Chapter 1: Units and Standards

Enrico Fermi

There are two possible outcomes: if the result confirms the hypothesis, then you've made
a measurement. If the result is contrary to the hypothesis, then you've made a discovery.

~ Enrico Fermi ~
1.1 The art of measurement
What do we mean when we say “We have made a measurement”? To understand this, let us
look at some examples..
Example 1: Task: Measure the number of oranges in a box. We simply count the
oranges in the box and say there are 165 oranges.
Example 2: Task: Measure the height of a person. The result is, say, 167 centimeters.
Example 3: Task: Measure the weight of the apples in the basket. The result is, say,
505 grams.
Now we do understand that through the process called “measurement”, we quantify the
extent or amount of what is being measured and express the result in terms of a number and
a unit as
165 Oranges If it can't be expressed in figures, it is
167 centimeters not science; it is opinion.
— Robert Heinlein
505 grams
A century back, the units of measurement used for different quantities were different in
different parts of the world. Some examples are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Units of measurement that were in vogue

Quantity Country
Britain Greek South India
Length Inch, Foot, Furlong, Dactylos, Pous, Pechys Nool, Angulam,
Mile [cubit], Plethron, Stadion Muzham, Kaadham
Weight Ounce, Pound, Ton Obolus, Mina, Talent Tola, Palam, Veesai
Volume Pint, Quart, Gallon Cotyla, Chous, Metretes Aazhakku, Padi,
Marakkal

The earliest unit for measurement is concerned with length. In most parts of the world, the
length measurements were based on parts of the body. The Egyptian pechys [cubit] and the
muzham used in the southern part of India are the same and indicate the length between the
tip of the middle finger and the elbow of the arm of a person. Though the cubit is not in use,
muzham is still used in southern India, especially in Tamil Nadu, for the sale of a string of
knit flowers.
1.2 International system of units
After years of debate to have a uniform system of units all over the globe, in 1960, several
countries came together and agreed to have a single uniform system of units for
measurement. This system is now called the “International System of Units” (Le Systeme
international d'Unites) or simply SI units. The salient landmarks on the timeline of the
evolution of SI units are given below.

1.2.1 Brief history of SI units

1799: Introduction of the metric system and first prototype meter and kilogram.
1832: Gauss advocates adoption of “metric” system, later Weber joins.
1874: Metric system abandoned and the centimeter-gram-second (cgs) system
comes into vogue due to politics.
 1875: The meter, kilogram, second (MKS) system was proposed and accepted.
1901: Giogi links m, kg and s to other units (A, V, J, , H, F ..).
1936: mkgsA system proposed (popularly called MKS system or metric system)
and approved by all in 1946.
1954: Officially kelvin and candela were taken as base units.
1960: Officially the mkgsAKcd becomes International System of Units (SI
units).
1971: “mole” is added as the seventh base SI unit.
Today the SI system has been officially recognized and adopted by nearly all countries.
Only a very few countries (Liberia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Palau, Samona
and notably the United States of America) have not yet adopted the SI system. Though the
usage of SI in scientific and engineering exchanges around the globe is 100 %, the amount
of usage on a daily basis varies with each nation.
1.2.2 The base units of SI
The SI system of units consists of seven base (principal) units and several derived units.
The seven base SI units are listed in Table 1.2(i)

Table 1.2 (i) Base units of SI system

Quantity Name of Abbreviation/
the Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Note: The American spelling for the unit of length is ‘meter’. This unit is spelt in the
original “Le Systeme international d'Unites” document as “metre”. Today both spellings are
accepted as correct. In addition to the above seven units which have dimensions, two non-
dimensional units (just numbers), representing plane and solid angles, and called auxiliary
units, are also taken as part of the basic SI system of units.

Table 1.2 (ii) Auxiliary Units in SI

Quantity Name of Abbreviation/Symbol In terms of SI base units
unit
Plane angle radian rad m/m
Solid angle steradian sr m2 /m2
In order to fix how long a meter is or how much a kilogram is or what constitutes the
duration of a second … SI lists a set of definitions for the base and derived units. The
definitions of the seven SI base units are given below.

meter [m]
One meter (spelt also as metre), the basic unit of length, is defined as the
distance that light travels in vacuum in 1/299792458th of a second.
kilogram [kg]
One kilogram, the basic unit of mass, is defined as the mass of an
international prototype in the form of a platinum-iridium (90 % platinum,
10 % iridium) cylinder kept at Sevres in France.
Note: The kilogram is the only base unit that is still defined in terms of a
material prototype unit. Efforts are on to replace the prototype platinum-
iridium cylinder by a sphere made from single crystal silicon containing a
certain exact number of molecules. The kilogram is also the only SI base
unit with a prefix (kilo) already in place.
second [s]
One second, the basic unit of time, is defined as the time taken for
9192631770 periods of radiation (oscillation) corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
ampere [A]
One ampere, the basic unit of electric current, is defined as that current
which produces a force equal to 2 10-7 newton (kg m/s2) per meter of length
of the conductors, when passing through two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, placed one meter apart in
vacuum.
The unit of ampere is named to honour the French scientist Andre Ampere
(1775 to 1836).
Note: The somewhat impractical definition of the ampere is expected to be
replaced by a new definition by improving the accuracy of the known
numerical value of e, the fundamental unit of charge and linking the ampere
to it.
kelvin [K]
One kelvin, the basic unit of temperature, is defined as 1/273.15th of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
The unit of kelvin is named after the British scientist William Thomson who
became the first Lord Kelvin (1824 to 1907).
candela [cd]
One candela, the basic unit of luminous intensity, is defined as the intensity
in a given direction, of a light source that emits monochromatic radiation of
frequency of 540 tera hertz (1012 Hz or THz) and has a radiant intensity in
that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
mole [mol]
One mole, the basic unit of substance, is defined as the amount of substance
that contains as many elementary units as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of
carbon 12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified
(may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified
groups of such particles).
1.2.3 Derived units in SI
Apart from the base units, SI defines several derived units. Derived units are those which
can be re-written (expressed) using a combination of SI base units. The derived units in SI
are grouped into two distinct categories:
(i) Derived units with special names (listed in Table 1.3) and
(ii) Derived units without special names (listed in Table 1.4).

