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Actin cytoskeleton reconstitution in MCF-7 breast cancer cells initiated by a

native flax root extract

Article · July 2015

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 Advancement in Medicinal Plant Research
Vol. 3(3), pp. 92-105, July 2015
ISSN: 2354-2152
Full Length Research Paper

Actin cytoskeleton reconstitution in MCF-7 breast

cancer cells initiated by a native flax root extract
Nadja Engel1*, Karin Kraft2, Petra Müller1, Kathrin Duske1, Juliane Kühn1, Christina
Oppermann3 and Barbara Nebe1
1
Department of Cell Biology, University Medical Center Rostock, Schillingallee 69, 18057 Rostock, Germany.
2
Complementary Medicine, Center of Internal Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 6,
18057 Rostock, Germany.
3
Department of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3A, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
Accepted 19 June, 2015

ABSTRACT

The intention of this systematic cell biological study was to analyze the effects of the phytoestrogen-rich,
ethanolic flax root extract (Linum usitatissimum L.) on human MCF-7 estrogen receptor positive breast
cancer cells in order to identify the main anti-tumor action by focusing on adhesion and migration related
features. Cell impedance, initial adhesion capacity, cell migration ability, and actin cytoskeleton formation
was determined by live cell monitoring, flow cytometry, scratch assay and confocal microscopy. Detailed
expression analyses of adhesion- and actin-related proteins were performed by flow cytometry and western
blotting, respectively. The effect on anchorage-independent growth of MCF-7 cells was analyzed by colony
formation on soft agar. 50 µg/ml flax root extract reduced cell impedance (50%), initial adhesion capacity
(18%), migration ability (72%) and colony formation (83%) in MCF-7 cells significantly. Increased stress fiber
formation (9-fold higher filament number and a 12-fold elevation of the total filament length) was initiated by
overexpression of profilin-1 and down regulation of arp-2, two important regulators of actin dynamics. In
conclusion, the flax root extract exhibits anti-tumor potential for estrogen receptor positive breast cancer
cells mainly by remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton, leading to significant reduction of migration and colony
formation in vitro.

Keywords: Breast cancer, flax, lignans, actin cytoskeleton, profilin, migration.

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +49 (0) 381 494 7775.
Abbreviations: DAPI, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; DMEM, modified Eagle’s medium; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; ESI,
electron spray ionization; FAK, focal adhesion kinase; FCS, fetal calf serum; HA, hyaluronic acid receptor; HPLC, high-performance
liquid chromatography; HPR, horse radish peroxidase; IDES, Interdigitated electrodes sensor; LC-MS, liquid chromatography–mass
spectrometry; LTQ, linear trap quadrupole; PDA, photodiode array; PFA, paraformaldehyde; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; TBS, tris-buffered saline; TCPS, tissue-culture polystyrene;
ZO-1, zona occludens.

INTRODUCTION

Natural products from a variety of herbal, animal, and compounds, such as paclitaxel, isolated from the bark of
microbial sources contain a huge potential of the Pacific yew tree, Taxus brevifolia, are standardized in
pharmacologically active substances that might play a chemotherapy. However, these substances often cause
role in drug development. Interest in natural products for serious side effects, and healing from cancer is not
drug development has waxed and waned, but there is no guaranteed. Therefore, the present trend is towards
denying their importance in oncology. Today, over half of cancer prevention. In this context, phytoestrogens play
the drugs approved to treat cancer originate from natural an essential role, as in epidemiological studies it was
products or natural product prototypes. Single shown that especially women who consume soy products
 Engel et al. 93

