Lab. ExercisesEENGR310
Lab. ExercisesEENGR310
Lab. ExercisesEENGR310
1
Reading Schematic Diagrams
I. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:
Ideas in electronics and electricity are conveyed in diagrams called schematic
diagrams. It shows the components and their interconnections. Each graphical symbol is
accompanied with a reference designation to distinguish it from other similar symbols.
In electronics, the reference designation is the letter and the number nearest the
graphic symbol. For example, a section of a circuit is as follows:
C1
Q1
SPKR
R1
The reference designations are R1, Q1, C1 and SPKR. Their values or actual
descriptions are given in the parts lists:
R1 - 10K Ω +/- 5% resistor
C1 - 470 uF/16V electrolytic capacitor
Q1 - 9013 NPN audio output transistor
SPKR - 8 Ω 0.5 W 2 inches Ø
The other commonly used way of expressing ideas is with the use of block
diagrams. This form uses blocks, triangles or rectangles to represent group of
components doing a certain function.
The other form of diagram that is very useful is the wiring diagram. It shows the
actual wiring or placement of the actual components.
II. OBJECTIVES
To develop skills in identifying the commonly used components or parts in
electronics and electricity and be able to interpret correctly the standard symbols for
each of these components.
IV. MATERIALS:
Books/ magazines or other references on electronics and electricity
V. PROCEDURE:
A. Using all available references, draw the schematic diagrams of the following
components/items:
1. resistors 17. receptacle outlets
a. fixed a. single
b. variable b. duplex
2. capacitor c. triplex
a. fixed d. range
b. variable e. clock hanger
3. inductor f. single, floor
a. fixed 18. lighting outlet
b. variable a. surface, fixture ceiling
4. battery b. surface, fixture wall
5. ground c. exit light, ceiling
6. wires connected d. exit light, wall
7. wires not connected e. junction box, ceiling
8. transformers f. junction box, wall
a. iron core 19. push button
b. air core 20. buzzer
c. power transformer 21. bell
9. antenna, general 22. chime
10. chassis 23. electric door opener
11. fuse 24. outside telephone
12. thermocouple 25. radio/TV outlet
13. transistor 26. wiring exposed, wall
a. NPN 27. wiring exposed, floor
b. PNP 28. smoke detector
14. switch outlets 29. motor connection
a. SPST 30. telephone outlet
b. DPST a. floor
c. three-way b. wall
d. four-way 31. electric meter
15. Light Emitting Diode (LED) 32. voltmeter
16. fluorescent fixture 33. ammeter
B. Schematic diagrams must be drawn in the cells provided in the activity part of the
exercise..
VI. QUESTIONS:
2. In your searching for the not commonly used schematic symbols, which
components have variability in symbols?
3. Can you give the reasons why electronic/electric components use upper case
letters to denote their names/identification. Elaborate your answer.
4. Give at least three (3) advantages of knowing the various schematic symbols
when dealing with electricity. What are the other applications other than being
able to know these symbols?
5. Did you find the symbols the same when you refer to various references ? If not,
why do you think there’s the difference?
6. Give at least five references/ resource materials that you used for this activity.
Name:_______________________________Course:_____________ Date: ________
Lab Time & Date: ________________
VI. RESULTS
Power Transformer
General Antenna Chassis Fuse
Thermocouple
NPN transistor PNP transistor SPST switch outlets
DPST switch
Three-way Four-way Light Emitting Diode
outlets
switch outlets switch outlets (LED)
Range
Clock hanger Single, floor lighting outlet surface,
receptacle outlets fixture ceiling
receptacle outlets receptacle outlets
lighting outlet
surface, fixture
lighting outlet lighting outlet lighting outlet
wall
exit light, ceiling exit light, wall junction box, ceiling
lighting outlet
junction box, wall
Push button buzzer Bell
Chime
Electric door opener Outside telephone radio/TV outlet
wiring exposed,
wall
wiring exposed, floor smoke detector motor connection
Floor
telephone outlet
Wall telephone outlet electric meter Push button
swith(NO)
VI. CONCLUSION
LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 2
Multitesters
I. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION
Parts of a Multitester
A. Preliminary Procedures.
Whatever type of multitester you have to use, before making any measurement
you have to perform basic procedures.
1. Connect the test probes to the appropriate jacks. The red test probe to + jack
and the black to the - com jack.
2. See if the pointer rest exactly at the (0) zero position situated at the left side of
the scale. If the pointer at off position does not rest at the zero scale on the
left, carefully adjust the zero corrector with light weight screw driver.
