Bridge Book
Bridge Book
Bridge Book
CONSTRUCTING
ROAD BRIDGES
IMPORTANT NOTE
Respected Engineers,
P.SURESH.
Fundamentals & Classification
It may be constructed,
First let us deal with construction of Bridge across a stream. The road
bridges are generally constructed as per IRC codes and mostly we are adopting R.C.C
bridges, pre-stressed concrete bridges, where as steel structures are generally adopted
by Railways. Recently even in Railways, the bridges are constructed with pre-stressed
and precast members with concrete.
PIPE CULVERT: The pipe culverts are constructed for nominal flows like field channels,
minor channels where the discharges are low. In this case R.C.C pipes are provided to
allow free flow of water. They may be either NP.2 class or NP.3 class. In (R&B)
Department we are adopting mainly NP.3 pipes. NP.4 pipes are being recently adopted
in National Highways.
N.P means non pressure pipes and the No.1, 2, 3 etc. refers to the
thickness of pipe. In roads we use only NP. 2 pipes in rural roads, where the shell
thickness of pipe is 50mm and NP.3 pipes are used for major roads and State Highways.
The shell thickness of NP.3 pipes are 75mm upto 750mm dia and 100mm for diameters
more than 750mm. The selection of diameter of a pipe is based on the level of road and
discharges required. Further, the pipes may be placed over a C.C bed of (1:5:10) and a
minimum cushion of 600mm below road curst is required above the pipes, as per the
IRC guide lines.
The pipe culvert may be with one row or multiple rows. In case of pipe
culvert with more than one row, the clear gap between the two pipes should not be less
than ½ outer dia of pipe, subject to a minimum of 450mm, to allow free flow of water.
A typical section of pipe culvert is given below. The length of pipes (barrel) generally
provided is 7.50m / 10.00m for rural roads and 12.50m for major roads measured outer
to outer of body walls.
The pipe culverts can not function properly to drain off rainwater, as the
vents get choked with jungle or other debris. They are normally provided with body
walls on U/S & D/S in R.R masonry (or) in V.C.C (1:3:6).
7.50M / 10M / 12.50M
0.45 0.45
RCL of Road
0.15
Sill Level Internal Dia Jeddy Stone
1.20M
0.30
C.C (1:5:10)
150mm
C.C (1:5:10) 0.30
Sand Filling
The width of a body wall at sill level is generally fixed adopting the thumb rule (0.4 H +
0.30) where H is the level difference between sill level and R.C.L. The top width is fixed
as 0.45m and the bottom width is calculated with the above two values by linear
interpolation. The depth of foundation generally adopted 1.20m below sill level and sill
level is fixed at 0.15m below existing bed level. Suitable slope of 1 in 1000 is adopted
from U/S to D/S in pipes. The length of body wall is calculated as (2 H + Outer to
outer of pipes + 2H). The pipe may be either encased with cement concrete (1:3:6)
(or) filled with gravel, as the case may be. C.C bed (1:5:10) of 150mm thick has to be
provided under pipes.
In case of skew pipe culverts the length of barrel required will be more
and has to be adjusted to full length of pipes (i.e. 2.5m each pipe).
In some cases, the pipe culverts are constructed from end to end of toe
road embankment with small body wall at toe. The drawings for these culverts are
readily available in IRC SP.13: Guide lines for the design of small culverts (single row
and two rows).
SLAB CULVERTS:
H
Abutment
RCC (1:3:6)
Sill
500
1.5
500
Sand Filling
The sections of abutments, wing walls, details of Deck slab are given in IRC
Sp.13 for different values of ‘H’ and span of culvert. When the Deck slab is
supported on more than two supports the intermediate supports are called piers and
sections for piers are also readily available. While constructing slab culverts the following
points are to be kept in mind.
1) The sections given in IRC Sp.13 are based on S.B.C of 16.5 t/m2 and for other
values of S.B.C the sections are to be modified suitably, as per actual S.B.C of
soil at foundation level.
2) In case of B.C soils, the S.B.C varies from 7.50 t/m2 to 10.0 t/m2, where
individual footings under each abutment is not possible, a raft foundation in
V.C.C (1:2:4) 500mm thick may be provided.
3) The wings provided may be either box wings or fly wings. In case of box wings
there should not be any connection between Abutment & Wings right from
foundation level to deck slab. The reason is that the abutment is subjected to
both vehicle loads and earth pressure where as the wing wall is subjected to
earth pressure only. Thus there will be a difference in settlement and hence
these two components are separated by placing a mastic pad right from
foundation level.
4) Weep holes to drain off seepage water from earth behind abutment / wing are to
be provided at 1.0m c/c staggered from the sill level + 0.20m. Often many
engineers feel that weep holes are to be provided above M.F.L only which is
incorrect.
5) The slab culverts may be provided with approach slab in which case reinforced
bed block and backing walls are to be provided.
6) Wearing coat of 100mm at centre and 50mm at the end of carriageway may be
adopted.
7) The width of slab culvert may be kept equal to carriageway width to 7.50m and
12m for major roads from outer to outer of parapets.
8) When approach slab is provided, the filling under approach slab may be done
with stone dust only in layers of 225mm thick, tamped layer by layer, instead of
gravel to avoid subsequent settlement. If the filling is not done properly
approach slab settles very soon after the traffic is allowed.
9) A craft paper / tar paper has to be placed over bed block before laying deck slab
concrete, to allow free movement of deck slab due to temperature variations.
10) The length of approach slab may be provided as 3.50m from the back face of
backing wall.
11) The length of box wing / fly wing will be provided depending on the difference in
sill level and R.C.L which will be explained in detail in bridges, subsequently
A drawing showing the reinforcement details of Deck slab for spans from
1m to 6m are given at the end, as per IRC Sp.13 – for ready reference. In the drawing
the reinforcement was shown for mild steel. Similarly the sections for abutment & wing
walls are also enclosed at the end for ready reference. The foundations of these sections
are to be increased, when the bearing capacity of foundation soil is less than 16.50 t/m2.
The concrete for abutment & wing wall shall be in V.C.C (1:3:6) and for
superstructure is either VRCC (1:2:4) or M.20. However, as per IS 456-2000 the
minimum grade of concrete for the structure nearer to coast (i.e. within 25 Kms from
coast) is M.25. This may be adopted for the culverts in coastal area.
A mastic pad of 20mm thick may be placed between slab & backing wall
to act as expansion joint.
Before we go for construction of bridges, it is essential to know the field details for
design of bridge. The following details are required for design of a bridge.
Maximum Flood Level: It is the level of the highest flood ever recorded (or) the
calculated level for design discharge.
Maximum Discharge: There are two methods for arriving at the maximum
discharge.
LINEAR WATERWAY: For sections with defined banks the linear waterway is
preferably kept equal to width of section at maximum flood level.
For streams with alluvial beds (likely to be scoured during heavy floods
easily) and no defined banks the linear waterway can be assumed W = C Q where C is
usually taken as 4.80
SCOUR DEPTH: The mean scour depth at a particular cross section is calculated with
the formula.
2 1/3
dsm = 1.34 (Db)
Ksf
MAXIMUM SCOUR DEPTH: The maximum scour depth for design of foundations for
piers and abutments shall be considered as follows.
AFFLUX: Afflux is the height by which the maximum flood level of stream rises at any
point due to construction of bridge structure generally it is taken as 0.15m. It shall be
calculated depending on the linear water way etc.