since childhood, have a significantly reduced risk of processes, which are associated with the tumorigenicity
developing breast cancer (Shu et al., 2001; Wu et al., of the cell. These include the potential for migration, the
2008; Nagata, 2010). The active phytoestrogens found in expression of adhesion receptors and the organization of
soy are primarily isoflavones e.g. genistein and daidzein. the actin cytoskeleton, which is substantially responsible
Phytoestrogens, plant-derived phytochemicals, are for the motility of the cancer cell (Kallergi et al., 2003).
thought to prevent breast cancer by modulating estrogen Because increased levels of soluble actin and decreased
receptor dependent mechanisms, reacting similar to the levels of polymerized actin are correlated with
endogenous hormone 17ß-estradiol because of structural tumorigenesis (Jordan and Wilson, 1998). The present
similarities (Makiewicz, 1993). Some phytoestrogens, e.g. study provides a systematic cell biological analysis of the
genistein belonging to the category of isoflavones, exhibit effects of a phytoestrogen-rich plant extract isolated from
biphasic effects in the estrogen-receptor positive breast the root of Linum usitatissimum on human MCF-7 breast
cancer cell line MCF-7: estrogenic effects are achieved at cancer cells intending to identify its main anti-tumor actions.
low concentrations (<10 µM), whereas higher
concentrations (>10 µM) show antiestrogenic activity
(Hilakivi-Clarke et al., 2002; Allred et al., 2001; Zava and MATERIALS AND METHODS
Duwe, 1997). The estrogenic stimulation can result in the
Chemicals
up-regulation of proliferation and migration, while high
concentrations of genistein are able to induce growth Methanol (HPLC gradient grade, J.T. Baker, Center Vally, PA, USA)
arrest and apoptosis in MCF-7 cells, most likely by and absolute ethanol (MERCK, Darmstadt, Germany) with the
inhibiting the intrinsic tyrosine kinase activities of growth purity ACS, ISO, Reag. PhEur were used as extraction solvent. The
factor receptors (Pagliacci et al., 1994). LC-MS (liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry)
This biphasic behavior can be avoided by using Chromasolv© grade solvents, methanol with 0.1% formic acid and
water with 0.1% formic acid were obtained by FLUKA (St. Louis,
phytoestrogen-rich plant extracts, for example the native USA). The reference compounds of genistein, glycetein, biochanin
flax root extract (Engel et al., 2012; Abarzua et al., 2007). and secoisolariciresinol were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St.
The native flax root extract includes various Louis, USA) with the highest-possible purity. The standards of
phytoestrogens like genistein, daidzein, fisetin and daidzein were intent on FLUKA (St. Louis, USA) with the
secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol beside various other best-possible purity. All of the standard samples were dissolved to
not yet analyzed compounds. This mixture of secondary a concentration of 1 mg/ml in absolute ethanol. Phytoestrogens
were identified by comparing the mass spectra and retention times
plant metabolites does not produce biphasic effects in with those of the reference compounds, or with published mass
MCF-7 cells, possibly due to its synergistic mode of spectra (Ford et al., 2001; Bambagiotti-Alberti et al., 1994).
action (Engel et al., 2012). Regional herbal products are
of particular interest, if they are already used in the
Plant material and extract preparation
agricultural science field or industry. Flax (Linum
usitatissimum), a member of the genus Linum, is a food Linum usitatissimum seeds were obtained from the Agriculture
and fibre crop that is grown in humid continental, arid and Research Institution (LUFA, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern,
dry arid climates zones, predominantly cultivated in Germany), seeded in April and were grown in pots filled with soil
Canada, China and Russia. Its medicinal use is under field conditions. Initial, the plants were watered with 0.1%
established in the German speaking area for treatment of Wuxal liquid fertilizer (aglucone Fertilizers GmbH). The plants were
not protected from the natural weathering or attack by pests. When
various disorders since centuries (Vogl et al., 2013). plants reached a height of 1 m (~100 d), roots were harvested,
Recently flax has raised the focus on its potential for the cleaned manually and stored at -80°C in plastic bags until
treatment of breast and prostate cancer (Thompson et extraction. Preparation of the flax root extract was performed
al., 2005; Azrad et al., 2013). This might be due to its according to Luyengi et al. (1996) and described previously
high levels of lignans, a major class of secondary plant (Abarzua et al., 2007; Abarzua et al., 2010). Extract powder was
dissolved in ethanol (HPLC, gradient grade, ≥99.8%, Sigma,
compounds belonging to the category of phytoestrogens.
Germany) to give a stock solution of 100 mg/ml. The extract was
Especially secoisolariciresinol but also lariciresinol, aliquoted (100 µl portions) and stored at -80°C.
matairesinol, and pinoresinol are known to reduce breast
tumor growth in athypic mice (Adolphe et al., 2010).
In this study a native flax root extract was used, which LC-MS analysis
includes both a variety of lignans and isoflavones
The samples and standard solutions were identified on a Thermo
(Abarzua et al., 2007). Its availability is high, as flax is an Scientific HPLC-LTQ system (Thermo Scientific, Dreieich,
intensively used agricultural crop. In in vitro studies no Germany) comprising of a Surveyor PlusTM HPLC system
biphasic effect could be identified on estrogen receptor equipped with a three simultaneous channel PDA detector and a
positive breast cancer cells MCF-7, the extract is linear trap quadropol mass spectrometer (LTQ) fitted with an
effective at rather low concentrations (10 to 50 µg/ml). electron spray ionization source. Data were evaluated and
interpreted by Xcalibure software (Thermo Scientific, Dreieich,
Also, until no negative effects on non-tumorigenic breast Germany) and a special interpretation HighChem© Mass
cells (MCF-10A, MCF-12A) could not be demonstrated in FrontierTM Software (Thermo Scientific, Dreireich, Germany). The
vitro (Engel et al., 2012). Therefore, we turned our separation was performed on a Kinetex 2.6u C18 100A (150 × 4.6
attention to the investigation of adhesion-related mm, Phenomenex, Germany). The column temperature was kept at
 Adv Med Plant Res 94