Table 1.3 Derived units in SI system with special names

Quantity Name of unit Symbol in terms of
Other SI SI base units
units
Absorbed dose gray Gy J/kg m2 s-2
Activity (radionuclide) becquerel Bq - s-1
Capacitance farad F C/V A2 s4 kg-1 m-2
Catalytic activity katal kat - mol s-1
Celsius temperature degree Celsius °C - K
Dose equivalent sievert Sv J/kg m2 s-2
Electric charge coulomb C - As
Electric conductance siemens S A/V A2 s3 m-2 kg-1
Electric Resistance ohm  V/A kg m2 s-3 A-2
Electromotive force volt V W/A kg m2 s-3 A-1
Energy joule J Nm kg m2 s-2
Force newton N - kg m s-2
Frequency hertz Hz - s-1
Illuminance lux lx lm/m2 cd sr m-2
Inductance henry H Wb/A kg m2 s-2 A-2
Luminous flux lumen lm Cd sr m2 m-2 cd
Magnetic flux weber Wb Vs kg m2 s-2 A-1
Magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2 kg s-2 A-1
Power watt W J/s kg m2 s-3
Pressure pascal Pa N/m2 kg m-1 s-2

Note: When we write the temperature in celsius, the symbol degree is prefixed and should
be read as such. When kelvin is used to indicate the temperature one should neither use the
degree symbol nor include the “degree” when referring to the measurement.
Example: Temperature of triple point of water at sea level is 273.15 K (should be read as
two hundred and seventy three point one five kelvin). Boiling point of water at sea level is
100 C (should be read as hundred degree celsius).
 Table 1.4 Derived units in SI system without special names
Quantity Name Abbreviation
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Speed, velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
Wave number reciprocal meter m-1
Mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
Current density ampere per square meter A/m2
Magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
Luminance candela per square meter cd/m2

Apart from the above units, SI also permits continued use of some existing units. For
example, the unit of degree celsius (also known as centigrade), in use for the measurement
of temperature, is accepted as an alternative unit for kelvin. 0 C is 273.15 K. Table 1.5
lists other “non SI units” permitted by the Comité International des Poids et Measures
(CIPM) for everyday use.

Table 1.5 Non SI units recognized by CPIM

Quantity Unit
Angle degree (), minute (') and second (") { rad = 180}
Area hectare (ha) = 104 m2
Energy electron volt (eV) {1 eV = 1.6021 10-19 J = 160.21 zJ}
Mass tonne (t) {1 t = 103 kg}
Pressure, stress bar {1 bar = 100 kPa}
Time minute (m), hour (h) and day (d)
Volume litre or liter (l or L) =10-3 m3

The definitions of some of the prominent derived SI units are given next.
becquerel
One becquerel (pronounced as “be ka rel”), the unit that describes the
quantum of radioactivity, defines the radioactivity when one nucleus decays
per second in a radioactive material.
The unit 'becquerel' is named to honour the French Physicist Henri
Becquerel (1852 to 1908).
coulomb
One coulomb, the unit of electric charge, is the amount of electric charge
transported by a direct current (dc) of one ampere in one second.
 The unit 'coulomb' is named to honour the great French Physicist Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb (1736 to 1806).
farad [F]
One farad, the unit of the capacitance indicating an electrical system’s
capacity to store electricity in electrostatic field(s), stores one coulomb of
charge and develops a potential difference of one volt. One farad is a rather
large unit and the units microfarad (F=10-6 F), nanofarad (nF = 10-9 F) and
picofarad (pF = 10-12 F) are more commonly used in practice.
The unit 'farad' is named to honour the great English scientist Michael
Faraday (1791 to 1867).
gray
One gray, the unit for the measurement of ionizing radiation, is the amount
of radiation absorbed when one joule of energy is taken in by a mass
(matter) of one kilogram.
The unit 'gray' is named to honour Louis Harold Gray who proposed a
similar concept (1905 to 1965).
henry
One henry, the unit of inductance (self or mutual), is the inductance that
produces one weber of magnetic flux for a current of one ampere.
The unit 'henry' is named to honour the American scientist Joseph Henry
(1797 to 1867).
hertz [Hz]
One hertz, the unit that describes the frequency of a periodic phenomenon,
indicates that one complete cycle of the phenomenon occurs every second.
The unit 'hertz' is named to honour the German scientist Heinrich Rudolph
Hertz (1857 to 1894).
joule [J]
One joule, the unit for energy, is the amount of work done when an applied
force of 1 newton moves through a distance of 1 meter in the direction of the
force.
The unit 'joule' is named to honour the English physicist James Prescott
Joule (1818 to 1889).
katal
One katal, the unit for catalytic activity (quantifies catalytic activity) of
enzymes and other catalysts, is the amount of enzyme or catalyst required
for breaking one mole of the substance being broken in one second.
lumen
One lumen, the unit for luminous flux, is the luminous flux emitted
(uniformly) by a light source of intensity one candela across a solid angle of
one steradian.

newton [N]
One newton, the unit of force, is the force required to give a mass of
1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 meter per second per second.
The unit 'newton' is named to honour the great English scientist Sir Isaac
Newton (1642 to 1727).
ohm [Ω ]
One ohm, the unit of resistance of an electrical conductor, develops one volt
across it when one ampere flows through it. The ohm has a special symbol 
(the capital Greek letter 'omega').
The unit 'ohm' is named to honour the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm
(1789 to 1854).
pascal [Pa]
One pascal, the unit of pressure, is the pressure generated by a force of
1 newton acting on an area of one square meter.
The unit 'pascal' is named to honour the French mathematician and physicist
Blaise Pascal (1623 to 1662).
siemens
One siemens, the unit of electric conductance, is that conductance which
permits a current of one ampere to flow through it when one volt is applied.
The unit 'siemens' is named to honour the German engineer Ernst Werner
von Siemens (1816 to 1892).
sievert
One sievert, the unit of ionizing radiation dose, is one joule of ionizing
radiation absorbed by one kilogram of biological mass.
Though gray and sievert have the same dimension (J/kg) they are different.
Sievert points to the biological effects of ionizing radiation and gray records
the absorbed dose of radiation, a physical quantity.
The unit 'sievert' is named to honour the Swedish medical physicist Rolf
Maximilian Sievert (1896 to 1966).
tesla
One tesla, the unit of magnetic flux density, is the flux density that occurs
when one weber of flux is uniformly distributed over an area on one square
meter.
The unit 'tesla' is named to honour the Serbian-American physicist and
electrical engineer Nikola Tesla (1856 to 1943).
volt [V]
One volt, the unit of electric potential, is the difference of potential between
two points of an electrical conductor when a dc current of one ampere
flowing between those points dissipates a power of 1 watt.
The unit 'volt' is named to honour the Italian physicist Alessandro Giuseppe
Anastasio Volta (1745 to 1827).
watt [W]
One watt, the unit of power, is the power when one joule of energy is
consumed or delivered per second.
The unit 'watt' is named to honour the Scottish engineer James Watt (1736 to
1819).
weber
One weber, the unit of magnetic flux, is the flux that produces one volt if the
flux decays uniformly to zero in one second.
The unit 'weber' is named to honour the German physicist Wilhelm Eduard
Weber (1804 to 1891).
1.2.4 Standard prefixes for SI units
Some SI units are either too small or too large for practical use. Hence, their use tends to be
cumbersome in some applications. For example, to represent one thousandth of a meter, we
need to write 0.001 m. Similarly a hundred thousand meters is to be written as 100 000 m.
It would be nice if we are able to represent small and large values in a concise manner. In
order to facilitate this, these values are expressed in terms of powers of ten and a prefix is
added to the unit to indicate that a multiplication factor has been added. The well known
prefix kilo indicates that the number presented must be multiplied by one thousand. For
example one kilometer is one thousand meters. The full range of SI approved prefixes with
their symbols and abbreviations along with other popular names in practical use (if any) are
given in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6 Standard prefixes in SI