VERTICAL CLEARANCE: The minimum vertical clearance above HFL is given in IRC
codes.
a) Up to 0.30 150mm
b) Above 0.30 and up to 3.00 450mm
c) Above 3.00 and up to 30.00 600mm
d) Above 30.00 and 300 900mm
e) Above 300 and up to 3000 1200mm
f) Above 3000 1500mm
The minimum vertical clearance shall be measured from the lowest point of deck
structure inclusive of main girder to (M.F.L + afflux).
After knowing maximum scour depth and M.F.L the depth of foundations shall be
fixed as detailed below.
once after fixing the foundation level, depending on the depth of foundations, we
shall adopt either shallow foundations (Raft, individual footings) (or) deep foundations
(Well foundations, Pile foundation).
Shallow Foundations: Isolated open foundations (individual footings) are generally
adopted when S.B.C of soil is around 15.0 t/m2 (or) more at shallow depths (i.e. around
3 to 5m depth below existing bed level). In cases where the S.B.C of soil is less (like
Black cotton soils, marine clays) smaller spans are economical, and raft foundations (or)
Box structure with floor protection (to avoid scours) and cutoff wall are adopted.
Deep Foundations: are generally adopted where suitable foundation soil is available at
a depth of 6.0m or more, with substantial depth of water (or) large scour depth,
because of which open excavation is not possible.
MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN ROAD BRIDGE & RAIL BRIDGE: The distance
between rail and road bridge should not be less than 400m in any case. The width of
carriageway shall not be less than 4.25m for single lane bridge and 7.5m for double lane
bridge. In National Highways an overall carriageway width of 12.0m from outer to outer
of kerb is being adopted. The minimum width of footpath shall be 1.50m.
PROTECTIVE WORKS: The protective works shall include Jeddy stone apron on U/S
and D/S for raft foundations, river training work, approach road protection. Generally we
come across with raft foundation at shallow depth with cut off wall up to maximum
scour depth and Jeddy stone apron.
The protective works shall be completed before the monsoon, so that the
foundations do not get undermined, during floods in rainy seasons.
BEARINGS: Bearings are the vital components of a bridge which while allowing of
longitudinal and or transverse rotations or movement of the superstructure with respect
to substructure thus relieving stresses due to expansion and contraction and effectively
transfer loads and forces from superstructure to the substructure. The following are the
generally adopted bearings.
a) For solid Deck slab / voided Deck slab, the superstructure resting on unyielding
supports, no bearings need be provided when the span length is less than
10m. a kraft paper is provided between Deck slab and Bed block to allow free
movement. The top of pier caps (Bed blocks), Abutment caps are rubbed smooth
with carborandum stone.
b) For T-beam bridge with span more than 10m and resting on unyielding
supports, neoprene or elastomeric bearings are provided.
c) For spans larger than 25m roller and rocker bearings are considered.
For spans in gradient like R.O.Bs the bearings shall be placed horizontally
with suitable bearing pedestals (so that the loads are transferred to a horizontal plane),
but not in gradient.
EXPANSION JOINTS: Expansion joints are provided at the end of deck and cater for
movement of deck due to temperature, shrinkage, creep etc.
a) When the span is less than 10m incase of solid deck slabs, a mastic pad of
20mm thick shall be placed and top sealed with bituminous joint filler to act as
an expansion joint, which can cater for a horizontal movement up to 20mm.
b) When the span is more than 10m and less than 24m elastomeric slab seal
expansion joint is being adopted now, which can cater to a maximum horizontal
movement of 40mm. this gives very smooth ride to vehicles without any jerk and
noise.
c) When the span is large i.e. more 25m strip seal expansion joint (with elastomer)
shall be provided which allows movement up to 70mm. This type of joints are
giving jerks to the vehicles while moving over joints.
Approach to Bridge: The approaches on either side of a straight bridge, shall have a
minimum straight length of 15m. However, in usual practice, 15m straight and level
portion is being provided on either side of bridge.
The free board for the approaches to a high level bridge shall not be
less than 1750mm.
Gradient and Vertical Clearance in R.O.Bs & R.U.Bs: In case of road under
bridges, a minimum vertical clearance of 5.50m in urban areas and 5.0m in rural areas
shall be provided.
For road over bridge, a minimum vertical clearance of 5.87m for electric
traction and 4.875m for non electric traction.
The approach slab shall be laid in gradient only, as per approved L.S of
road, but not level.
Approach Slab: The purpose of laying a approach slab is to transfer the loads coming
from approaches in a smooth way to bridge structure without any impact. The length
of approach slab generally adopted is 3.50m from the back of backing wall and 7.50m
width. A typical section showing the position of approach slab and reinforcement details
are given below.
Approach Slab
Width of Backing wall
300
3.50m
100
12mm Ø @ 150mm
c/c Both ways
The approach slab shall rest on backing wall, as shown in drawing. A lean concrete
(1:4:8) 100mm thick under approach slab shall be provided. It is important to note that
the filling under approach slab is to be done with gravel, as per IRC 78. However when
gravel is used for filling, the approach slab can not be laid immediately, without allowing
for traffic, as there will be settlement in gravel. When adequate time is available for
laying approach slab, it is advisable to lay the approach slab after one rainy season duly
allowing the traffic. When it is not possible to lay the approach slab later, as in the case
of of elastomeric slab seal expansion joint, it is generally adopted to fill the portion
below approach slab with stone dust right from bed level. The stone dust shall be laid in
thin layers of 150mm thoroughly watered and compacted with rammers layer by layer.
If the filling is done with stone dust, the settlement under approach slab can be
prevented without any trouble. This method proved to be effective.
Hand Rails & Hand Posts: The purpose of providing hand rails is to safeguard the
vehicles and passing public falling from top. In case of bridges in non-urban areas,
Type-I railing with two rows of railing with a height of 770mm is adopted. In case of
bridges in urban areas Type-II railing wit three rows of railing with a height of
1050mm is adopted. All the railings will be precasted and fixed in position, and laid
concrete for hand posts. Both the railings and posts are supported with the kerb of
275mm depth normally.
Now a days in N.H the system of providing hand rails and hand post is
replaced by crash barrier type protection.
Wearing Coat: The wearing coat shall be provided over the superstructure with M.30
concrete to protect the superstructure. The thickness of wearing coat at centre is
100mm and at ends is 50mm. Reinforcement to cater tot the temperature effect shall be
provided with 6mm at 200mm c/c both ways. However at joints location extra rods to a
length of 500mm on either side shall be provided at 200mm c/c.
This type of wearing coat is now dispensed and Bituminous wearing coat
is being adopted, in main roads like National Highways and State Highways, explained
subsequently in bridges.
COMPONENTS OF BRIDGES
GL
Well Cap
Top Plugging
Well Steining
Sand / Water Filling
(A) FOUNDATIONS.
(B) SUB STRUCTURE.
(C) SUPERSTRUCTURE.
(D) APPROACHES
(E) PROTECTIVE WORKS.
(A) FOUNDATIONS: It is a component of bridge, which transfer the loads coming from
substructure to the foundation soil. So the foundation is mainly based on the S.B.C of
foundation soil and the pressure on foundation soil shall be less than S.B.C of soil. The
foundations are of two types.