4. Rotate the multitester selector towards the x1 ohm range (resistance range) .
Short the probes together. The pointer must deflect towards 0 ohm position.
This indicates that the probes are good.
5. Short the probes together. The pointer must rest exactly at the 0 position. This
may be adjusted through the 0 ohm adjustment knob. If did not deflect at all,
check the probes, there's possibility that one is broken or open at some point.
If the pointer could not rest exactly at right hand end of the scale no matter
how the circuit 0 ohm adj. is adjusted, replace the batteries of the multitester
(two size AA and one 9-V batteries).
B. Voltage Measurements
When measuring voltages, AC, or DC, the meter is placed parallel with the
component or circuit being measured.
Set the function selector knob or the range selector to proper scale range. The
chosen scale range must be higher than that of the anticipated voltage to be measured. If
in doubt or you don' t have any idea, choose the higher voltage range of the multitester
and gradually move down to the lower scale range that will give a good mid AC reading.
C. DC Voltages.
2. If the meter needle deflects to the left of the 0 position, the polarity is opposite to
that of the probes to the circuit
3. If the pointer swings beyond the scale limit on the right, immediately disconnect
the probe. The setting of the range selector switch is insufficient. Move the switch
to a higher range scale.
4. Even if a tester is set at the DC voltage function, an analog meter would also
respond to an AC voltage. The reading, however, would be erroneous.
D. AC Voltages (The scaleplate with label ACV) with red scale corresponds to measuring
AC voltages.
1. The analog voltmeter responds to both AC and DC voltages even if the function
switch is set at the AC voltage range of function. The voltmeter cannot distinguish
the AC from the DC voltage, hence, an erroneous reading be registered when both
types of voltages are present.
2. To measure AC voltage only, a 0.1 to 0.5 pF may be inserted to one of the probes.
Some multitesters have built in internal capacitors eliminating the need of a series
capacitor. It is labeled Output jack.
3. AC voltage readings on the multitester is the voltage or simply the average value.
E. DC Current Measurements
When current is to be measured, the meter must be connected in series with the
circuit or load and the power source.
The + or red probe must be connected to the positive side. Initially set the selector
switch to the highest DCmA range and progressively to the next lower range until the
reading deflect between half to 2/3 of the, scale. If the needle deflects to the 0 position,
interchange the probes.
F. Resistance Measurements
1. Select the desired resistance range by moving the selector switch to the ohm
range: x1, x10, x1K x10K. Again select the scale that would cause the pointer to
deflect to no more than 2/3 of the full scale.
2. Clip the probes together and set the pointer to zero by adjusting the 0 ohm adj.
3. Place the probes across the component whose resistance will be measured.
4. Multiply the reading obtained with the multiplier of the selector switch:
Ex.
5. Always set the 0 ohm adj whenever switching to the ohm range or from one range
to the other.
6. When measuring connected components, one of its terminals must be
disconnected in the circuit. It might be connected in parallel with another
component.
7. Switch off power source when making measurement to avoid damage to the
equipment.
The Digital Multitester is operated just like the analog multimeter. The main
difference is their display of information. The analog displays the parameters are direct
values or numbers.
The Digital multitester will display a (minus) sign if the polarity is reversed. It
will display 1 (located at left end of the display) if the selected range is insufficient or the
resistance is infinite or an open circuit.
II. Objectives
III. Materials
IV. PROCEDURE
A. Analog Multimeter
1. Examine the meter assigned to you. Draw a panel view of the meter showing
operating controls and the function /range switches. draw also the voltage scale
and ohms scale.
2. Set the function switch to DCV vary the zero adjustment control and observe its
effect on the pointer. Now, turn the range switch through every setting and check
if the meter pointer remains on zero.
Note: A well designed properly adjusted meter should remain its zero setting on every
voltage function and range.
3. Set the function switch to Ohm (0) Rx1. Short the test probes. The pointer should
swing to zero. If it does not come to rest to zero with 'the leads shorted”, set it on
zero with the zero ohm adjustment knob. Now, open the leads and check the
position of the pointer. If it no longer on the maximum resistance marker (infinity)
set it there with the zero adjuster.
Note: Do not leave the meter leads shorted together on ohms for any length of time.
In the ohms position , an internal battery is connected in the circuit. The battery
voltage will be greatly reduced in a short period of time if the leads remain shorted
together.
Table 2.1 Function switch settings and initial readings of the analog meter
B. Digital Multimeter
2. Set the function/ range switch to different settings and list its initial reading.
Table 2.2 Function switch settings and initial readings of the digital meter
Table 2.2 Function switch settings and initial readings of the digital meter
VI. QUESTIONS:
1. List the controls on the panel of an analog multimeter and state the purpose of
each. You may use an extra sheet for your answer.