Multipli Popular name
cative Prefix Symbol Value
factor of the prefix

1024 yotta Y 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
21
10 zetta Z 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
18
10 exa E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000
1015 peta P 1 000 000 000 000 000
1012 tera T 1 000 000 000 000 trillion
109 giga G 1 000 000 000 billion
106 mega M 1 000 000 million
103 kilo k 1 000 thousand
2
10 hecto h 100 hundred
1
10 deca da 10 ten
100 1 one
10-1 deci d 0.1 one tenth
10-2 centi c 0.01 one hundredth
10-3 milli m 0.001 one thousandth
10-6 micro  0.000 001 one millionth
-9
10 nano n 0.000 000 001 one billionth
10-12 pico p 0.000 000 000 001 one trillionth
10-15 femto f 0.000 000 000 000 001
10-18 atto a 0.000 000 000 000 000 001
10-21 zepto z 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001
10-24 yocto y 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001
Note: The symbol used for micro is the Greek letter µ pronounced as 'mu' .
Some of the multiplication factors listed in Table 1.6 have special names that were in vogue
even before SI units came into existence. For example the multiplication factor 1 000 000
(Mega in SI) is also popularly known as one million. Historically, in olden days British
usage (Britain and Australia), the term 'billion' was used to refer to a million million
[(106)2 = 1012, now known as the ‘billion’ in the long scale]. Similarly in the old British
and Australian usage a ‘trillion' [the ‘trillion’ in the long scale] referred to a million million
million (106)3]. Current British English, however, has generally adopted the American
equivalents, which are as specified in Table 1.6.
Using the prefixes, the value 0.001 m can now be written as 1 10-3 m or more concisely
1 mm (read as one millimeter). Similarly, 1 000 000  can be written as 1 M (read as one
mega ohm). The unit of pressure, pascal, is not a big unit even in terms of ordinary use. So
pressure is generally expressed in terms of 1 000 Pa (kPa) or 1 000 000 Pa (MPa). The
atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101 325 Pa and we denote it as 101.325 kPa.

In engineering, the usage of only a few selected SI prefixes is preferred to enable additional
standardization. For example we never write 0.010 A as 1.0 cA (one centiampere) Instead
we prefer to write it as 10 mA. The units with the preferred prefixes are listed in Table 1.7

Table 1.7 Preferred SI multiples and submultiples in engineering

Sl. Quantity SI Preferred multiples and submultiples
No unit
1 Length m nm, μm, mm, km
2 Area m2 mm2, km2
3 Volume m3 mm3
4 Time s ps, ns, μs, ms
5 Velocity, speed m/s km/h or kmh-1
6 Frequency Hz μHz, mHz, kHz, MHz, GHz, THz
7 Power W pW, nW, μW, mW, kW, MW, GW, TW
8 Current A fA, pA, nA, μA, mA, kA
9 Charge C pC, nC, μC, kC
10 Electric potential difference V nV, μV, mV, kV, MV
11 Capacitance F pF, nF, μF, mF
12 Resistance Ω μΩ, , mΩ, kΩ, MΩ, GΩ
13 Conductance S μS, kS, mS
14 Inductance H pH, nH, μH, mH

1.2.5 Rules for writing the value of a measurement

(i) Rules for writing the units
Now we know that when we record the result of a measurement, we have to write the value
in terms of a number and a unit. SI stipulates various rules for writing the number and the
SI unit. These rules are made to avoid ambiguities in the interpretation of the result and to
convey the essential information about its limitations to a third person who has no
knowledge of the measurement process or the details of instrument used. They are listed
below.
  The unit symbol must be placed after the numerical value with a single space
between the numerical value and the unit symbol. This rule is also applicable for
the symbol ‘ %’ (percentage) and ºC. The only exception to this rule is when
writing the value of an angle  in degrees, minutes and seconds.
Example:  = 33°22'44" (Note: No space is to be given between the number and
the unit symbols). Some more examples are tabulated below.
Correct representation Wrong representation
Room temperature = 30.1 C = 30.1C; = 30.1 C
22 k resistor 22-k resistor; 22k resistor
100 mL 100-mL; 100m L; 100x10-3 L
33.5 % 33.5%

 Only one unit must be written for indicating the result.

For example, 1.234 m is correct and should not be written as 1 m, 23 cm and
4 mm. The only exception to this rule is when an angle is expressed in degrees,
minutesand seconds.
Example:  = 12°34'56".
 The symbol for the unit must always be written in normal typeface (SI does not
permit italics or bold face for writing the symbol for units).
Proper: The total weight of the apples in the crate is 123.4 kg.
Improper: The total weight of the apples in the crate is 123.4 kg.
The total weight of the apples in the crate is 123.4 kg.
 The unit cannot have any annex or appendix.
Examples: V1max = 123 V is correct and should not be written as V1 = 123 Vmax.
Resistance per tray is 100 Ω and not Resistance is 100 Ω/tray.
 Though it is not part of SI rules, it is better to stick to writing variables in italics
as is done above. Over the years, symbols to represent different variables have
also become sort of standardized. For example the symbols  or  are invariably
used to represent angles (sin , cos  and so on). Table 1.8 lists standard
symbols that are normally reserved for certain types of quantities.