Load of vehicles
Superstructure
Substructure
Well cap
Well steining
Bottom plugging
Foundation soil
The wall type structure shall be in plain concrete, generally adopted for
raft foundation (or) causeways with deep foundations. The other two types are provided
in R.C.C with adequate reinforcement as per design.
The substructure includes pier cap, bed block and backing wall over
Abutments. Generally these members are provided in R.C.C. It may be a simple wall
type pier cap, Hammer Head pier cap. Pier cap in the form of a beam supported on 3 to
5 Nos. of R.C.C pipes.
Further the substructure includes bearing pedestals which accommodate
bearing, through which the load from superstructure is transferred to substructure.
(D) APPROACHES: It is general practice to provide a straight and level portion of 15m
in approaches on either side of bridge structure. The soil used for formation generally
should have dry density of 1.52 gms/c.c up to an embankment height of 3.0m
and dry density 1.60 gms/c.c for embankment height more than 3.0m. The
carriageway width of double lane approach is 7.0m and formation width is 12.0m. Extra
width shall be provided inside portion of curve as per designs. The crust for approaches
shall be designed, as per C.B.R of sub grade soil. The C.B.R of sub grade soil used for
embankment formation shall not be less than 5%.
Based on the above parameters, the designs, wing finalises the sections
and communicate the drawings. The job of construction Engineer is to study the
drawings thoroughly and to place the structure on ground in a correct way. The points
discussed so far are to give a basic idea of various design parameters.
SUB SOIL INVESTIGATION BEFORE START OF WORK
For Minor Bridges: at least one bore at each of the abutment location and one in bed
of stream shall be taken.
For Major Bridges: at least one bore shall be taken at each of the abutment and pier
locations.
The depth of sub soil investigation shall be based on foundation level and
the bore holes shall extend up to at least 1 ½ times the width of foundation
below the foundation level to ascertain the variation in soil properties if any. The
diameter of well is considered for width in case of well foundation. The soil properties
should be same up to 1.50 times the dia of well below the foundation level. If there is
any week soil like marine clays are noticed, settlement analysis has to be done to arrive
at the likely settlement after loading.
For cohesion less soils (where C = O) like sands, it is not possible to take
the undisturbed soil sample. Hence standard penetration test shall be conducted at site
and from SP.T values the S.B.C of soil shall be arrived and compared.
In case of presence of any marine clays (or) inferior soils between layers
of sand at a depth of less than 1.5 times the width of foundation below foundation level
consolidation test shall have to be conducted and settlement analysis done. The
permissible value of settlement in clays is 76mm. This case is generally
encountered in structures near sea coast.
A consolidated bore chart shall be prepared duly giving the various types
of soils, at different levels. This will be useful during the well sinking operations, to know
the problems and to take remedial measures for reducing excess tilts and shifts.
PERMANENT BENCH MARK
It is highly essential and take all precautions, in carrying out bench mark
to the bridge site. In a hurry, the B.S & F.S are erroneously noted, when the sun sets in
evening due to in adequate lighting. A small error in reading metres of staff lead to total
mistake and went unnoticed until the substructure is completed. It is highly essential to
check the levels twice before fixing the value of B.M near bridge. The pedestal
constructed for bench mark shall be away from the alignment of bridge work and
approaches, so that it will remains until the bridge opened to traffic.
In case of R.O.Bs and R.U.Bs the bridge portion across the railway track
shall be constructed by Railway authorities and our department will form approaches on
either side of bridge. Some times error takes place in the bench mark of Railways and
(R&B) authorities due to some errors in instruments. Therefore, in order to over come
this problem, a common bench mark shall be established accessible for both the
departments and the value shall be arrived by joint inspection. It must be on record, to
avoid future problems. This common bench mark shall be constructed in concrete and
far away from the line of alignment, and must be safeguarded for years until the bridge
is opened to traffic. This may be connected to other points over buildings also to use on
alternative or to check the level from time to time. The value of bench mark may be
painted neatly on the top of pedestal.
FOUNDATIONS
Existing
Bed Level
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.50
Foundation Level
Pit for
B Dewatering
Pit for
Dewatering
This type of excavation is possible only in cohesive soils like B.C soils in
dry condition gravel, other hard soils. In case of cohesion less soils like sand, this type
of excavation can not be excavated. Hence shoring and shuttering is to be arranged to
arrest falling of sand from top. If water table is present above foundation level,
dewatering should be done to lay the concrete. This has to be done by digging pits at
corners, beyond the foundation width as shown in the sketch and should be pumped out
simultaneously to reduce the water table level below the foundation level.
For laying the foundation concrete, when it is not possible for dewatering
due to heavy percolation of water, it shall be laid by tremie pipe method (or) skip boxes.
Distribution
Reinforcement
Main
Reinforcement
Cover 50mm
Length of Raft
Main
Reinforcement
Reinforcement of skew R.C.C raft: In case of skew R.C.C rafts, the reinforcement in
span direction i.e. main reinforcement should be kept perpendicular to the pier
line and distribution reinforcement parallel to pier line. A typical sketch showing the
reinforcement in R.C.C skew raft is given below.
In case of skew R.C.C rafts the reinforcement is kept erroneously parallel
to the sides of a parallelogram formed which is incorrect.
The construction joints after days work shall be kept at the location of
pier only, not in the mid span when the raft is to be laid for more days.
In case of P.C.C. raft, the shear keys may be made in the form of holes
to a depth of 0.30m at pier locations. This can be achieved by keeping some precast
blocks in fresh concrete and removing the same after one hour.
In case of R.C.C circular piers, the main rods of piers must be brought
from the bottom of raft with necessary development length. The position of pier
reinforcement should be carefully marked with adequate cover. Otherwise the bars will
be out of pier position or the cover to reinforcement would be less.
The coarse aggregate for plain raft may be 40mm graded metal
and 20mm graded aggregate for R.C.C raft.
The foundations for wings are generally kept at the same level of raft
while laying the footings for wings, a mastic pad shall be kept between raft and footing
of wing, as there will be differential settlement between raft and wings. It is to
be clearly noted, that there should not be any connection between abutment and wing
right from foundation level to R.C.L to allow differentiate settlement if any due to
loading.
Abutment
Wing Wing
Raft
Wing Wing
As already shown in the drawing, the following are the main components of well
foundations.
(a) Well cutting edge: It is the lowest portion of well foundation, which induces
maximum stress on foundation soil to permit the well to sink. Generally it contains two
angles and one plate welded for well foundations in soils as shown below.
Well Curb
M.S Plate
I S Angles
The weight of cutting edge shall not be less than 40 Kgs per metre length, as per
standards.
In case of wells likely to pass through hard strata like rocks a steel plate
cutting edge with lining to the well curb shall be adopted, as shown below.
Steel Plate
Sharpened
M.S Liner
The cutting edge shall be placed in true level position at exact location.
Any slope of bed should be trimmed to level position. The cutting edge shall be kept at
300mm above existing water level (if water is present).
(b) Well Curb: It is the portion above the well cutting edge in R.C.C. The slope is
like a trapezium in cross section, and circular. This particular shape (like a truncated
cone) is necessary to do bottom plugging and to stop further sinking of well beyond
foundation level, due to subsequent live loads etc. The outer face of well curb is
generally kept vertical.
The inside faces and out side faces of well curb shall be protected with
M.S. liners for the wells to pass through boulders hard rock etc.
where ‘D’ is the outer dia of well, ‘a’ dia at top of cutting edge, ‘b’ inside
dia well and ‘H’ is height of well curb.