2. Is it possible to use the same scale on the 3 volt range as on the 300 volt range of your
meter? Explain.
3. Draw a nonlinear scale with number calibrations 0, 1, 2, up to 10. Set off each major
subdivisions into ten minor subdivisions. Show where 8.7 would be on the scale.
4. Is the ohm scale on your meter linear or nonlinear? Justify your answer by referring
specifically to resistance calibrations.
5. Explain in detail how would you zero the meter for DCV 50 voltage readings. Identify
the control or controls you would use.
6. Explain in detail how you would check to determine if an analog meter improperly
zeroed on the R*1k range. Identify the controls you would use.
Name : _____________________________ Year & Section : ______ Sked : _______
I. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION
The ohm is the unit of the resistance. The measuring of resistance is one of the
functions of a multimeter. Each manufacturer provides operating instructions for the use
of each particular instrument. It will therefore be necessary to refer to the instruction
manual before using any multimeter.
One fact common to all VOM's is that they contain a basic resistance scale from
which readings are made in ohms directly on the Rx1 range of the meter. Notice that the
ohm scale is not linear, that is the arc distance between numbers is not equal. Also, note
that the scale calibrations are numbered and so the user has to supply numbers for the
unnumbered marks.
To read resistance values greater that the maximum value shown on the basic
scale, a higher range must be selected. So in addition on the Rx1 scale there will usually
be found Rx10, Rx1K and others. In the Rx1K range any reading made on the basic must
be multiplied by 1000. In the Rx10K, any reading must be multiplied by 10,000.
The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as
tolerance codes on 5-band resistors only. All 5-band resistors
use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%) “band” is only
used with the “4-band” code (3 colored bands + a blank “band”).
Example #1
Example #2
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To get familiar with zeroing the analog meter.
2. To gain experience in measuring the resistance of different resistors using a
digital meter.
III. MATERIALS
Equipment: Digital and analog multimeters
Resistors: at least twenty different values
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Secure the resistor to be used for this experiment.
2. Refer to the instruction manual of the multimeter for procedure in zeroing the
meter or refer to previous lessons.
3. Zero the meter,
4. Measure each resistor with the ohmmeter.
NOTE: Do not touch leads of the resistor or the metal parts of the probes while
measuring resistance as this will result in a reading error, especially on the high
resistance ranges.
VII. PROBLEMS
1. What resistance is in the center of your ohmmeter scale, Rx1 range? What do you
notice on the resistance scale? In terms of divisions when using different range?
2. At which end of the scale are resistance readings more accurate, the crowded or
uncrowded end?
3. What happens to the ohmmeter when both leads of the resistor being measured
are held in your fingers as the reading is made?
4. Draw the position of the pointer with the following readings. Paste a scaleplate of
an ohmmeter to indicate the readings below.
I. INTRODUCTION INFORMATION
A B
The circuit symbol for a potentiometer shows that this is a three terminal device.
The resistance between points A and B is fixed. Point C is the variable arm of the
potentiometer.
The total resistance of the potentiometer shows can be measured between the two
terminals (A and B). The resistance from the variable arm (terminal C) to one of the
outside terminals plus the resistance from the variable arm to the other outside terminal
equals the total resistance. The action of the arm, then, is increasing the resistance
between the variable arm C and one of the end terminals. And at the same time to
decrease the resistance between the variable arm C and the other terminal while the sum
of the two resistances remain the same.
A B
C
Figure2. Schematic diagram of a potentiometer
A potentiometer may be used as a rheostat if the center arm and one of the end
terminals are connected into the circuit and the other end terminal is left disconnected.
Another way to convert a potentiometer to a rheostat is to connect a piece of hook up
wire between the arm and one of the terminals/
A B
II. OBJECTIVE
To analyze the terminals of the potentiometer and determine the resistance
between the variable (center) terminal and the terminals on either side of it’s as the shaft
of a potentiometer is turned from its minimum to maximum position.
III. MATERIALS
Instruments: analog or digital multitester
Resistor: potentiometer (5K, 10K, 50K)
IV. PROCEDURE
6. Turn the shaft completely clockwise Cw. Measure and record Rac and
Rbc then and record the sum of Rac and Rbc.
7. Turn the shaft completely Counterclockwise CCW and record the
reading of Rac and Rbc then the sum of the two readings.
Name:__________________________________Course:_____________ Date: ________
Lab Time & Date: ________________
2. What is the relationship between Rac, Rbc and Rab? (b) Do your measurements
confirm this relationship?
I. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION
Measuring DC Voltage
The technicians are the "know-how" person. In the laboratory, the technicians will
test the operations and characteristics of an experiment circuit and in the repair shop will
make measurements while fixing a device which is not working. The technicians must
then know the instrument of this technology and must know how to use them. He must
be aware of the effect of an instrument on the circuit and the measurement.
2. The range selector switch should be connected to the highest dc voltage range in
measuring an unknown dc voltage. This is to avoid damaging the meter. If
measurement later shows that the voltage falls in a lower range, the instrument
should be switched to a lower range.
3. The voltage value is read from the proper voltage scale. The maximum voltage for a
specific voltage range is at the right end of the scale.
4. The dc voltage scale is linear, with equal spacing for equal voltage changes. There
may be two or three scale calibrations along the dc arc to make it possible to read
voltage on all the dc ranges of the instrument. The greater the deflections toward the
right, the higher the voltage that is being measured.
DC Voltage Sources
Batteries
In this experiment, the student will use two types of voltage sources, the dry cell
battery and the DC regulated power supply.
Dry batteries consist of arrangements of primary cells, called dry cells. The
familiar "flashlight battery' is really a dry cell. Individual dry cells produce low voltage.
A battery is usually a combination of cells connected and offered in a one package.
Electronic regulated variable power supplies are used extensively in both school
and industrial laboratories.
The polarity of the dc terminals on the supply is usually marked -, + and GND for
ground. A red jack is conventionally used for the positive and a black for the negative
terminal.
CAUTION: The output terminals of most supplies should never be shorted because the
supply may be damaged.
The AC Source
II. OBJECTIVE
DC Power Supply
Measure and record in Table l the voltage of the voltage supplied by the DC
power source. Use the range of the voltmeter where you get the maximum pointer
deflection without going off the scale. Connect the negative lead of the meter to the
negative terminal of the source, positive lead to the positive.
Measure the output of the power supply (set at 10 Volts) using the VOM and
compare it with the values indicated on its front panel. Does the same voltage (front
panel) conform with your VOM reading?
Gradually increase the voltage of the power supply by 10 volts. Record all your
results in Table 1.
AC Voltage Measurement
VII. QUESTIONS:
1. List four precautions which must be observed in measuring voltage.
3. How much voltage is required to give full-scale deflection of the pointer on a 300-v
range?
4. What would happen to a dry cell or battery if the positive and negative terminals were
shorted?
5. Why must be careful to keep from short-circuit the output terminals of a power supply?
LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 6
Resistance of Series Connected Resistors
I. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION
R1 R2 R3 R4
V V1 V2 V3 V4
I1 = I 2 = I 3 = I n
From Kirchoff’s voltage law, which says that in any complete circuit, the sum of
rises in, potential must be equal to the sum of voltage drops across that circuit, then, if we
let V the supply voltage.
V= V1 + V2 + V3 + Vn
Where I = I1 = I2 = I3 = In
Canceling I, I1 , I2 , I3 …. In
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 +. . .
Rn ........
Since the electric current flowing in a series circuit must pass through each resistance in
its path, it would appear that two series resistors would offer more opposition to current
than anyone of the resistors individually, This fact is true because the total resistance of a
series circuit is equal to the sum of the resistors in the circuit.
R1 R2 R3 R4
For example, for three 500 ohm resistors connected in series, the total resistance
Rt is 1500,ohms. Another example: if R1=220, R2330, then Rt = 550 ohms.
II. OBJECTIVE:
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Measure the resistance of each resistor supplied and record its value in Table 6.1
beneath its color coded value.
2. Connect series arrangement 1 shown in Fig. 6.1 by connecting resistors R1 and
R4 in series. From Table 6.l record the measured values of R1 and R4 in the
spaces provided in Table 6.2
3. Using the measured values of the individual resistors, compute the total
resistance of this series combination and write the value in the column labeled
“computed value Rt”.
4. Measure the total resistance of the is combination of series connected resistance
from points A to B and record that value in the column labeled : measured value
Rt.”
5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 for resistor combination 2 and 3 in the figure 6.2
Resistors R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Measured, Ω
Coded Value, Ω
Combination 3
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Resistors R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Measured, Ω
Coded Value, Ω
VI. CONCLUSION
(cOMPARE THE RESULTS OF THIS ACTIVITY WITH WHAT YOU HAVE
OBTAINED FRO ACTUAL MEASUREMENT.)
VII. QUESTIONS
1. Were the computed values and the measured values of each combination of resistors
equal? If not, why not?
2. Explain in your own words two methods of finding the total resistance of series
connected resistors.