Table 1.8 Standard symbols in vogue

No. Quantity Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
1. Admittance Y S
2. Angle (plane angle) , , α, β, γ… rad, also ..o, ..’, ..’’
3. Angular frequency ω = 2π f rad/s
4. Angular velocity ω rad/s
5. Apparent power S VA
6. Area, surface area A, S m2
Note 1
7. Average value of a current Ī ,ī , Iav A
8. Capacitance C F
9. Conductance G S
10. Conductivity σ, γ S/m
11. Coupling coefficient k, kab -
12. Current density J A/m2
Note 1
13. Current phasor I, I , Ī, I A
DC component of the emitter current
14. IE A
containing ac and dc components
15. Density ρ kg/m3
16. Dissipation factor ( = tan δ ) d -
Effective value of the a.c. component
17. Ie A
of the emitter current
18. Efficiency η Ratio or percent
19. Electric Charge Q C (also A s)
20. Electric current I A
21. Electric dipole moment p C m (also A s m)
22. Electric field strength E V/m
23. Electric flux ψ C
24. Electric flux density, displacement D C/m2
25. Electric polarization P C/m2
26. Electric potential V, φ V
27. Energy E, W J, also kW h, eV
28. Force F N
29. Frequency f Hz
30. Impedance Z Ω
31. Incremental value of a current ΔI A
Instantaneous value of the ac
32. ie A
component of the emitter current.
Instantaneous value of a varying
33. i A
current
Instantaneous value of the emitter
34. iE A
current carrying ac and dc
35. Length L m
36. Linear speed, velocity v, u m/s
37. Loss angle δ rad
38. Magnetic field strength H A/m
39. Magnetic flux Φ Wb
40. Magnetic flux density (induction) B T
41. Magnetic moment m A m2
42. Magnetic potential difference u,U A
43. Magnetic vector potential A Wb/m
44. Magnetomotive force (mmf) F, F A (also AT)
45. Mass m kg
46. Mass moment of inertia J kg m2
47. Mutual inductance M, Lab H
48. Peak value of a current Î , Im , Ip A
μ ( μ0 for free
49. Permeability H/m
space)
50. Permeance = ( Reluctance )-1 Λ H
ε (ε0 for free
51. Permittivity (Capacitivity) F/m
space)
52. Phase difference Φ, φ, θ rad (also in º)
53. Potential difference, voltage V, U V
54. Power factor λ , PF -
55. Power, active power P W

56. Poynting vector S, P, P W/m2
57. Pressure p Pa
58. Quality factor Q -
59. R.M.S. value of a current I , I rms A
60. Reactance X Ω
61. Reactive power Q VAr also var
62. Relative permeability μr Number, unitless
63. Relative permittivity εr Number, unitless
64. Reluctance R , Rm,  H-1
65. Resistance R Ω
66. Resistivity ρ Ωm
67. Rotational speed n s-1
68. Self inductance L, Laa H
69. Solid angle Ω sr
70. Surface density of charge σ C/m2
71. Time t s
72. Time constant τ s
 73. Time of one cycle, period T s
74. Torque T Nm
75. Velocity of electromagnetic waves c m/s
76. Volume V, v m3
77. Volume density of charge ρ C/m3
78. Wave length Λ m

Notes:
 If the symbol Ī is used for the phasor of a current, then the same symbol should
not be used to denote the average value of a current. IEEE standards committee
recommends the use of I for a phasor and Ī for indicating the average value of a
current. This rule is applicable for voltages as well.
 It is desirable that the letter symbols for a particular quantity and its associated
unit are different.
For example, if we denote a potential on a node in a circuit as V we may have to
write its value as V = 100 V (the value for V is assumed to be 100 V) in print
and, worse still, as V = 100 V in handwritten form, where italics are not used. To
circumvent this awkwardness, we generally associate a suitable subscript with
the symbol. For example, a particular voltage in a system can be represented as:
VP, V1, V2, Va, Vb, Vab .
In such a case, when we write VP = 100 V, the meaning becomes very clear. The
use of the symbol U for potential difference as a quantity is a better practice. In
fact, Indian Standard specification IS: 3722 and Continental standards
recommend the use of the letter symbol U for voltage, but in practice most
continue to use the traditional symbol V for indicating the electric potential
difference as is common practice in U.K. and U.S.A.
 A unit in symbolic form cannot stand alone without a number symbol.
‘There are 1012 µm in 1 km’ is correct. ‘There are trillion µm in 1 km’ is wrong
and should be written as 'There are trillion micrometers in a kilometer'.
‘Volume is expressed in cubic meters’ is correct and ‘volume expressed in m3’ is
wrong.
 Units have to be written contiguously and cannot be split
Correct way of writing Wrong way of writing
The concentration of oxygen is 5 g/L The concentration is 5 g of oxygen /L
3
Sensitivity of O2 molecules is 5000 /m Sensitivity is 5.0 103 O2 molecules /m3
The ion emission rate is 1010/s The emission rate is 1010 ions /s

 Any unit may take only one prefix. For example 'micro micro meter' (m) is
incorrect and should be written as 'pico meter' (pm).

 Most prefixes which make a unit bigger are written in capital letters (mega M,
giga G, tera T etc.), but when a prefix converts the unit to a smaller value then
the lower case (m n p etc.) is used. Exceptions to the former are the kilo (may be
 to avoid confusion with kelvin K), hecto (may be to avoid confusion with henry
H) and deca.
 From Table 1.3 it is seen that many units are eponymous, that is, they are named
after persons who had carried out pioneering work in the field in which the unit
is used. When named in full, such a unit must be written with all letters in lower
case (newton, volt, pascal etc.), but written with a capital letter (N V Pa etc.)
when abbreviated. All other generic units (kilogram, meter and second) must be
written with lower case letters when spelt in full as well as when abbreviated
(kg, m and s). An exception to this rule is the litre which can be abbreviated
with a capital letter L. May be due to the fact that if litre is abbreviated as a
lower case 'l' it could be mistaken for a '1' (one).
 Units written in abbreviated form should never be pluralized with an ‘s’
appended at the end. For example 'm' can indicate either 'meter' or 'meters'.
‘Kilograms’ should be abbreviated as ‘kg’ and not 'kgs' because 'kgs' would
represent 'kilogram second'.
 Other than permitted units and prefixes, other forms of abbreviations such as
ppm (parts per million) or ppt (parts per thousand) are not recognized in SI.
 An abbreviation (such as K, A, J, N, g, Pa  etc.) is never followed by a full-
stop unless it is written at the end of a sentence.