(c) Well Steining: It is the portion of well foundation, above the well curb and up to
the bottom of well cap. This transfers the load coming from well cap to the foundation
soil, through bottom plugging.
The first lift of steining shall not be more than 2.0m. The first lift of
steining shall be cast only after sinking the well curb, at least partially for stability.
The other lifts may be 2 to 2.50m. The stening concrete of well shall
be executed in one straight line with the help of a straight edge.
A scale should be marked right from the bottom of cutting edge in all
four corners (2 Nos. in traffic direction and 2 Nos. in perpendicular direction) after
layng the curb with a steel tape. The marking of scale should be done with a precision
steel tape, by a responsible person. The zero of scale starts at the bottom of
cutting edge. These scales will be useful in calculating the tilts and shifts of well, after
sinking of each lift of steining.
The steining rods should be positioned with uniform spacing, alround the
well. It may be noted that the steel provided in well steining is only a nominal steel
(0.12% of gross cross-sectional area), but not structural steel. Adequate care must
be taken of maintain cover to the reinforcement both in inside and out side of well.
The steining concrete shall be laid using 40mm metal only, even though
some steel is provided and is called V.C.C only. The steel provided in well steining is only
to prevent separation of different lifts of steining during sunking operation. The steining
rods shall be taken up to the top of well cap, with adequate development length.
(d) Bottom Plugging: After the well was taken to the required foundation level,
the portion between the two inner faces of well curb shall be filled with concrete, which
would be like a truncated cone, as shown below.
Well steining
b Well steining
0.6
Well Curb Bottom Well Curb
Plugging
Foundation Level
a
h< d/6
Bowl portion of well
a
FIG No. 13 - Section of Bottom Plugging of Well
ii) It stops the well at foundation level without permitting for further sinking due
to further live loads etc.
(e) Sand filling / Water filling: After the well was taken to the required foundation
level, bottom plugging would be done as explained above. The portion above bottom
plugging shall be filled with sand. The sand filling shall be started after 3 days of laying
of bottom plugging. This shall be carried out up to the bottom level of top plugging.
Some times, when the foundation soils are too weak even after
taking the well to the required foundation level, the sand filling shall be replaced by
water filling to reduce the load and thus the pressure on foundation soil.
(f) Top Plugging: It is a thin layer of plain concrete laid above sand filling and under
well cap. The purpose of top plugging is to contine the sand filling and to act as base for
well cap when water filling is done in place of sand filling, no top plugging shall be
possible.
(g) Well Cap: It is the top most portion of well foundation (which is a structural
R.C.C member), which transfers the load coming from substructure to well steining and
then to foundation soil, as explained above. It is generally in circular shape.
The reinforcement contains one mat at bottom and one mat at top with
reinforcement in both directions. The steel of well steining shall be brought up to
the top of well cap to have adequate bond. The reinforcement of well cap is shown
below.
All the wells are generally designed for a resultant tilt of 1 in 80 and
resultant shift of 150mm.
CALCULATION OF TILT& SHIFT OF A WELL
The wells during sinking operation are likely to get some tilt and shift. Let
us know what is a tilt and shift.
Tilt may be defined as the inclination of the well to plump line. Shift may
be defined as the movement of centre point of well horizontally.
The calculation of tilt and shift of well is given below for reference.
A proforma for calculation of tilts and shifts of well is given in appendix 1200/II of
“Specification for Road and Bridge works”. The same is enclosed for ready reference.
Y1
Y1
Ty
X1 0 X2
Ly
Y2
Y2
Y-Y Direction
X1
Tx
Lx
X2
X-X Direction
From the above figure, we can say that the well has tilted in both
directions. The tilt along X – X direction (Tx) is given by [Lx / outer dia of well] and
similarly tilt along Y – Y direction (Ty) is given by [Ly / outer dia of well]. After knowing
these two values the resultant tilt is given by (Tx 2 + Ty 2). Now this tilt is to be
rectified. To rectify the tilt, first of all we must know the plane where the resultant tilt is
acting. From the above figures we can say ‘X’ is higher in one direction and ‘1/2’ is
higher in the other direction. That means the resultant tilt acts in (X1 O Y2) plane. Now
we have to keep additional weight in the form of sand bags in the plane (X1 O Y2)
during further sinking. Similarly in the opposite plane (Y1 O X2) we have to keep some
sort of obstruction at the bottom of cutting edge under the well, so that this will not tilt
further. And at the same time the earth under the cutting edge in the plane [X1 O Y2) is
excavated more, so that the well comes down in this plane. This can be achieved with
sinkers, who can go up to the cutting edge, with helmets if it is under water. This
procedure is repeated in sinking of each lift of steining, so that the resultant tilt is
minimised when the well reaches its foundation level.
During this process of rectifying tilts the well is likely to get shift from the
alignment. Rectification of tilt only can be done by remedial methods mentioned above.
That means, during the process of rectification of tilts the shifts are also to be rectified.
From this we can say without tilt, there would not be any shift. Therefore, there are not
separate methods for rectification of shifts.
Other methods of sinking like kneumatic sinking and mild blasting under
the cutting edge of well are also adopted for rectifying the tilts of well, by experience.
In case of wells resting over rock blasting under cutting edge and
chiseling of rock under cutting edge are adopted.
The measurement for payment of well sinking shall be taken from the
level at which cutting edge is placed actually to the foundation level. This shall be from
bed level, when the bed is dry and 300m higher than the water level if water is present.
In case when the bed is too high from average be level, at abutment location. It is
economical to remove the earth and placing the cutting edge at average bed level, so
that earthwork payment shall only be effected instead of well sinking from that higher
level. It should be noted the earth shall be totally removed but not like a hole. The
cutting edge should never be placed in a pre defined hole, in any case.
Even after adopting all the methods, if the well is having more tilt and
shift, we have to go for revised design of well cap and the pressure on foundation soil
on [X2 O Y2] plane will be more. So the pressure on foundation soil has to be checked.
If the pressure on foundation soil is more than the S.B.C of the soil at foundation level,
the well has to be taken down further, so that either the tilt can be reduced or till the
required S.B.C of soil is reached.
The shape of the well cap will be different from circular shape in this
case, when the well exceeds the permissible limits of tilt and shift.
All the design aspects would be examined by (D&P) wing and we are
supposed to give the correct picture of tilt and shift of a particular well.
While making payment for well sinking a recovery has to be effected from
the bills of contractor, for excess tilts and shifts as detailed below.
All the excess items due to the revised design of well cap shall be
borne by the contractor in addition to the penalty mentioned above. The entire
depth of sinking if any required, shall be borne by the contractor and no extra payment
shall be made to the contractor for this.
In case of skew bridges and curved bridges with wall type piers, the Y-Y
axis is taken normal to the traffic direction and line of pier will be different
from Y-Y axis adopted for calculation of tilts and shifts as detailed below.
Pedestals for
Y Piers
Pier Line
X
X Traffic Direction
Well Cap
FIG No. 16 - Plan of Well for a Skew Bridge (or) Curved Bridge
That means for the purpose of calculating tilt and shift the axis
perpendicular to the traffic direction is only considered irrespective of line of pier.
