condition ask the logging engineer to log while run in hole (of course
without opened calipers) and start the main log directly after reaching TD then make the
repeat section through any good hole section.
Logging speed should be adjusted to the “slowest” device in the tool combination.
Thin-bed analysis may require slower logging speeds for better statistical response with
nuclear tools.
Run a minimum of 200 feet of repeat log covering zones of interest and zones that exhibit
an abnormal log response.
Check the repeatability. Factors that contribute to poor repeats include washed-out holes,
variable tool centering (especially in large holes with conductive muds), pad devices
following different borehole paths, statistical variations in radioactive chemical source
emissions, and tool malfunction.

Check against offset logs for similar log responses in similar lithologies.

Check that all curves recorded on the same trip in the hole are on depth with each other.

Make sure that there is a minimum of 100 feet of gamma ray overlap with previous run.

Be alert for indications of deteriorating hole conditions (e.g. increasing cable tension and

caliper activity). If necessary, pull out of the hole (after discussions with supervisors) and

make a condition trip.

In case of running super combination tools, if any of the tools failed on bottom (except

resistivity), keep logging the rest of tools then go back and log the failed one.

Centralized acoustic, resistivity, and dielectric tools should repeat exactly.

 In case of resistivity failure on bottom do not log any and pull out of hole to check or to

change the tool.

Check that the in times print out log is correct and ready for faxing at any time to

main office.

 Always remember to fill in the time break down sheet for every tool run in the hole.

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4- Post Logging

Fill in a section on the log quality control and performance sheet after every tool run in
the hole.
Ensure that successive logging runs are on depth with each other.
Check that all items on the log header are accurately filled out, especially Remarks on any
log anomalies.
Check the calibration tails (before, after, and shop), and ensure that they are attached to
the log films and the calibration numbers are within tolerance.
Check that the digit tape labels are completely and correctly filled out.
Discuss the logs thoroughly with the wireline engineer and ask for an explanation of any
abnormal curve responses, equipment failures, or hole problems.
Make sure that any of these comments have been entered under Remarks on the log
header and on the log quality control sheet.
Make sure to complete both the time break down and quality control and performance
sheets.

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