 When writing multiple measurements, units must accompany each number as

indicated below.
Correct representation Wrong representation
the dimensions (length by width) the dimensions (length by width)
chosen were 1.2 m by 3 m chosen were 1.2 x 3 m
The temperature varied in the range The temperature varied in the range
273 K to 330 K 273 - 330 K
The voltage was varied in the 0 V to The voltage was varied in the 0-5V
5 V range. range.
100 m ±1 m OR (100±1) m 100 ± 1 m or 100 m ±1

(ii) Rules for writing the numbers

We have so far discussed the rules to be observed for indicating the units in the result of a
measurement. It is common practice to indicate the numerical part of the result with upright
numerals (not italics). Additionally, SI stipulates the following rules for writing the
numeral part in a standardized fashion.
 The SI preferred way of showing a decimal fraction is to use a comma (123,456)
to separate the whole number (123) from its fractional part (456/1000). The
practice of using a ‘decimal point’, as is common in many countries, is
acceptable in SI provided that the point is placed only on the bottom edge of the
line in which the numbers are written.
Example: 123.456. The point should never be placed in the middle as in
“123456”.
 When writing large numbers, the numerals may be divided into groups of 3
separated by spaces (or half-spaces) so as to make the numbers easier to read.
The numbers should never be separated by commas.
  As far as possible, prefixes must be used. For example writing the value as
1.23 1010 Hz should be avoided. Instead, the value should be written as 12.3
GHz. Similarly 0.001 234 g should be written as 1.234 mg.
 Like the units, the prefixes also cannot be used alone. For example it is correct
to write: 'The change in the refractive index was 1.2 10-6'. It is wrong to write:
'The change in the refractive index is 1.2 µ.
 Only the significant digits must be written, to clearly indicate the reliable extent
of the result obtained in the measurement.

Significant digit
An instrument needs to be employed in making any measurement. The smallest value that
can be unambiguously read with an instrument is called the resolution of that instrument.
The number part of the result of a measurement, along with the proper unit, should clearly
reflect this fact.
Let us look at some examples:
 Figure 1.1 shows an ammeter wherein a pointer moves on a scale of 150
divisions. Obviously the minimum value that can be unambiguously read is 1
division out of 150 and hence the resolution is 1/150 (0.0066…) of the full
scale. If we take this scale to represent a 150 mA ammeter, then the resolution is
1/150th of 150 mA and hence is 1 mA. The reading from Figure1.1 can be then
written as 100 mA. The underscore here indicates the significant digit; also
called the least count. When we write the result as 100 mA, it shows (to others
who had not witnessed the reading being taken) that the reading obtained is
closer to 100 mA than to either 99 mA or 101 mA (±1 variation on the
significant digit). It is customary that the underlining is done on the lowest
significant digit instead of on all the significant digits.
 Figure 1.2 shows another scenario. Here we know for sure that the reading lies
between 89 mA and 90 mA and we may write the reading as 89.5 mA.
Note: The underscore is still on the significant digit. Hence a reading should
always portray the true resolution of the instrument employed for obtaining that
measurement.
 Figure 1.3 shows yet another measurement, this time a resistance is measured
with an ohmmeter. The correct way to represent the result of this measurement

Figure 1.1 Reading with a PMMC meter (courtesy Siemens, Germany)

 Figure 1.2 Reading with a PMMC meter (courtesy Siemens, Germany)

is 1.2 k. Though 1.2 k and 1200  are mathematically equivalent they are
not the same when results of measurement are indicated. The resolution in the
measurement as portrayed in Figure 1.3 is 0.1 k or 100 . If the result is
indicated as 1200  , then it implies that the measurement is made with a
resolution of 1 .
Hence when results of a measurement are indicated, 1.2 k  1200 !
 The underlining of the lowest significant digit is often omitted with the
understanding that the resolution is the value of one unit of the smallest digital
position displayed in the result.
Thus, the resolution is 1 V if the reading is indicated as 90 V , the resolution is
0.1 V if the reading is written as 90.0 V and the resolution is 0.01 V when the
reading is indicated as 90.00 V and so on. Thus 90  90.0  90.00 when you are
indicating the result arising out of a measurement.
Propagation of significant digit
 In many instances, we may use the results of several measurements to compute
the value of a required parameter. It may turn out that the instruments utilized

Figure 1.3 Measurement of a resistance using an analog multimeter

 for these measurements have different resolution levels and thus the
measurements have significant digits in different decimal positions. In such a
case, the end result must be written to reflect the influence of that measurement
which has the lowest number of significant digits.
For example we may measure the voltage VR across and current IR through a
resistor R and compute its resistance as R = VR/IR.
Say, in a particular measurement, the value of VR is 100.00 V (number of
significant digits is 5) and the value of IR is 10 mA (number of significant digits
is 2).
Then R = VR/IR = 100.00/10 = 10 .
Here the result is expressed correctly with the smaller number of significant
digits (2 digits) of the two measurements.
Now if the current is measured as 10.0 mA (three significant digits) then R will
be
R = VR/IR = 100.00 /10.0 = 10.0  (number of significant digits is 3)
Rounding off of significant digit
When we compute a result using several measured values, its numerical value may contain
more number of digits than the least number of significant digits. For example in a dc
circuit, if Vdc is measured as 1.251 V and Idc as 10 mA then power Pdc is computed as:
Pdc = Vdc Idc = 12.51 mW.
But the result can have only two significant digits. In such cases either we can show the
position of the lowest significant digit by an underscore or drop the excess digits. The
dropping of excess digits is governed by the “rounding off rule”. If the excess digits to be
dropped are > 5000… , then a one is added to the lowest significant digit and the excess
digits are dropped. In the above example 51(digits to be dropped) > 50, hence the final
result is indicated as:
Pdc = 13 mW.
Here the underscore indicates the position of the significant digit. On the other hand, if the
digits to be dropped are say, < 5000.., then the digits are dropped and the lowest significant
digit is maintained as it was. If for example the voltage is 1.24499 V and current is 10.0 mA
in the above dc circuit then power is
Pdc (as computed) = 12.4499 mW;
Value of digits to be dropped = 499 < 500 . Hence after rounding off,
Pdc = 12.4 mW.
It may so happen that the digits to be dropped are exactly 5000. Then a one is added to the
significant digit if it is odd and retained as it is if it is even. For example if the computed
result is 12.4500 then the rounded off value is 12.4. On the other hand, if the number to be
rounded off is 63.500 then the rounded off value is 64. Table 1.9 lists some more examples.
1.2.6 Quick recapture of do’s and dont’s for writing SI units and data.
First letters of units and prefixes: When the unit name is written in full, use the lower case
letter as its beginning letter, even if it is a unit named after a person, such as ampere, joule,
kelvin , watt, ohm etc.. Similarly use the lower case letter at the start of all prefixes written
in full, such as mega, micro etc.
 Table 1.9 Examples of “rounding off”
Number before Fineness of Number after Significant
rounding-off rounding-off rounding-off figures
39. 2949 0. 01 34.29 4
34. 187 0. 1 34.2 3
0. 3465 0. 001 0.346 3
0. 3435 0. 001 0.344 3
2210. 4 10 2.21 x 103 3
2210. 4 1 2.210 x 103 4
0. 0496 0. 1 0 ---
0. 0496 0. 01 0.05 1
0. 0496 0. 001 0.050 2

Examples: (a) A few newtons, several amperes, 1.5 megavolts, 2 milliohms.