3. For combination 3 how does the sum of the color-coded values of the table (b) the
computed value obtained by adding the measured values of each resistor?
4. Would there be any effect of the total resistance of combination 2 if the positions of
any of the resistors were changed?
5. Do the results of your measurements in the Table 6.2 prove that the total resistance of a
series circuit is equal to the sum of the values of each resistors in the circuit?
LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 7
Resistance of Parallel Connected Resistor
I. INTRODUCTION INFORMATION
Parallel connected resistors
A parallel circuit is one in which there are two or more paths for electric current
flow. Figure 7.1 show that a circuit, paths for current flow still exist through the
remaining resistor. Therefore, in a parallel circuit there must be a complete circuit or path
for current flow through each individual resistor. Each of this individual circuit is called
a branch circuit. Total resistance of these parallel-connected resistors would be measured
between points X and Y.
Note: Remember that all power must be removed from the circuit before resistance
measurements are made.
It is reasonable to assume that more current can flow from the battery when there
are several paths than when there is only one path. Now if more current is allowed to
flow from the battery with each additional branch circuit added, it is clear that the total
opposition RT to current flow is becoming smaller than if there were just on path. The
total resistance t current flow from the power source does indeed decrease as more branch
circuits are added. In fact, Rt is less than the resistance of the ohmmeter later in this
experiment.
Consider the parallel combination shown below: Let E be the supply voltage
R1 R2 R3 R 4 I1
I2 I3 I4
E
E = V1 + V2 + V3 +. . . Vn
By Kirchoff’s current law, the sum of current entering a junction must be equal to
sum of current leaving that junction, therefore at junction a
I = I1 + I2 + I3 +. . . In
Substituting the equation I = V/R from equation
II. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the total resistance of combinations parallel connected resistors.
IV. PROCEDURE
1. Refer to Figure 1.7 and choose the resistors shown as that of combination A.
2. Measure the resistance of each of the resistors supplied for combination A. Record
the measured value in Table 7.1
3. Measure the Rt of the parallel combination and record your reading in the column
labeled "Measured Rt" in Table 7.1
4. Repeat steps 1, 2, 3 and 4 for parallel combinations B and C.
R1
X R3 Y
R2
X Y
R4
R1
R2
R3
R4
VI. CONCLUSION
VII. QUESTIONS
1. Was the value Rt greater or smaller than the value of the smallest branch resistor in the
combination?
2. Combination C in Figure 7.4-3 placed two resistors of equal value in parallel. From
the results obtained in Rt of this combination, suggest a general formula for Rt of any
two resistors of equal value connected in parallel.
4. How can you measure the resistance of an individual resistor within a parallel circuit?
LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 8
Current Measurement
I. INTRODUCTION INFORMATION
The basic unit of measure for electric current is the ampere and it is represented
by the capital letter A. The ampere is a large quantity of current not often found in low
power electric circuits.
In earlier experiment the uses of the ohmmeter and voltmeter for measuring
resistance were studied. From the nature of the experiment it was apparent those resistors
have "resistance" that can be measured directly with an ohmmeter. The quantity of the
resistance is not dependent on the connection that resistor in a circuit. The characteristic
of the resistance is associated with the component itself.
Current is an electric circuit can be compared with water flow in a pipe. If you
wish to measure the amount of water flowing per second, water flowing in the pipe must
pass through the flow meters, which can the measure the rate of water flow. So it is with
the measurement of electric current. Since current is the movement if electric charges,
the circuit must be broken and an ammeter must the inserted in series with the circuit.
When placing the ammeter in series with the circuit, polarity must be observed.
That is, the common (negative) meter lead must be connected to the more negative point
in the circuit.
The "hot" lead (positive) is connected to the more positive point in the circuit.
When the meter is connected properly the meter will move from left to right. If the meter
moves in the opposite direction, the meter leads must be reversed.
Refer to Figure 8.1 Notice that the circuit has been broken (opened) at point X
and Y. To measure the current in this circuit, the ammeter will be inserted between these
two points. Point A is closer to the negative source so that negative lead will be attached
here.
Caution: The current meter must be connected across (that is, in parallel) any
component. Its must always be connected in series with the component to measure the
current flowing through the components. Failure to observe this rule result in serious
damage to the meter. Never connect an ammeter directly to a voltage source.
When the ammeter is placed in the circuit, it should always be set to its highest
range and then switched to lower ranges, as necessary for accurate readings. This will
protect the meter against damage due to overload.