35°C and the mobile phases consisted of solvent A (methanol with gap were taken at different time points (0, 12, 24, 48, 62 h) by a
0.1% formic acid, LC.MS Chromasolv©, Fluka, Germany) and B bright field microscope (Axiovert 40, Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany)
(water with 0.1% formic acid, LC.MS Chromasolv©, Fluka, equipped with the camera Icc1 (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany).
Germany). Elution of the extracts was performed by the following
solvent gradient: 40% A to 95% A (15 min), 95% A isocratic (10
min), 95% A to 80% A (10 min), 80% A to 40% A (5 min) and 40% Expression of adhesion receptors
A isocratic (20 min). The flow rate was 0.15 ml/ min and the
injection volume amount 2 µl. MS spectra were recorded in both Cells grown in T25 culture flasks up to a confluency of 70% were
positive and negative modes and in a range of m/z 90.00 to either treated for 48 h with the vehicle (0.1% EtOH) or with different
2000.00. The compounds were identified by ion trap technology, concentrations of the flax root extract (10, 50 µg/ml). After
and the mass spectrometric detection was realized with electron trypsinization, cells were washed with PBS (with 0.133 g/L
spray ionization (ESI). CaCl2•2H2O and 0.1 g/L MgCl2•2H2O, Sigma, Germany) and then
incubated with 100 µl of the primary antibodies (dilution 1:20;
mouse anti human IgG1) against the adhesion receptors: CD29 (ß1-
Cell culture and treatment conditions integrin); CD61 (ß3-integrin); CD49b (α2-integrin); CD49c (α3-
integrin); CD49d (α4-integrin); CD49e (α5-integrin); CD49f (α6-
The human epithelial estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cell line integrin); CD51 (αv-integrin); CD44 (HA; hyaluronic acid); control
MCF-7 was purchased from ATCC (www.atcc.org) and cultivated in Mouse IgG1; (all from Beckman Coulter, USA) for 1 h at room
Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM; Invitrogen, Germany) temperature. Thereafter, cells were washed and secondarily
with 10% fetal bovine serum (FCS; PAN Biotech GmbH, Germany) labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated anti-mouse IgG
and 1% gentamicin (Ratiopharm GmbH, Ulm, Germany) at 37°C (FITC; Sigma) for 1 h at room temperature in the dark. After a final
and in a humidified atmosphere with 5% CO2. Prior to treatment washing step with PBS, cells were diluted in 300 µl CellFix
with the flax root extract (L; Linum usitatissimum; final (Beckman Coulter, USA). Adhesion receptor expression levels were
concentrations: 0.1, 1, 10, 25 and 50 µg/ml) or 17ß-estradiol (E2; measured as described previously by Nebe et al. (2006). 10.000
final concentration: 1 nM; purchased from Sigma, Germany), cells events were recorded for each measurement. At least three
were adapted to phenol-red-free DMEM (PAA Laboratories GmbH, replicates for each treatment were performed.
Germany) with 10% charcoal stripped FCS (PAN Biotech GmbH, For visualization of integrins, cells were incubated on glass cover
Germany) for 48 h to avoid unspecific stimulation of endogenous slips until a confluency of 70% was reached. After adaptation to the
hormones in the serum (assay medium). Then, treatment with assay medium for 48 h, cells were treated with the flax root extract
substances was carried out in the assay medium for 48 h. For for 48 h. Prior to integrin labeling, cells were washed three times
negative controls (C) the respective vehicle (EtOH; final with PBS (with Ca and Mg) and then incubated with 100 µl of the
concentration: 0.1%) was used in the same manner. primary antibody (CD29 (ß1-integrin), Beckman Coulter, USA) for 1
h at room temperature. After a PBS washing step, the secondary
antibody (Alexa Fluor488; Invitrogen, UK) was used for 1 h to label
SEM visualization of cell morphology ß1 integrins on the cell surface. Thereafter cells were fixed by
treatment with 3.7% paraformaldehyde (PFA) for 10 min, washed
Cells were fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde (24 h, 4°C), dehydrated with PBS (with Ca and Mg) and then permeabilized with 0.1% Triton
through a graded series of alcohol (30% 5 min, 50% 5 min, 75% 10 X-100. Finally the nucleus of cells were counterstained with 100 µl
min, 90% 15 min, 100% twice for 10 min) and dried in a critical point of 300 nM DAPI (4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole)-dihydrochloride
dryer (K 850, EMITECH, Taunusstein, Germany). Subsequently (Invitrogen, UK) for 15 min. After washing with PBS, cells were
probes were sputtered with a thin goldlayer. The cell morphology embedded on glass slides in mounting medium and stored at +4°C
was examined with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) Zeiss in the dark. Cellular integrins were visualized with the Axio
DSM 960A (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany). Scope.A1 fluorescence microscope (Carl Zeiss, Germany) using
AxioVision Imaging Software 4.8.2.0 (Carl Zeiss, Germany).