(b) Ampere is the name of SI unit of current.

However, if a sentence begins with the unit name, its first letter should be in capitals as per
normal practice.

 Symbols of units and prefixes: In writing the symbols, use the capital letter if
the unit has been named after a person.
Examples: 2 N, 50 Hz, 2 A.
 For units except those named after persons, and of prefixes exa (E), peta (P),
tetra (T), giga (G) and mega (M), use lower case letters.
Examples: 2 s, 5 ms, 2 km, 100 MVAr.

 Plural number: Symbols of units are identical both in singular and plural. For
example, write 5 V to indicate 5 volts and do not write it as 5 Vs.
 Spacing before the unit symbol: Allow a space between the number and the unit
symbol.
Examples: 2.1 mA not 2.1mA, 4 kΩ not 4kΩ.
 Units with prefixes: There should be no space between the prefix and the unit
symbol.
Example: 3.5 mA and not 3.5 m A.
 But a space must be provided between the individual symbols of a compound
unit symbol if they are not separated by a solidus (/).
Example: Write N s/m2 for newton second per metre squared, and not Ns/m2.
 Periods: Periods or full stops should not be used at the end of symbols except
when required for normal punctuation e.g., at the end of a sentence.
Examples: A voltage of 10.1 V appears across the resistor R1.
 The voltage across the resistance R1 is 10.1 V.
 Number of prefixes for a unit: Do not use compound prefixes by juxtaposition
of several SI prefixes e.g., use pF not μμF , use nm not mμm.
 Powers of units: When a multiple of a particular unit is raised to a power, the
power applies to the whole number, and not to the particular unit alone.
Examples: The symbol kV2 means (kV)2 or 106 V2 and not k(V2) or 103 V2.
The symbol mm2 means 10-6 m2 and not 10-3 m2.
 Solidus or negative index: Do not apply more than one solidus ( / ) in any
combination.
Examples: Use 5 m/s2 and not 5 m/s/s.
 Parentheses or negative powers may be employed as alternatives.
Examples: 5 m/s2 or 5 m s-2, 50 V/s or 50 V s-1, 2 J/(m s K) or 2 J m-1 s-1 K-1.
 Large numbers: In scientific literature, large numbers are written in groups of
three with a space in between, as in 101 325 N/m2, and not with a comma in
place of space as in 101,325 N/m2. The grouping should be done on both sides
from the decimal, as in 23 456.789 01. But a sequence of four figures is
permitted under certain circumstances, such as in the case of a date (3rd October
1933), designation of a standard (IS: 3722-1983) etc. The use of punctuation
marks like commas for breaking up numerals is not recommended by IS: 3722-
1983.
Bankers and accountants may have a different view on this business of leaving
gaps in numerals. In any event, this rule is eminently forgettable when you make
out your next cheque for twenty two thousand rupees!
 Numerical values: Appropriate units and multiplying factors should be used to
adjust the presented numerical data to a value between 0.1 and 1000. This
minimizes risks of error through misreading.
Examples
(a) R = 101.451 kΩ instead of R = 101 451 Ω
(b) L = 1.234 mH instead of L = 0.001 234 H
While computing the final result using measured values, one should not be carried away
with the large number of digits that the calculator or computer throws up. Care must be
taken to preserve and show the significant digits. For example, the voltage VR across a
resistor is measured as 48.5 V (number of significant digits is 3) and the current through
that resistor, IR, is measured as 2.1 A (2 significant figures ). If you substitute these values
in your calculator, you may get a result R = VR/IR = 23.0952381 Ω. Do not give the result
displayed by the calculator as the final result but round it off as R = 23 Ω. The value of
current itself is in doubt in the second digit and therefore all the digits beyond the second in
the computed value of R do not have any validity or significance. Do not let your calculator
lure you into claiming higher levels of significance than is warranted by the initial data.

1.3 Standards
The word “standards” has two different connotations when referred to, in the fields of
measurement and testing. Physical objects that provide “standard devices” for making
proper measurements as per SI specifications correspond to the “standards” in the field of
measurement. On the other hand, “standards” can also refer to standardized methods and
procedures for tests to be conducted for determining the characteristics of instruments or
several other devices. Standards that can quantitatively and
qualitatively assess the practices of organizations also exist.
1.3.1 The physical standards
A physical standard, as the name indicates, is a physical
device that provides an exact value of a quantity in terms of
the pertinent SI defined unit. For example the “standard cell”
that was proposed by Edward Weston in 1893 provided a
constant voltage of 1.018638 V across its terminals and was
in use for a long time as the voltage standard for Figure 1.4 Weston standard cell
measurement and comparison. Figure 1.4 illustrates a typical
“Weston standard cell”. Today, the 1.000 000 000 0 V, Josephson voltage standard (number
of significant digits 11 and resolution 1 in 10-10) is employed as the standard for voltage
measurement and comparison. Apart from the “voltage standard”, other physical devices
such as “standard resistance”, “standard capacitance”, “standard weights” and standard
gage blocks” are also physical entities (reference devices) conforming to the SI unit
definitions. Photographs of a typical standard resistor and a standard capacitor are shown
in Figure 1.5.
The physical standards are classified mainly into three categories:
(i) Primary standards
(ii) Secondary standards and
(iii) Working or Laboratory standards
Primary reference standards:
An example of the primary standard is the reference platinum-iridium kilogram mass
maintained by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures in Sevres, France. Apart from
BIPM, other national organizations such as (i) National Physical Laboratory (NPL), India
(ii) National Physical Laboratory (NPL), United Kingdom and (iii) National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST), United States of America also maintain primary and
secondary reference standards. Besides the “standard
kilogram”, these institutions also maintain “standard”
devices for other SI units, both fundamental and
derived. Another example of a primary reference
standard is the “atomic clock” built using the cesium
133 element.
For a long time, the reference standard for a meter was
a “reference scale (ruler)” maintained by the BIPM and
many national ‘standards’ organizations. Today, the
reference standard for the meter is no longer defined by
a physical object. In 1983, the standard meter was
redefined as the distance light travels in vacuum during
1/299,792,458 of a second.
Secondary reference standards
Since the primary reference standards are very valuable
and can not / should not be used on a day to day basis,
secondary reference standards are created and utilized.
For example, many of the national laboratories house
stainless steel balls of one kilogram which are used to
Figure 1.5 Standard resistor (top)
set standards for manufacturing ordinary weighing and Standard capacitor (bottom)
machines. These secondary reference standards are very close approximations of primary
reference standards.
Working (Laboratory) standards
Working standards (also popularly known as laboratory standards) are used in testing at
regional laboratories within a country to provide calibration facilities for industry / common
users (in proximity to their work place) to have their measurement setup to have a traceable
relationship to the secondary and thus to the primary standards. Depending on the
application, a working reference standard may be a very close approximation to the
secondary reference standard or can deviate a little from the secondary reference standard.
For example, the one kilogram platinum-iridium primary reference standard is expected to
be exactly 1.000 000 kg. On the other hand, a mass of 1.000 kg may be accepted as a
working standard. The “weight box” (A wooden box housing different weights such as
100 g, 50 g, 20 g …… 10 mg) that we have used for measurement during scientific
experimentation in our school / college is calibrated by a local testing laboratory and
certified. When the local testing laboratory “calibrates” the weights in the weight box, they
compare these weights with their “laboratory standard” weights and determine that the
difference is within acceptable limits set by the “OIML R 111-1: 2004(E) standard set by
Organisation International de Metrrologie Legale” for classification of laboratory weights.
Periodically the testing laboratory calibrates (compares and corrects) its weights at the apex
national standards laboratory, which in turn maintains the level of “calibration” by
comparing its weights with the BIPM. Figure 1.6 illustrates the traceability that occurs as
an outcome of this chain of calibrations. Figure 1.6 also indicates the resolution at each
stage and also captures the “traceability” for measurements made using a “screw gage”.
Calibration of measuring instruments
We measure using an instrument. It may be a simple ruler (meter scale) for the
measurement of a distance or it could be a weighing machine to know our weight. How can
we be sure that the measurement undertaken with such instruments gives results in accord
with the appropriate definition in SI? To assure the correctness of our measurement, each
instrument manufacturer “calibrates” the instrument being sold and certifies that the
instrument will give measurements correctly. The term “correctly” can give different
meanings depending on the situation. For example a voltmeter, say meter 1, gives a reading
of 1.0 V (2 significant figures) when measuring 1.000 000 V (vide significant digit in