It is very important to note that shear keys in the form of steel (either
20mm or 25mm spaced at 1.0m c/c) shall be provided in the pier location (in case of
wall type P.C.C piers) right from bottom of well cap to a height of 0.50mabove well cap.
In case of R.C.C piers, the main reinforcement of pier shall be kept from the bottom of
well cap with adequate bond length. In case of a trestle (a set of two or more piers) the
marking of pier should be done carefully and main reinforcement of pier shall be placed
in the correct location with due care.
The top level of well cap shall be kept generally at a higher level than the
bed level incase of canals, where water is continuously present (genrally above the
water level), so that the concrete can be laid without any difficulty. Incase of dry
beds, where flow is nominal, the bottom of well cap may be kept at the existing
bed level. The well caps placed at higher level in dry beds gives ugly appearance and
hence this should be avoided as far as possible.
The typical shape of a well cap with tilt exceeding 1 in 80 is given below
for information.
X
FIG No. 17 - Well Cap Redesigned for Excess Tilt & Shift
After laying well cap, the marking of pier should be done with the help of
permanent pedestals in transverse direction. It is to be noted, that the position of pier
remains unaltered even though the well has tilt and shift. Often it is of wrong
opinion that the position of pier will be changed, when the well is having tilt any shift.
Because of the tilt and shift, the centre of well will not coincide with the centre of pier
position, as shown below, thus the loading will be eccentric.
X X
Incase of open foundation, the marking of pier shall be done, with the
help of pedestals in both directions. Incase of skew bridges the length of pier shall
be increased to accommodate semicircular cut waters as given below. Incase of P.C.C
piers / abutments, shear keys in the form of holes, shall be provided in each horizontal
layers, to keep the substructure monolithic. This may be staggered.
The pier cap / abutment cap will be in R.C.C adopting 20mm HBG graded
chips. It may be
a) Bed block over wall type pier.
b) Hammer head bed block for single R.C.C pier.
c) A beam connecting set of piers (Trestle)
d) Bed block & backing wall over abutment.
Backing Wall
1.0
Hammer head
Pier cap
Main reinforcement
1.0
of pier
Pier
weep holes
Well cap
Well cap
th
ng
Le
Head Bed Block
tra
Ex
Stirrups of Backing wall
th
ng
Le
tra
Ex
Reinforcement details of Cut waters for Pier in Skew bridge
Bed block & Backing Wall
The main reinforcement of pier shall extend into the pier cap up to the top with
adequate bond. The reinforcement details and position of bearing pedestal is shown in
the sketch given below.
Normal
Bearing Pedastal
Pier cap
Bearing Pedastal
m
0m
5
<1
If O is the skew angle, the width required in normal will be multiplied by Sec O to arrive
at the width of pier. Suitable clearance of not less than 150mm beyond the edge of
bearings shall be provided.
In case of gradient slabs like R.O.Bs it is very important to note that the
pier cap and bearing pedestal shall be provided horizontally level but not in
gradient, as shown below.
G irder
Main
r
Girde
Main
Pier Cap
Pier
Thus the shutter at the raising end shall be raised according to gradient and the
quantity of concrete is slightly increased. If B is the width of bearing, and gradient is 1
in ‘S’ the raise at outer end will be B/S. Thus the shutters at the lower end will be joined
to bearing and raised by (B/S) at higher end with reference to lower end. Incase of
curved bridges without bearings (spans less than 10m) super elevation required will be
provided in pier cap only, by raising the outer edge of pier cap. In this case also, the top
surface of pier will be in level portion and super elevation in outer direction as detailed
below.
Horizontal Plane
ex
Super Structure
The concrete for bed block and backing wall over abutment shall be laid
in single operation duly keeping the stirrups as described above to be monolithic in
action. The backing wall (Dirt wall) shall be laid up to a level of 0.25m below R.C.L
to accommodate approach slab over it. That means the approach slab shall be laid on
the top of backing wall.
Expansion Jiont
100
Wearing Coat
Wing walls shall be taken to a level of 100mm above the top of slope of embankment to
prevent any soil from being blown or washed away by rain. The length of fly wings
shall not be more than 4.0m.
The clearance between bottom of superstructure and top of pier cap shall
be not less than 150mm. The purpose of providing bearing pedestals is to keep the
bearings in exact position and also to provide adequate working space, to lift the
superstructure with the help of jacks for replacement of damaged bearings in future if
necessary. The superstructure will be lifted with the help of jacks and bearings shall be
replaced after few years. In such a case, all the bearings in that line shall be replaced
(generally 3 Nos under main girders) but not only one bearing even though only one
bearing is damaged. Bearing mesh shall be provided both at bearing position
and jack position. The jack position shall be marked with paint over pier cap. The
reinforcement details of fly wing is given below for information.
FIG No. 28 - Bearing Mesh (6mm)
Weep holes shall be provided in wing walls using 100mm dia A.C pipes at 1.0m intervals
in both directions staggered in row. The volume of weep holes need not be deducted in
concrete.
1.0
0.15
Sand Formation
Slope (1:20)
Grav
SILL
RETAINING WALL
Level Footpath
Level Footpath
vation
Super Ele
Super Structure
Bearing
Bearing Pedestal
It is to be noted that bearings of different sizes must not placed next to each other to
support a span. They shall be in a single line of support and identical dimensions.
The earth face of abutment and wing wall shall be kept rough and
smooth finished on drain face.
The top surface of the pier cap may be finished smooth by rubbing with
Carborundam stone.
Incase of singular circular pier with hammer head bed block, for a skew
bridge, the pier cap must be oriented in skew direction only, with extra length to
give a normal carriageway width of 7.50m.
DIFFERENTIAL BED BLOCKS (OR) PIER CAPS: This is also another type of pier cap
with one half being at one level and other half laid at higher level as detailed below:
Expansion Joint
RCL RCL
Bottom of Superstructure
Pier
1) When the span is different on either side of pier, the depth of superstructure will be
different. Hence in order to accommodate the superstructure of different spans a
differential bed block shall be provided.
3) In case of curved bridges in order to provide super elevation at top of pier cap,
supporting at T-beam type superstructure, the pier cap, some frames shall be
provided in stepped manner with different levels.
4) In case of bridges in gradient in order to meet the gradient requirement and to
transfer the loads horizontally, a differential pier cap shall be provided, to meet the
gradient requirement in width of pier cap from one end to other end.
SUPERSTRUCTURE
First let us discuss with solid slabs up to 10m span. The carriageway
width normally adopted in state roads is 7.5m between kerbs and 12.0m from outer to
outer of bridge railing for National Highway. As the solid slabs are simply supported
main reinforcement shall be provided at bottom only and nominal steel shall be provided
at top. The following important points are to be kept in mind, before executing
superstructure.
1) Cover bocks of 50mm x 50mm shall be kept ready well in advance, properly
cured by the time the steel is placed. The thickness may be not less than 40mm
in coastal areas and 25mm in other areas.
2) While placing bottom shutters, they must be plain. The joints of steel shutter
may be closed with adhesive tape of 2” width, before placing the steel.
3) Lubricants either Diesel / Other oils shall be invariably applied to the top of
shutters. Otherwise, ugly finishing will be noticed at the bottom of slab after
removal of shutters.
5) The laps shall not be done at middle third of span (maximum bending
moment zone) under any circumstances. All laps should be staggered.