Initial adhesion measurement

Actin visualization and quantification
Cells treated for 48 h were trypsinized with 0.05% trypsin/0.02%
EDTA for 5 min, washed once with phosphate buffered saline MCF-7 cells (10,000 cells/cm2) were cultured on glass coverslips for
(PBS) and resuspended in assay medium. Cell number and vitality 24 h. After adaption to assay medium for 48 h, cells were treated
were measured with the CASY cell counter DT (Schärfe System, with the flax root extract for 48 h, and finally fixed with 4% PFA for
Reutlingen, Germany). A definite number of 50,000 vital cells were 10 min. They were washed twice with PBS and permeabilized with
seeded in 6-well plates. After 2 h incubation, the number of non- 0.1% Triton X-100 for 10 min. Then cells were incubated with 100 µl
adherent cells in the assay medium was measured by flow 6.6 µM Alexa Fluor594 phalloidin (Invitrogen, Germany) for 30 min
cytometry (BD FACSCalibur, NJ, US). Each independent in the dark at room temperature, washed again and embedded in
measurement was repeated at least for six times. Adherent cells mounting medium. Actin was investigated with an inverted confocal
were back-calculated from the non-adherent cells in the medium. laser scanning microscope (LSM780, Carl Zeiss, Germany)
equipped with a helium/neon-ion laser and a ZEISS 63× oil
immersion objective. The confocal images (1024 × 1024 pixel) were
Wound healing assay used for subsequent actin quantification via mathematical image
processing by the FilaQuant software (University of Rostock,
Wound healing assay was conducted on MCF-7 cells, pre- Institute of Mathematics, Mathematical Optimization)
incubated in assay medium for 48 h adaption in 6-well plates (Matschegewski et al., 2012; Birkholz et al., 2010; Birkholz, 2011).
(Greiner, Germany). A scratch wound was made by Ibidi culture
inserts (µ-Dish 35 mm; Ibidi GmbH, Martinsried, Germany) following
the instructors recommendations. When cell layers reached Western blotting
confluency, the culture insert was removed and cells were treated
with the flax root extracts or control (vehicle). Photographs of the The general steps of the Western blot procedure have been
 Engel et al. 95