Resolution
1 in 109 He Ne
Pt-Ir kg Laser at
BIPM BIPM

Spectral lamp
1 in 108 based distance
Stainless steel kg standard at NPL,
NPL, New Delhi New Delhi

Standard weights at Excellent 1 in 106 Standard gage blocks at The

calibration services, Chennai Eagle view NABL accredited
laboratory, Chennai

1 in 104
Weight box used in the Screw gage at the laboratory for
laboratory for measurement measurement of small distances

Figure 1.6 Traceability of a measurement through calibration

section 1.2) and another, say meter 2, can provide a reading of 1.000 V (four significant
digits) for the same voltage. We can then say that the readings of both meters are correct.
Now, if the voltage being measured is 1.006 023 V, the first meter will still read 1.0 V and
the second meter may read 1.006 V. We may, once again in general, say meter 2 reads more
correctly than meter 1. Now another meter, meter 3, may give a reading of 1.010 V when
measuring the input of 1.006 023 V. Then it is prudent to say that reading obtained from
meter 3 is incorrect. From the foregone example it is understood that it is nearly impossible
for any manufacturer to produce instruments that read correctly all the time. Even if an
instrument reads “correctly” (i.e. reads what it should under the given situation), the
measured value may not reflect the actual value of the input due to the limited number of
significant digits the instrument may possess.
Manufacturers of measuring instruments have a bounden duty to inform the buyer about the
possible error the user may get when using their instrument. To this end, they specify the
maximum possible difference between the “actual value” and the “value measured” by the
instrument (known as the error) under specified conditions.. This difference is always
expressed as a percentage as given below.
Measured value  Actual value
Error = 100 % .
Actual value
To provide this information on the
errors that can arise, the manufacturer Specified measurement
must test the instrument. Testing of environment to be maintained
an instrument with a view to quantify
the errors in its readings is termed as
Instrument for
“Calibration” of the instrument. For Source*
calibration
example to calibrate a 100 V full
scale voltmeter, the manufacturer will
measure “standard voltages” in the * The output provided by the source must be correct
with the number of significant digits more than that
range 0 V to 100 V (say in steps of of the instrument being calibrated
5 V) and record the errors in the
readings obtained. Here, standard Figure 1.7 Schematic of absolute method of calibration
voltages refer to voltages that are
correctly known with the number of significant digits higher than (at least one digit more
than) that provided by the instrument. Calibration can be based on either the “absolute
method” or on the “comparison method”.
In the absolute method of calibration, shown in block schematic form in Figure 1.7, the
instrument is given an input which is as defined by the SI unit definition and its reading
adjusted to read exactly the value of
the input or error at that point of
measurement.
Instrument for
For example, if we want to calibrate calibration
a thermometer at 0 ºC, then the Measured value
Input
thermometer can be placed in a source
reference temperature bath (which Standard instrument
for reference
contains both ice and distilled water Specified measurement Actual value
in equal proportion and the bath environment to be maintained
maintained at an ambient pressure of
one atmosphere) and adjustments Measured value  Actual value
Error  100 %
made on the thermometer so that it Actual value
indicates 0 ºC. Figure 1.8 Schematic of comparison method of calibration
In the comparison method of Error in the meter’s reading
calibration (shown in block indicated as a %
schematic form in Figure 1.8), as the
name indicates, the instrument to be
calibrated is compared with a Standard source set to 12.0000 V

standard instrument of the same type

and the errors are noted or correction
is applied to the instrument being
calibrated. The standard instrument
can be a primary standard or
Second source varied so
secondary or working standard that meter reads 12.00 V
depending on the type of instrument Meter for calibration