8) The position of drainage spouts should be clearly marked at exact locations and
kept properly tied to the reinforcement, before laying concrete. The distance
between drainage spouts should not be more than 10m and staggered.
The top of drainage spout shall be higher by 50mm to be in flush with wearing
coat subsequently.
9) In case if foot paths are provided, the inner kerb steel shall be kept at exact
location with cover. The distance from outer end of outer kerb to inside face of
inner kerb is 1.775m. So, the inner kerb steel may be kept at 1.725m, thus
leaving a cover of 50mm.
10) Aggregate used must be graded aggregate of 20mm. The 20mm aggregate
available in market is observed to be over size. It must be added with 10mm
aggregate to give a dense concrete.
11) Craft paper may be placed in two layers, at supports to prevent undue thrust on
the substructure during the expansion of slab.
12) Mastic pads of 20mm shall be placed to full height, before start of concrete. The
main problem during concreting of superstructure is that the aggregate falls
down into the expansion gap, thus making the joint wider. This gives a zigzag
expansion gap if unnoticed. This can be prevented by taking care, while
concreting at joint locations.
13) The concreting of superstructure deck slab shall be completed in one continuous
operation as far as possible. In case, due to unprecedented rain or other reasons
beyond our control if the concrete is to be stopped for more than 24 hours.
Epoxy compounds may be used for bonding old concrete with fresh concrete.
14) Pin vibrators of larger diameters are used, for easy and effective vibration. It is
dangerous to keep these higher diameter vibrator needles for more time because
more scum will come to the top (forms a weak layer) leaving aggregates at
bottom. As such, vibration should be stopped once the aggregates are just
disappearing from top. Each layer of concrete shall not be more than 300mm.
15) Sand may be filled in drainage spout openings at top and a gunny bag placed to
prevent falling of concrete into the spout to avoid closure due to falling of
concrete.
16) The top grill can be lifted, with the help of crow bars if it is bend down, due to
movement of men and machine while laying top layer of concrete.
17) Water used shall be having a PH of more than 6 and minimum water only
shall be used to give good vibration and dense concrete. Usage of excess water
is preferred by masons for working convenience, and it must be controlled to
avoid segregation of concrete. In order to have good vibration and good finishing
minimum water shall only be allowed.
18) In case of large spans of 10m, the depth of slab would be 740mm and concrete
quantity is too high even for two mixers. If it is preferred to lay the concrete in
two days, total depth of concrete to half width shall be laid and other half in the
next day. Some people lay half thickness to full width one day and other top half
on the next day, which is incorrect.
Pier
Distribution Reinforcement
Parallel to Pier
Main Reinforcement
Perpendicular to Pier
Pier
20) In case of curved bridges, while super elevation is required, the required super
elevation shall be provided in pier cap itself. The levels must be carefully marked
on shutters before concreting. The cross section is given below for information.
It is to be noted that no super elevation is to be provided in foot path
portion. Some times, in approved drawings, these lines will be drawn showing
super elevation erroneously.
Superstructure
(Uniform Depth)
Super elevated Pier Cap
21) The top surface may be slightly rough to receive wearing coat subsequently.
22) Curing shall be started immediately after 12 hours. Often curing is being delayed,
as cross bunds with lean cement mortar are laid in the next day and curing can
not be started, until these bunds are set sufficiently. This can be avoided if the
bunds are laid in the evening itself, so that curing can be started next day
morning. It is very important to note that more water is required in the first 24
hours after laying concrete.
23) Curing compounds are sometimes sprayed over the concrete surface which
forms a thin film and prevent loss of water from concrete. This procedure is
adopted in case of pre-stressed and precast members curing. Compounds are
not permitted when subsequent concrete is to be laid.
24) Centering for deck slabs can be removed after 14 days and curing must be
continued even after removal of form work up to 28 days invariably.
25) Reinforcement for hand posts shall be kept at exact location not exceeding
2.00m, before start of concrete for deck slab. The calculations of spacing is
detailed below. For solid slabs, the bearing width shall be 760mm and for 10m
span c/c distance will be 10.76m.
The end posts will be 300 x 200 in cross section.
The intermediate post will be 180 x 200 in cross section.
The length after deducting expansion gap = 10.74m
(20mm for solid slabs)
Deduct end posts ½ width on either side = 10.74 – 0.15 – 0.15 = 10.44
No. of intermediate post assuming 2m spacing = 10.44 = 5.22 say 6 Nos.
2.0
Spacing from centre to centre of intermediate post = 10.44/6 = 1.74m c/c
26) The height of Hand posts in non urban areas adopted is 770mm above
kerb with two rows of hand railing (Type-I). In case of urban areas with foot
paths the height of hand posts adopted is 1050mm above kerb with 3 rows
of hand rails.
27) The clear width of foot path generally adopted is 1.50m. It may be either
solid foot path (or) Hollow with precast slabs. In case of solid foot paths, PVC
pipes of 150mm dia in three rows are provided to run the service lines, openings
are provided at 15m intervals, in the form of precast slab shall be provided. The
top of foot path shall be made skid resistant by simply tapping wire mesh over
the concrete when it is green.
T-BEAM SUPERSTRUCTURE
2) Because of large spans, the length of steel rods will not be sufficient to place
them as a single rod from support to support. Hence, lapping of rod is essential.
Because of small width of main beam large depth of beam and multi layered
steel, the lapping of steel creates very little space available between rods to do
concreting. This is the main problem in executing T-beam type superstructure.
To over come this congestion of steel problem the following methods are
adopted to avoid honey-combing of concrete and concrete not surrounding the
reinforcement in practice.
c) Staggering the laps at different locations not falling in the middle third of span.
d) Even though it is not appropriate the lapping rods may kept over the rod, so that
the horizontal clearance for flow of concrete is not reduces. This method helps in
avoiding honeycombs.
e) Smaller quantities shall be laid and small needle vibration of 20mm shall be used
to vibrate concrete. Leaving a cover of not less than 40mm adjoining vertical
shutter, may be helpful if the concrete using 10mm aggregate is laid in that gap,
and needle vibrator of 20mm size may be taken up to the bottom of beam in this
gap to have good compaction and to avoid honey combing.
f) A person with hammer may be deployed under the beam, while concreting
beams. This man strikes the vertical shutter of beam with hammer frequently.
Any loose sound during hammer stroke indicates hollow portion in beam and can
be rectified by re-vibrating with due care until the sound is satisfactory.
g) Laying of concrete in web portion should be done with close supervision with
spare vibrator needles in day time only. The top rods may slightly be separated
with the help of a crow bar to insert the needle during laying concrete in the
bottom. These top rods may be tied again in correct position once the concrete
up to top layer of bottom steel is completed.
h) Concreting up to 100mm below the web portion of all beams shall be done in
one day. The balance concrete of beams and deck slab shall be executed in the
next day.
i) The reinforcement in cantilever portion shall be kept at top only duly placing
cover blacks / chairs at end so that they will not be displaced, due to the
movement of men while concreting.
j) The main beams of deck shall be given upward camber while keeping
shuttering to account for dead load deflection as given in standard drawing.
This upward camber is given to allow for deflection due to dead load, so that the
beam will be horizontal after the shuttering is removed.
k) Bearing meshes in two layers one at 20mm and the other at 10mm from the
bottom concrete of main girder at bearing position shall be provided similar
meshes in two layers shall also be provided in bearing pedestals. If there is no
bearing pedestal the bearing mesh shall be provided in pier cap / bed block of
abutment.
l) The thickness of slab in cantilever portion from 1.0m from end cross girder
on either side of main girder shall be varied from 275mm to 350mm to
meet the shear requirement as shown below.