described previously (Engel et al., 2012). For protein detections characterized by their dimer phenylpropanoid, molecules
primary antibodies (Collagen Type I (600-401-103-01, Rockland, which are linked to a middle ß-C atom (Larkin, 2000).
USA); Fibronectin (sc-8422); Vinculin (sc-55465); Focal adhesion
These properties are characteristic for lignans.
kinase (FAK, 610088, BD-Transduction; USA); Paxillin (sc-5574);
E-Cadherin (3195, Cell signaling, Germany); ZO-1 (8139, Cell Besides the lignans, also some flavonoids were
signaling, Germany); α-E-Catenin (3240; Cell signaling, Germany); identified, e.g. fisetin (3, 3', 4', 7 - tetrahydroxyflavon)
Profilin-1 (3246, Cell signaling, Germany); Arp-2 (3128, Cell which was found in the negative ion current. Fisetin
signaling, Germany) and ß-Actin (sc-47778); sc: Santa Cruz, USA) eluted with a medium intensity and a retention time of
were incubated overnight at 4°C followed by labeling with a 16.25 min. Other flavonoids such as daizein, glycitin and
horseradish peroxidase (HPR)-conjugated secondary antibody
(Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) for 1 h at room temperature. Band
biochanin, were also be detected by MS. A summary of
intensity was analyzed densitometrically with the Molecular Imager the identified plant ingredients is given in table 1. The
ChemiDoc XRS and Image Lab 3.0.1 software (Bio-Rad, USA). peak with the highest intensity (NL: 7.20E6) in the
Protein detection was repeated at least three times with individually positive ion current at a retention time of 13.98 min
prepared cell lysates from independently passaged cells. (Figure 1) has a m/z ratio of 701 amu. Comparison with
databases, standards and various publications did not
Colony formation in soft agar provide any clear structure. After msn investigation with
syringe pump we could identify the lignan basic structure
Anchorage-independent growth was determined by assaying colony of a secoisolariciresinol, which is linked double glycosidic.
formation in soft agar. MCF-7 cells were adapted to assay medium One of the sugar parts contained a methoxy-group. Thus,
for 48 h. Thereafter, cells were treated with the flax extract (1, 25 in the ms profile of this structure there is clear evidence
and 50 µg/ml) and the vehicle (C; 0.1% ethanol) for further 48 h. To
form the base layer 1 ml of 0.5% agar (Gibco, USA) in assay
that based on the main mass fragment [M+H+]+ with a
medium was added to each well of a 12-well plate (Greiner, m/z value of 701 amu, a direct sugar separation [M-162]+
Germany) and allowed to polymerize on the tissue culture plastic followed by an ,-hydrogen rearrangement with a m/z
until the agar reached room temperature. The top layer was made value of 539 amu is discernible. The second separation
by 0.35% agar in assay medium. After cooling down to about 40°C, of a sugar molecule and some other hydrogen and
5 × 103 cells were mixed with 1 ml top layer agar and plated over
charge rearrangements induce the basic lignan molecule
the base layer. Cells were cultivated with assay medium which was
changed every 3rd day. The growth of the cells in soft agar was secoisolariciresinol with a m/z of 361 amu. In accordance
monitored daily by a light microscope (Axiovert 40, Carl Zeiss, to the literature, the presence of podophyllotoxin could
Jena, Germany) equipped with the camera Icc1 (Carl Zeiss, Jena, not be demonstrated by MS (Abarzua et al., 2007).
Germany). Images of the colonies were taken at day 16.