Ammeter scales vary from meter to meter. Direct current sometime read on the
same scale for dc voltage. If so, the only difference in reading will be that you are
measuring amperes, milliamperes, or microamperes instead of volts. In some cases the
scales may be a separate scale used only for current. Whatever the scale is, you will have
no trouble reading it if you have learned how to read the voltage scales in previous
experiments.
R
X Y
PS
PS A
Figure 8.1 Circuit with an open line Figure 2. Set-up to measure current
II. OBJECTIVE
To determine the current in a circuit and be able to establish the current and
voltage relationship at constant resistance.
IV. PROCEDURE:
1. Secure the components from your instructor and measure the resistance of the resistor
to make sure that its value is within tolerance.
2. Draw a wiring diagram of the regulated power supply (PS), one 1 KΩ resistor, and
the ammeter (set to DC 250 mA) connected in series. Mark all polarities.
3. Power is off. Now, connect the circuit drawn in step 2. Power on. With a
multimeter set to 50VDC or (200 VDC for the digital meter), measure the
output of the power supply. Make note of the units of measure printed on the
range switch and remember that this is what you are measuring.
4. Now adjust the voltage to 22.5 volts. Measure the current and record its value in
Table 8.1
5. Adjust the voltage output of the PS to 20 volts. Measure the current and record its
value in Table 8.1
6. Reduce the output voltage of the PS by an increment of 5 V until 5V. Measure the
current and record its value it Table 8.1. Adjust the PS output voltage to 3 V
and make the last current reading.
7. Using the unscaled projection, plot an I-V curve of the result. The graph formed is
the I-V characteristic of the 1 KΩ resistor.
8. Compute the percentage error obtained for the experiment and list possible sources
of errors.
9. Superimpose also the I-V curve of the computed values on the previous graph.
Output DC 22.5 V 20 V 15 V 10 V 5V 3V
Measured
Voltage, V
Measured
current, mA
Computed
current, mA
% Error
Name:__________________________________Course:_____________ Date: ________
Lab Time & Date: ________________
Output DC 22.5 V 20 V 15 V 10 V 5V 3V
Measured
Voltage, V
Measured
current, mA
Computed
current, mA
% Error
4. Do the ranges on your current meter "overlap"? If they do, indicate those that
overlap?
5. Why must the current meter be placed in series with the circuit?
6. What danger, if any, is there in placing a current meter across a voltage supply?
I. INTRODUCTION INFORMATION
The solution of complex electric circuits is simplified by the application of
Kirchhoff’s laws. These laws were formulated and published by the physicist Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), and they established the basis for modern network
analysis.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that around any closed
circuit, the sum of the applied voltage(s) must equal the sum of the voltage drops within
the circuit. None is ever lost or gained. If a voltage is applied in a circuit, it is used by
the components. If the voltage drops across the resistors of a series circuit are added,
this sum will be the same as the applied voltage. This is Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Consider the circuit in Figure 9.1. The three series resistors can be replaced by a
single resistor Rt whose resistance is equal to the sum of the three resistors. The current
It is the circuit’s current such that the product of Rt and It equals the applied voltage Va.
That is,
Va = It x Rt
R1 R2 R3
V1 V2 V3
It
Va
+
Current is the same everywhere in a series series circuit. The voltage drop across
R1 therefore is
V1 = It x R1
similarly, V2 = It x R2
and V3= It x R3 (equation a)
V1 + V2 + V3 = It x R1 + It x R2 + It x R3
Factoring It,
V1 + V2 + V3 = It (R1 + R2 + R3 )
Since Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
V1 + V2 + V3 = It x Rt
but It x Rt = Va, so
Va = V1 + V2 + V3
R1 I1
It I2
R5 R2 R4
R3 I3
I
t
Va
+
Consider the circuit in Figure 9.2. The total current It enters the network of R1,
R2 and R3 from R4. The currents leaving the junctions are I 1, I2, and I3. Again these
three currents enters the next junction and becomes It . This relationship of the currents is
expressed mathematically by Kirchhoff’s current law as:
It = I1 + I2 + I3 + . . . . .
III. MATERIALS:
Power supply: regulated power supply
Equipment: Digital multimeter
Resistors: ½ w, carbon composition
Miscellaneous: connecting wires, breadboard
IV. PROCEDURE
A. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
1. Choose four resistors having different ohmic values. Measure their resistance.
2. Connect the components following the circuit in Figure 9.3.
3. Adjust the voltage so that Va = 20 volts.
4. Measure the voltage drops across each resistor. Record in the Table 9.1.
5. Compute for the percentage error of the experiment.
1. Choose four resistors having different ohmic values. Measure their resistance.
2. Connect the circuit following the circuit in Figure 9.4.
3. Adjust the voltage so that Va = 20 volts.
4. Measure the total current by inserting the ammeter in series with the circuit
voltage. Record this in the Table 9.2.