130mm
130mm
275mm
350mm
at 1.0m from end at the face of cross girder
That means the thckness along span direction shall be varied gradually from
275mm to 350mm by lowering the centering in the end 1.0m from cross girder.
A typical section showing the reinforcement details of main girders and slab is
given below for information.
c) Minor cracks in concrete at bottom due to tension. This is being unnoticed for
many years and finally exposing the steel corroded.
d) Use of salt water during mixing or curing due to non availability of suitable
water near sea coast and in dry areas during construction.
The above problems are naturally creating a sort of panic nature in the
construction engineers as T-beam bridges are giving troubles in little span of 10 to 15
years inspite of experienced engineers executed the work. Even though there are some
rehabilitation methods are available like pressure grouting for filling voids and epoxy
compounds for application of fresh concrete after removal of all loose concrete, the
construction of T-beam bridges must be executed with extreme care to avoid
subsequent problems.
As detailed above, when the span is more than 10m the construction of
solid slab superstructure is uneconomical and we have to go for T-beam type
superstructure. Because of the practical problems discussed above, incase of T-beam
bridges, the other alternative is voided deck slab.
0.50 0.50
7.50
Top Slab
1200
Bottom Slab
200
5.0M
In this case the soffit slab is first laid duly keeping the reinforcement as
per design. After laying the soffit slab pipes are kept on a set of seating chairs at 0.50m
interval. The second stage of concreting is laid after keeping the pipes in position, up to
a 100mm less than the top of pipes. In this case, the gaps between pipes 2 No. and at
ends 2 No. are provided with stirrups and top & bottom reinforcement, which acts like a
beam. After completing the second stage concreting the reinforcement for top slab is
kept in position as per design. The third stage concreting is done up to 200mm above
the pipes. The total depth of superstructure is less i.e. 1.20m compared to 1.875m for a
T-beam bridge of span of 18.75m effective.
From the above, we can say that the voided deck slab is nothing but two
solid slabs one soffit slab and one top slab connected by 4 beams. The execution of
voided deck slab is very simple, as all concrete laid in 3 stages can be seen and effective
compaction can be achieved. Thus the problems of holes in concrete of T- beam girder
bridges are eliminated. The reinforcement provided is not having any congestion.
Subsequent problems of corrosion of steel and spalling of concrete is eliminated. The
Box type structure gives good appearance of superstructure. It gives more vertical
clearance due to reduction in depth of superstructure.
Due to the above advantages the voided deck slab structure is convenient
for executing safe bridge structure. Let us forget about the economics of this type of
structure, compared to the T-beam bridges in the interest of our jobs. These are
suitable for spans ranging from 10 to 25m. This type of structure can be used for
causeways also without any anchoring arrangement of superstructure considering the
effect of Buoyancy also.
RCC BOX GIRDERS
When the span of Bridge structure exceeds 25m, the T-beam bridges are
not suitable due to large depth of girders. The other alternative is R.C.C box girder. It is
also another type of hollow R.C.C section. The construction of this type of
superstructure is easy and the structure looks good. A typical section of R.C.C box girder
is given below for information.
0.50 0.50
7.50
<1.50M
In this case also, the soffit slab (bottom) concreting is laid first and then
two sloped faces concreting. And finally the top reinforcement kept in position with two
cantilevers on either side, concreting shall be done. The difference between voided deck
slab box girder will be only in the middle portion i.e. placing of R.C.C pipes. The
remaining process is same for both type of superstructure.
The depth inside of the box shall be not less then 1.50m to allow for
inspection of superstructure periodically.
So far, for bridges with 7.50m carriageway the standard drawings shows
level slab at top irrespective of type of superstructure. The required camber to drain off
rain water is being given in wearing coat only 100mm at centre and 50mm at end
abutting kerb. The revised drawings recently issued by M.O.R.T & H, the camber is
being provided in the deck of superstructure itself at 2.5% and uniform wearing
coat is provided (75mm). This is the new procedure being adopted recently. While fixing
R.C.L we must take into consideration the extra thickness of superstructure at centre
and the superstructure shall be laid with camber.
While laying superstructure it is very important to leave recess at the
joint location for a width of 600mm on either side to a depth of 75mm so that the
sinusoidal rod and tie rods of expansion joint are welded to main reinforcement,
subsequently. The expansion joint steel section may be welded in correct position, just
before laying the wearing coat and the levels of expansion joint angle arrangement are
kept at the level of wearing coat.
While laying kerb for a retaining wall of lengths exceeding 25m, a clear
gap shall be provided with mastic pad to allow for expansion right from foundation level
and the kerb over it should be given a gap for expansion. At this position reinforcement
for end posts is to be provided. Often mistakes are committed, making the hand railing
continuous without any gap for the entire length which may lead to cracks due to
expansion in summer.
1 in 30
0.15
1 in 30
H
OFL
F.L F.L
Anchoring Arrangements
Raft
F.L
If ‘H’ is the level difference between OFL and M.F.L the length of sloped
portion will be (H + 0.15) x 30, on either side of level portion.
Bed protection in the form of Jeddy stone apron shall be provided for the
total length of causeway including sloped portion to avoid scouring action from down
stream side to upstream side which is called undermining.
Expansion Joints: As already discussed a recess or gap is given while laying concrete
of deck to a width of 600mm and depth of 75mm duly exposing the main reinforcement.
The purpose of providing expansion joint is to allow free movement of superstructure
due to high temperature in summer and to relieve the stresses induced due to this
expansion. It also protects the edges of superstructure due to movement of vehicular
traffic. The most commonly adopted expansion joint now a days is slab seal
elastomeric expansion joints which serves longer periods and allows smooth flow of
traffic for spans between 10m to 20m to cater to a movement upto 40mm. firstly,
the angle attachment of expansion joint with stiffener plates, tie rods, sinusoidal rods
are welded to the main reinforcement of superstructure with required level. They are
readily available in two bits of 3.75m each to meet the carriageway requirement of
7.50m. It contains two angles as shown below and tie rods.
75
600 600 Reinforcement
of Bridge
Super Structure Super Structure
Clear expansion gap (40mm)
In the gap left for fixing the joint the concrete shall be laid upto bottom of wearing coat
first. Then the wearing coat shall be laid up to the level of angle attachment. The
elastomers shall be available in the lengths of 1.0m and 0.75m, 0.50m as
required. Note that the elastomer shall be fixed to angle attachment in dry condition.
Hence the elastomers are fixed after curing of wearing coat is completed. The elastomer
shall be fixed with epoxy to the angle attachment. Also lock nuts fixed, not to allow
dislocation due to traffic. As this joint provides elastomer at top, this gives smooth riding
and noise free expansion joints. These elastomers if spoiled due to traffic they can be
removed and new elastomer can be placed if required (generally after 20 to 25 years).
The process of fixing joints shall be demonstrated by company technician
for one joint and the remaining joints can be fixed easily.
It is being given to provide joints in the kerb location also on front face.
It is of my personal opinion that expansion joint (with elastomer) need not be placed in
front face of kerb as no edge protection is necessary at this location and a clear gap of
40mm left will meet the requirement.