Cell impedance, adhesion and migration ability

Statistical analysis

All experiments were replicated at least three times with individually We analyzed the influence of the flax root extract on the
passaged cells, and data sets were expressed as means ± cell impedance with the Bionas® 2500 analyzing system
standard deviations (SD). Statistical significance was determined by combined with the metabolic chip Bionas DisocveryTM
the unpaired student’s t-test (*** P < 0.001; ** P < 0.01; * P < 0.05). SC1000 equipped with an IDES sensor (Interdigitated
Electrodes), which are solid state electrochemical
devices able to detect dielectric properties of a sample.
RESULTS After an adaption phase of 3 to 4 h (highlighted in grey) to
the new culture conditions, cell impedance of MCF-7 cells
Chemical composition of the flax root extract was measured continuously for 20 h (Figure 2). In
comparison to the control treatment with 0.1% ethanol,
To identify the major classes of active substances in the which was set to 100%, a concentration of 10 µg/ml flax
ethanolic flax root extract, LC separation and MS analysis extract only slightly lowered the MCF-7 cell impedance.
were performed. For qualitative measurements, the The highest concentration of 50 µg/ml reduced the
negative and positive ion currents via Xcalibur software impedance rate by up to 50% of the initial value.
were analyzed because all examined analytes could form To determine the initial adhesion capacity, suspended
deprotonated molecules [M-H]- or protonated molecules MCF-7 cells were let to adhere on tissue culture
[M+H]+ as major precursor ions (Figure 1). The polystyrene (TCPS) for 2 h. Non-adherent cell were
investigations revealed that the plant ingredients mainly counted via flow cytometry. Treatment with 50 µg/ml flax
tend to negative ionization. root extract significantly reduced initial adhesion of MCF-
The root extract is a mixture of many different complex 7 cells compared to the control (18% reduction; p <
ingredients the presence of the lignan secoisolariciresinol 0.0009; Figure 3A). Lower concentrations of the flax
with the main mass fragment [M-H]- at m/z = 361 at a extract did not change initial adhesion properties. The
retention time of 10.48 min was verified in the negative positive control 17ß-estradiol (1 nM) stimulated the initial
ion current. Furthermore, matairesinol, pinoresinol, adhesion capacity significantly (p < 0.049).
lariciresinol, anhydrosecoisolariciresinol diglycoside and A further important marker for the tumorigenicity of
arctigenin were identified (Table 1). All compounds are cancer cells is the migration ability. Figure 3B clearly
 Adv Med Plant Res 96

Figure 1. Chromatograms of the positive and negative ion mode of the ethanolic Linum usitatissimum
root extract. Positive: NL: 7.20E6 BasePeak F: ITMS + c ESI sid = 35.00 Full ms [90.00-2000.00] MS.
Negative: NL: 1.06E6 BasePeak F: ITMS - c ESI sid = 95.00 Full ms [90.00-2000.00] MS. Note that the
detected secondary plant compounds appear at retention times between 10 and 20 min.

Table 1. Identified mass traces of the secondary plant compounds of the ethanolic flax root extract detected by LC-MS analysis in
accordance to their retention time.

No. Retention time (min) Compounds ESI (pos. mode), m/z ESI (neg. mode), m/z
1 10.48 Secoisolariciresinol - 361
2 Lariciresinol 361 359
3 12.03 Matairesinol - 357
4 12.60 Pinoresinol 359 357
5 13.98 “not yet characterized” 701 722
6 14.34 Arctigenin - 371
7 15.86 Biochanin a 285 283
8 16.25 Fisetin 287 285
9 16.42 Daidzein 255 253
10 16.90 Glyciten 285 -
11 18.48 Anhydrosecoisolariciresinol 345 343
diglycosid

demonstrates a decrease of the migration rate of MCF-7 motility substantially. The highest concentration of the
cells after treatment with 10 and 50 µg/ml flax extract in extract reduced cell movement significantly, very few
standard scratch assays. While after 48 h control cells cells were able to migrate into the gap (72% reduction).
were able to close the gap as a sign of high migratory These results clearly show that the flax extract exerts a
capacity, exposure of the flax extract inhibited MCF-7 cell significant influence on the adhesion and migration
 Engel et al. 97

Figure 2. Online monitoring of living cell impedance of MCF-7 cells after exposure with 10
and 50 µg/ml flax root extract in comparison to the control (0.1% ethanol) with the Bionas
DiscoveryTM 2500 system using the metabolic chip SC1000 under dynamic flow conditions
(pump rate 56 µl/min). Displayed were the percentages of the standardized rates of cell
adhesion (impedance) in a period of 24 h. Grey shadowed area marks the adaption phase
(4 h) of the cells. Arrow: start of the addition of the flax root extract. Shown is the mean of 3
independent experiments.

processes in the cell line MCF-7. expression is spread evenly over the whole cell surfaces.