5. Measure the current in R1 by inserting the ammeter in series with R1. Do the
same in measuring the currents of R2, R3, and R4. Record these values in
Table 9.2.
5. Compute for the percentage error of the experiment.
V1 V2 V3 V4 Va
Measured V
Computed V
% Error
I1 I2 I3 I4 It
Measured I
Computed I
% Error
R1 R2 R3 R4
V1 V2 V3 V4
Va
+
Figure 9.3 Set up for voltage law experiment.
R1
It R2 I1
It
R3 I2
R4 I3
I4
Va
+
V1 V2 V3 V4 Va
Measured V
Computed V
% Error
I1 I2 I3 I4 It
Measured I
Computed I
% Error
VI. CONCLUSION:
VII. QUESTIONS:
1. Discuss briefly how the voltage and current law principles could be used to locate
trouble in defective Christmas lights.
I. INTRODUCTION INFORMATION
Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws are valuable tools for analyzing circuits – especially
circuits with two or more sources. Statements of each laws are given as: Current law –
The algebraic sum of the currents at any node (junction) is zero. Or the sum of the
currents entering a node equals the sum of the currents leaving that node. Say in a
circuit: Ia + Ib – Ic + Id = 0
Ia + Ib + Id = Ic
Voltage law. The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed circuit path (loop or
mesh) is zero. Or the sum of the voltage rises in any closed circuit loop equals the sum of
the voltage drops in that loop.
For sources, a voltage drop occurs when you go from positive to negative, and a voltage
rise when you go from negative to positive. For circuit elements such as resistors, a
voltage drop occurs when you travel the loop in the direction of the assumed current. A
voltage rise occurs when you travel the loop in a direction opposite to the assumed
current.
The first sep in solving a network is to assume the direction of current in each branch and
label the assumed currents. It is not necessary to attempt to find the actual current
directions. If the assumed direction is wrong, the solved value is negative. If the
assumed direction is correct, the solved value is positive. Write as many equations as
needed to include all unknown currents in the circuit.
The next step is to write voltage equations for each loop. It is necessary to write as many
voltage equations to include all unknown currents.
R2 Junction A R3
I3 I2
I1
R1 R4 R5
V1 V2
II. OBJECTIVE
1. To determine the circuit parameters of a network using Kirchhoff’s law
computation and by using a digital meter.
III. MATERIALS:
Power supply: regulated power supply
Equipment: Digital multimeter
Resistance Network module
Connecting wires
IV. PROCEDURE
C. Setting of voltage and resistor values.
6. Layout your resistance network on your worksheet. Designate the resistor
numbers and measure each resistance.
7. Assign current directions and indicate in the schematic diagram (Figure 10.1)
8. Connect the regulated power supply to the resistance network. Set V1 to 12
volts and V2 to 15 volts (or voltage values assigned to your group). Adjust
the voltage by measuring the power output with a digital meter.
9. Measure the voltage drops across each resistor. Record in the Table 10.1.
10. Measure currents I1, I2, and I3 using a digital meter and note the indicated
polarity of the measured current.
11. Compute for the percentage error of the experiment and assumed current if
correct or not.
I1 I2 I3
Measured I
Computed I
Direction
% Error
R2 Junction A R3
I3 I2
I1
Loop A Loop B
R1 R4 R5
Junction B
V1 V2
I1 I2 I3
Measured I
Computed I
Direction
% Error
V. CONCLUSION
LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 11
The Oscilloscope
I. OBJECTIVE:
IV. PROCEDURE
PRELIMINARY OPERATION
3. Connect the AC line cord between the AC input socket and an AC outlet.
4. Set the POWER switch to ON. After about 20 seconds, a trace will appear on the CRT
screen. Adjust the INTENSITY control to increase the brightness to suit your
lighting conditions.
5. Adjust the FOCUS and INTENSITY controls for a well-defined, sharp trace line.
6. Readjust the vertical and horizontal POSITION controls to center the trace on the CRT
screen.
NOTE: Perform the following probe compensation steps for CHA and then, as directed,
for HE.
7. Set the VOLTS/DIV switch of CHA to 50 mV and the VAR control fully clockwise to
CAL'D.
9. Connect a 10:1- probe to the input of CHA and hook the probe tip to the CAL 2 V p-p
terminal. A square wave as shown in Fig 3 will appear.
10. If the square wave has excessive rounding or overshoot at the top corner, adjust the
trimmer in the probe to produce the best flat top.