WEARING COAT
(i) Bituminous Wearing Coat: It consists one layer of mastic asphalt 6mm thick /
12mm thick after applying prime coat over the deck, followed by 50mm thick (in 2
layers) of ashpaltic concrete.
(ii) Cement Concrete Wearing Coat: This is the wearing coat that is being adopted
for state roads. This shall not be laid monolithic with deck concrete. The thickness of
wearing coat shall be 75mm in VRCC M.30 and water cement ratio of 0.40.
As per the latest specification the cross camber to drain off the rain water
shall be given in deck itself at 2.5% and uniform wearing coat shall be provided in the
two methods specified above. It is clearly specified that for providing corss camber no
variation in thickness of wearing coat shall be permitted.
Let us discuss about the VRCC wearing coat 100mm thick at center and
75mm at ends abutting kerb in level slabs longitudinally. In case of curved bridges super
elevation shall be provided in deck itself and uniform wearing coat of 75mm shall be
provided. It contains reinforcement of 6mm at 200mm c/c in both directions. Extra rods
of 500mm length on either side shall be provided at 100mm c/c as shown below.
0.475 0.475
7.50
Extra rods at Jionts Expansion Joint
200mm c/c
Mastic Pad
Mastic Pad
at Kerb
at Kerb
KERB
KERB
Expansion Joint
6mm @ 200mm c/c
Bothways
In the absence of skilled labour (or) when the brushing is not desired by
higher authorities the best way is to finish the surface with small flat trowel, when the
concrete is just getting hard. This method even though gives very smooth surface, being
appreciated by some engineers is easy and safe to the field engineers.
APPROACH SLAB: As per the revised specifications of MORTH the minimum length of
approach slab shall be 3.50m and minimum thickness shall be 300mm. This may be
adopted for new bridges. Often many of the approach slabs laid, are settling because of
gravel filling behind abutments. It is convenient to adopt stone dust filling duly
watered thoroughly to take up the approach slab immediately. When this is not
accepted it is safe to lay the approach slab after allowing the traffic for one rainy
season. In this case, as traffic can not be stopped for 3 weeks the approach slab shall
be laid in two halves. But the reinforcement of approach slab shall not be cut to
half width. The reinforcement may be bent vertically to allow the traffic till the
approach slab is laid and curing completed. This will be straightened and the concreting
for other half of approach slab is laid. This is because not to allow differential settlement
in two helves of approach slab (if the reinforcement is cut at centre this is not possible).
The wearing coat shall also be laid in two halves and reinforcement for wearing coat
can be cut at centre. The wearing coat shall not be laid monolithic with approach slab
concrete. One day gap may be given between concreting of the two items.
The approach slab shall be laid in level for level slabs and in
gradient for R.O.Bs etc. kerb shall be laid as usual. Before laying kerb it is necessary
to keep reinforcement of pedestals to be constructed for inauguration. The construction
of pedestals over approach slab kerb is convenient and gives good appearance.
FORMATION OF APPROACHES
The formation of approaches to a bridge forms a part of the bridge work.
The following points may be kept in mind before staring approaches.
1) The earth used for sub-grade shall have a minimum C.B.R of 5, preferably 7 and
the dry density of not less than 1.75gm/cc. The earth used for formation of
embankment shall have a maximum dry density of not less than 1.520 gm/cc. The
toe point shall be marked first and each layer of not exceeding 225mm thick loose
shall only be laid.
2) The crust in approaches shall be designed based on C.B.R value and traffic intensity
as per IRC 37. In general the following layers are adopted.
Thus granular sub base shall be designed to have a C.B.R of not less than
30 is obtained from lab with the following materials.
40mm HBG metal = 35%
20mm HBG metal = 25%
stone dust = 40%
The loose quantity required is 1.28 M3 for one cubic meter finished item
of granular base. The field C.B.R test shall be conducted after compaction practically this
mix is giving a C.B.R of around of 39 even after 3 days soaking.
At present, as MORT & H datas are being adopted all the payments
including granular sub base, WBM etc., are being effected by level payment by taking
levels at 10m intervals. Hence suitable bench marks may be fixed at 200m intervals with
a precision instrument.
It is usual practice to keep a straight and level portion of 15.0m
oneither side of bridge as shown below.
Gradient is 1 in 90 (assumed)
225mm
If ‘P’ is the joining point of new approach to the old road, assuming the crust of 525mm
and gradient of 90.
The granular sub base shall be laid up to = P – 90 x 0.30 (Crust above gravel
Base)
= P – 27m.
The first layer shall be laid up to = P – 90 x 0.225 (Crust above)
= P – 20.25m.
The second layer shall be laid up to = P – 90 x 0.15 = P – 13.50m.
The third layer shall be laid up to = P – 90 x 0.075 = P – 6.75m.
The B.M. layer shall be laid up to = P – 90 x 0.025 = P – 2.25m.
Finally the SDBC layer will be joined smooth, to the existing road, thus giving no jerk.
Often mistake is committed such that all the layers are laid up to point ‘P’ and then
joined with B.T layer only. Which gives impact and inconvenience to the fast moving
vehicles. So the above procedure may be adopted to join the old road.
Fold 0.60
RCL
(1½ : 1)
225mm Revetment
150mm Gravel backing
G.L
Toewall
(0.60x0.60)
It is to be noted that the toe wall shall be kept outside the line of revetment and also
below existing ground level as shown above.
Farmation Width
Sand
WBM
WBM
GSB 1.80
(2 : 1)
Ea
rth
Ca
1.80
s
in
g
g
sin
Sand Filling
Ca
1.80
rth
Ea
This method works out to be cheaper and effective, when the lead for cohesive soil is
less compared to gravel and good compaction can be achieved in slopes due to roller
compaction and no scouring of slope can take place. Necessary camber may be given in
sand formation itself.
Never keep the toe wall on a made up soil or by filling with soil up to a
level higher than the existing bed level, which simply get washed off during floods
causing failure of revetment. Even if the embankment is not properly compacted, the
sliding of revetment takes place due to formation of slip circle in expansive soils (B.C.
soils, marine clays etc.).
After completing granular sub base WBM Grade-II may be laid. Here also
for blindage screenings of 12mm shall be used. It is better to delete the addition of
natural gravel in any layer. Two layers of Grade-II shall be laid generally 75mm
compacted each layer.
For grade-III crushed metal only shall be allowed. Don’t get carried by
the notion that crushed metal gives less thickness and do not have any interlocking. It
gives dense packing. Here also stone dust shall be used for blindage. After completion of
Grade-III layer either prime coat or single coat surface dressing shall be laid and traffic
may be allowed for few weeks, so that any loose pockets in embankment may get
settlement. It is general that the approaches of bridge settles due to their high
embankment. All loose pockets shall be cut with vertical faces and filled with 40mm
metal and stone dust.
Over this one layer of D.B.M 50mm may be laid and SDBC 25mm shall
also be laid. The gravel shoulders may be laid for a width of minimum 1.0m on either
side, with sand gravel mix. This is the only item where grave is being allowed in total
road items.
Bridge
Kerb
Kerb
lop
lop
1 in 20 (<90M)
S
gS
g
ryin
ryin
Va
Va
12.00m
Approach Road
(2 : 1)
(2 : 1)
Guide Posts
Never go for too dark colour for posts, as it gives bad appearance. You can choose
colour of your own choice.