Adhesion receptor expression Morphological alterations

Integrins are key players in the mediation of attachment In order to confirm that the flax root extract is able to
between a cell and its surroundings, e.g. other cells or break up the cell-cell contacts, morphological analyses
the extracellular matrix. Therefore alteration of integrin were performed. Scanning electron microscopy allows
expression or distribution might be involved in the deriving indications for membrane stability, induction of
significant changes of initial adhesion capacity and apoptosis (so-called "membrane-blebbing") or contact
migration properties after application of the flax extract. with the extracellular matrix. Figure 5 demonstrates the
The integrin expression on the cell surface was cell morphology of the MCF-7 cells after a 48 h exposure
measured by flow cytometry (Figure 4A). Compared to with the flax extract. Under control conditions, MCF-7
the control treatment no significant alteration in the cells are clustered in domes, which are typical for the
integrin receptor expression was detectable. tumorigenic growth of these cells. The cells are well
To confirm these results, integrin expression and spread on the glass surface, and the cell-cell contacts are
distribution was monitored by fluorescence microcopy. In very close, therefore a visual differentiation of the cells
Figure 4B the distribution of ß1 integrin (green borders hardly can be observed. After treatment with 1
fluorescence) is exemplarily shown. Under control µg/ml flax root extract there was no detectable change of
conditions, ß1 integrins is weakly present on the cell cell morphology. At a concentration of 10 µg/ml the
surface, but shows a marked increase of expression at contacts between the cells started to dissolve. At a
the cell-cell contacts, indicating for strong cell cohesion. concentration of 50 µg/ml flax extract nearly all MCF-7
After treatment with 10 µg/ml flax extract the green cells are separated from each other: In the 1000-fold
fluorescence decreased, and the cells seem to slide magnification the MCF-7 cells do not show any cell-cell
apart. This phenomenon is even more pronounced after contacts. The contact with the glass surface, however, is
treatment with 50 µg/ml of the flax extract: Only a few not affected - the cells do not detach from the substrate.
cell-cell contacts can be recognized, and the ß1 integrin These high-resolution images confirm the suspicions that
 Adv Med Plant Res 98

Figure 3. Influence of the flax root extract on the initial adhesion capacity (A) and
the migration properties (B) of MCF-7 cells. A: Initial adhesion of suspended
MCF-7 cells was measured after two hours incubation with the flax extract (L) in
comparison with the vehicle control (EtOH) or the positive control of 1 nM 17ß-
estradiol (E2). Significant lowered initial adhesion occurs after exposure with 50
µg/ml flax extract. Cells were counted with the cytometer FACSCalibur. (n = 6;
student’s t-test; *** P < 0.001; * P < 0.05). B: Scratch assay to monitor the
migration ability of MCF-7 cells after treatment with the vehicle EtOH (Control), 1
or 50 µg/ml flax extract. Photographs were taken at the incubation start point (0
h) and after 48 h exposure with the flax extract (Camera Icc1,Carl Zeiss, Jena,
Germany). Significant reduced migration potential was visible after treatment
with 50 µg/ml flax extract. Red lines surround the borderline of the cell layer.
(One representative example of 5 independent experiments, bar = 200 µm).
 Engel et al. 99

Figure 4. Expression of several integrin receptor subunits/ hyaluronic acid receptor (HA) and localization of the
ß1-integrin subunit. A: Expression of cell surface receptors was measured by flow cytometry after treatment
with 1, 10 or 50 µg/ml flax extract (L) compared to the vehicle control (C). No significant alterations in the cell
surface expression of all marked integrins and HA were determined (mean ± SD; n=6). B: Top row:
Immunofluorescent labeling of ß1-integrin (green) and counterstaining with Dapi to visualize the cell nucleus
(blue). Bottom row: Enlarged sections of the original recordings without the representation of the cell nuclei.
Notably, ß1-integrin is strongly localized at the cell-cell contacts in control cells, whereas the exposure with 50
µg/ml flax extract leads to a uniform distribution of ß1-integrin on the basal side of the cells (arrow). (Axio
Scope.A1 fluorescence microscope,Carl Zeiss, Germany; bar = 20 µm).
 Adv Med Plant Res 100

question, which of the adhesion-related proteins were

affected adversely thereby resulting in breaks of the
epithelial cell cluster structure.