being calibrated. Without loss of

generality, the standard meter/ Figure 1.9 A typical Calibrator (Courtesy: Fluke corporation)
instrument being used for calibration
must have an accuracy specification an order of magnitude higher than the instrument being
calibrated and possess “significant digits” more (at least +1) than the meter/instrument
being tested. For example, to calibrate an ammeter possessing an error of 1.0 % and three
significant figures, the standard ammeter should have an error specification of 0.1 % or
better and number of significant digits four or higher.
Many manufacturers provide “calibrators” that use the comparison method of calibration.
Such a calibrator would house the source and the standard instrument in a single unit and
thus facilitate ease of calibration (either for adjustment on the instrument being calibrated
or for the measurement of its errors). Figure 1.9 shows a calibrator for calibrating
voltmeters, ammeters and resistances. As already brought out, the process of calibration
brings in traceability.
1.3.2 Standards for standardized methods and procedures
On the other hand, “standards” when referred in the realm of testing, details standardized
methods and procedures for tests to be conducted for determining the characteristics of not
only instruments but several other devices and even practices. Tests conducted as per
standards help compare various “products” and “services”. In this context, “standards” may
also spell out properties and characteristics of devices so that these devices conform to a
particular class or genre of devices.
The standards such as: ASTM A385: Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc
Coatings (Hot Dip)”, “DIN 33958: Bicycles-Lighting equipment and dynamos”,
“IEC 17025:2005: General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration
laboratories”, “IS 1132: Method for partial discharge measurement in instrument
transformers”, and ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management Systems, all belong to the category
of “Standardized methods and procedures”.
Of these, “ASTM A385: Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc Coatings
(Hot Dip)” the standard prepared by the American Society for Testing and Materials
organization, details the step by step procedure to coat zinc on a target using the hot dip
method. The standard “DIN 33958: Bicycles-Lighting equipment and dynamos”, prepared
by Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardization) lists all important
characteristics (size, terminals, material to be used for construction etc.,) for a manufacturer
to follow so that the manufacturer can claim that their bicycle dynamo or light is “as per
DIN 33958” standard. The standard “IS 1132: Method for partial discharge measurement in
instrument transformers”, prepared by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), lists the
method to be employed for testing the health of the insulation of an instrument (current or
voltage) transformer. It also lists how the test report is to be prepared. The
ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management Systems, the standard from the International
Standards Organization (ISO), portrays the different procedures and norms to be adopted by
an organization so that the organization can then claim (after due inspection by a certifying
authority of ISO) that their products and services are as per ISO9001 certification. You may
come across markings such as “IIT Madras is the first educational institution in India to be
certified as per ISO9000:2001”.
1.4 Exercises
E1.1. Write the units given below in terms of the seven fundamental units of SI.
(a) Joule (b) Volt (c) Coulomb (d) Watt
(e) Newton (f) Pascal (g) Tesla (h) Henry
E1.2. How many significant digits does each of the following numbers have?
(a) 0.00305 (b) 3.05 10 -3 (c) 30500 (d) 3.05 105
(e) 305.0 (f) 305 (g) -0.1234 (h) 0.1E1.3
E1.3. Round off the following numbers to three significant digits each.
(a) 4.076 (b) 4.6743 (c) 4.7550 (d) 4.7650
(e) 4.7499 (f) 4.7501 (g) 4.4501 (h) 4.4499
E1.4. Round off the numbers in exercise E1.3 to two significant digits each.
E1.5. A digital frequency meter displays the frequency of the ac supply mains on a 3 digit
display. Determine the minimum number and maximum number of significant digits
that can be obtained with this meter. If this meter displays 50.0 Hz, determine the
resolution in this measurement.
E1.6. A digital counter can display a maximum value of 199999999. Determine the
number of significant digits. If the counter is employed to count the number of
periods of a signal whose frequency is 123.456789 MHz in 1.000000 s, what value it
will display. Determine the resolution for this measurement.
E1.7. Write the answer for the current I restricting it to the correct significant digits of the
computation:
I = 1.1334 A + 0.3344 A + 123.45 mA
E1.8. A 0 to 100 mA PMMC type ammeter has a full scale deflection of 100 with
marking at every degree. Determine the resolution of the meter. Determine the
minimum and maximum number of significant digits that can be obtained using this
meter.
E1.9. The measured values of four resistors are 2.21 k, 1.217 k, 435  and 1.2 . Find
the total resistance and express the result to the correct number significant digits,
when the four resistances are connected in series.
E1.10. The synchronous speed of an induction motor is 1500 rpm. The speed of the rotor is
read as 1.48 on a tachometer with a scale x1000 rpm. Calculate the slip speed to the
correct number of significant digits.
E1.11. Express the voltage drop across a 5.321 k resistance to the correct number of
significant figures if the current through the resistors is measured to be 2.1 mA.
E1.12. The voltage across a resistor R is measured as 43.41 V and the current flowing
through it is measured as 2.5 A. Find the value of R to the correct number of
significant digits.
E1.13. An 18 pole ac motor is running on a supply main whose frequency is measured as
49.66 Hz. Express the synchronous speed of the motor to the correct number of
significant figures.
E1.14. The following are the measured
values of the currents and R1 R2
voltages in the circuit of the
figure shown in Figure E1.13. I1 I2
Given: I1, the current through
voltage source E1 is 0.53 A, I2, the V1 R0 V2
current supplied by voltage source
E2 is 1.27 A. The voltage of E1 is
Figure E1.13
10.1 V, and that of E2 is 15.7 V.
Ro is separately measured and
found to be 5.102 Ω. Evaluate R1
and R2 and express the results to correct significant figures.
E1.15. If in exercise E1.13, a less refined instrument was used to measure Ro as 5.1 Ω,
evaluate R1 and R2.
E1.16. Correct the errors in the following:
(a)Length of a rod = 1m27.45cm
(b) Current is expressed in kAs
(c) T = 33K
(d) A current of one million Amperes was recorded
(e) C = 12 F
(f) The values of resistances are in k.
(g) P = 10 pa
(h) Area = 10 x 10 cm
(i) Pressure is 106 Pascal.
(j) The figure of merit of a voltmeter is expressed in k per V.

1.5 Further reading:

R1.1. http://www.bipm.org/en/si/
R1.2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units
R1.3. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units
R1.4. IEEE Std 100-1996 IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms, Sixth Edition
R1.5. IEEE Std 260.1-1993 American National Standard Letter Symbols for Units of Measurement (SI
Units, Customary Inch-Pound Units, and Certain Other Units)
R1.6. IEEE Std 280-1985 American National Standard for Mathematmatical Signs and Symbols for Use
in Physical Sciences and Technology IEEE Std 280-1985 IEEE Standard Letter Symbols for
(R1997) Quantities Used in Electrical Science and Electrical Engineering
R1.7. IEEE Std 315-1975 IEEE Graphic Symbols foe Electrical and (R1993) Electronics Diagrams
(Including Reference Designation Letters) (Includes supplement 315A-1986, R1993)
R1.8. ISO Standard: http://www.iso.org/iso/home.htm
R1.9. SI 10-1997 (IEEE/ASTM) Standard for Use of the International System of Units (SI) — The
Modern Metric System.
R1.10. IS: 10005-1994: SI units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of certain other
units.
R1.11. IS: 2-1960: Rules for rounding off numerical values
R1.12. http://www.bis.org.in/
R1.13. http://www.astm.org/