11. Remove the probe from the CAL terminal.
12. Set the VERT MODE and SOURCE switches to CHB. Then repeat steps 6 through 11
using a second probe for CHB.
The horizontal (time base) circuitry can operate in two modes: AUTO and NORM. In the
AUTO mode, triggering of the sweep occurs even in the absence of an input signal. In the
NORM mode, a sweep occurs only when the input signal meets the conditions
established by the triggering controls. The controls used for triggering are described in
more detail below.
Part 2: Reading the measured signal using the grid-line scale using the viewing area
of the oscilloscope
2. Determine the number of vertical and horizontal divisions, from the grid-line scale
(called as graticule) that appears on the viewing area of the oscilloscope, that are used
for measuring displayed signal. Record the result on the space provided below.
3. Write down the minimum and maximum setting of the volts/division and time/division
control knobs on the respective space provided below.
8. Press in the POWER switch. the POWER lamp should light immediately. About 30
seconds later, rotate the INTEN controls clockwise until the trace appears on the
screen. adjust the brightness to the lowest level of brightness that will permit the
display to be effectively viewed.
NOTE: Get in the habit of turning the brightness away if the oscilloscope is left
unattended for any period of time.
11. See if the trace is precisely in parallel with the horizontal graticule line. if it is not,
adjust the ROTATION control with a small screw driver.
12. Turn the Horizontal POSITION control to align the left edge of the trace with the
left-most graticule line.
13. Set one of the supplied oscilloscope probes for X10 attenuation. then, connect its
BNC end to the CH1 or X-IN connector and its tip to the CAL connector. A square-
wave display, five divisions in amplitude, should appear on the CRT screen.
14. If the tops and bottoms of the displayed square wave are tilted or peaked, as shown in
Figure 1.1, the probe must be compensated (matched to the oscilloscope input
capacitance). Adjust the capacitance-correction trimmer of the probe with a small
screw driver.
15. Set the V MODE switch to CHB, and perform steps #13 and #14 with the other
probe on channel A.
VI. CONCLUSION
VII. QUESTIONS:
I. OBJECTIVES
Familiar with the use of multitesters, oscilloscope, and analog trainer (module)
Multitester 1
Multitap transformer . 1
Dual-trace oscilloscope 1
V. PROCEDURE
1. Look for the terminals of the multitap transformer’s secondary output winding labeled
as 0v, 3V, 4.5V, 6V, 9V, and 12V.
2. Verify the transformer’s output voltages by measuring each terminal with respect to the
0V terminal using an ac voltmeter and record the results in Table 2.1 under the column
or rms value.
2. Adjust the Vertical POSITION control to set the trace near mid screen.
3. Set the oscilloscope probe for direct connection (x10 attenuation). Then, connect its
BNC end to the CHA connector and GND connector to 0V terminal of the multitap
transformer.
4. Connect the probe tip to the 3 V terminal of the multitap transformer, then adjust the
TIME/DIV switch for two or three cycle of the waveform, and set the VOLTS.DIV
switch for the largest possible on-screen-display, as illustrated in Figure 2.1
Vp
Vpp
1 cycle
5. Use the Vertical POSITION control in channel A to position the negative peaks on the
nearest horizontal graticule line below the signal peaks as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
6. Use the Horizontal POSITION control to position one of the positive peaks on the
central vertical graticule line
7. Count the number of divisions from the graticule line touching the negative signal
peaks to the intersection of the positive signal peak with the central vertical graticule
line. Note that each minor division on the central vertical line is 0.2 of a major
division. Multiply this number by the VOLTS/DIV switch setting to get the peak-to-
peak voltage of the 3 V output of the transformer.
9. Determine the theoretical peak-to-peak voltage for each specified rms voltage in Table
2.1 by the formula given below. Record the results in Table 2.1 under the column
“computed peak-to-peak voltage”.
VII. CONCLUSION
VIII. QUESTIONS:
1. What is the rms voltage of a sinusoidal ac signal that has a peak-to-peak voltage of
42.42 volts?
3. What is the rms voltage of a signal if its peak-to-peak level when measured occupies
3.5 divisions at a VOLTS/DIV switch setting of 0.2v and with the attenuation probe
set to x10?
REFERENCES
Alexan Oscilloscope Manual. Dual Scope
Cuaresma, F.D. and R.G. Peneyra. 1999. Manual in the Use of a Multitester. CLSU.
Kaufman, Milton and J.A. Wilson 1982. Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and Problems
of Electronics Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book, Inc.
Projects and Circuits. Quezon City, Philippines: Electronic Hobbyist Publishing House.
Volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor
http://www.twisted-pair.com/