Expression analysis of adhesion molecules

In order to explain the broken cell-cell contacts as well as

the diminished adhesion, the expression of several
adhesion proteins was determined on protein level
(Suppl. Figure 1). We focused on calcium-dependent
adhesion molecules (E-cadherin, α-E-catenin), proteins
from the focal adhesion complex (focal adhesion kinase
(FAK), paxillin, vinculin), and extracellular matrix proteins
(collagen I, fibronectin). Furthermore, we analyzed the
expression of the tight junction protein zona occludens
(ZO-1), which is needed to form a continuous barrier to
fluids across the epithelium. This peripheral membrane
adaptor protein links junctional transmembrane proteins
to the actin cytoskeleton. The western blotting results did
not reveal any significant changes after treatment with
the flax root extract. Neither the expression levels of
collagen I, fibronectin nor paxillin, vinculin nor FAK were
changed. Also E-cadherin, an important transmembrane
glycoprotein mediating calcium-dependent cell-cell
adhesion was not influenced in its expression. Slight
variations in the expression levels were detected in the
proteins ZO-1 and α-E-catenin. Also, the ß-actin levels
were not significantly changed after addition of the flax
extract.

Actin stress fiber formation by alteration of profilin-1

and arp-2 expression

Actin, the major component of the cytoskeleton primarily

exists as a fibrous polymer. It does not only determine
the structure of the cells and serves as scaffold for
signaling proteins but is also responsible for its stiffness.
The breast cancer cells MCF-7 are characterized by a
cortical arrangement of F-actin (Figure 6). The actin
fibers show almost no stress fiber formation, and F-actin
is localized submembranously, and primarily at the cell-
cell contacts or close to the filopodia that extend beyond
the leading edge of lamellipodia in migrating cells. After
exposure to the flax root extract (50 µg/ml) the F-actin is
starting reorganization, leading to the formation of long
stress fibers throughout the cell. By novel software
Figure 5. Scanning electron microscopic visualization of MCF-7 cell “FilaQuant”, the quantification of the actin filament
morphology after treatment with 1, 10 and 50 µg/ml flax root extract organization via mathematical image processing of the
in comparison with the vehicle control. Notably, cell-cell contacts confocal microscopic exposures was feasible. The
are lost after treatment with 10 and 50 µg/ml flax extract (SEM DSM
automatically processed images represent the actin
960A,Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany; magnifications: 200x, 1000x).
filament formation confirming the confocal microscopic
observations. They show, that total filament length after
exposure to the flax extract is highly boosted (Table 2). In
have arisen by the ß1 integrin fluorescence staining: the detail, data revealed a 9-fold higher formation of the
flax extract prevents the formation or destroys the filament number and a 12-fold increase of the total
functionality of cell-cell contacts. These findings raise the filament length after exposure to the flax extract.
 Engel et al. 101

Supplemental Figure 1. Western blotting experiments of adhesion and cell-cell contact relevant
proteins of MCF-7 cells in a concentration dependent series (0.1 to 50 µg/ml flax root extract (L)). No
expression level alterations of either one of the proteins were detected after flax extract incubation.
Representative example of three western blot experiments is shown.

However, the length of the average filament is only Effect of flax root extract on anchorage-independent
slightly increased. growth of MCF-7 cells analyzed by colony formation
One key player in the orchestra of actin dynamic on soft agar
regulators is profilin-1, an actin binding protein that
affects the rate of actin polymerization. A further protein To test if tumorigenicity of MCF-7 cells is influenced by
relevant for actin nucleation is arp-2, which promotes the flax root extract we assessed the capacity for
branching of existing actin filaments and formation of anchorage-independent growth by testing their ability to
daughter filaments by recycling existing filaments. form colonies while suspended in soft agar. Control MCF-
Therefore, the expression levels of profilin-1 and arp-2 7 cells form numerous large colonies in soft agar. In
under the treatment of the flax extract were studied by contrast, flax root exposed MCF-7 cells form considerably
western blotting analysis (Figure 7). The expression less colonies with a reduced size in a concentration-
levels of profilin-1 increase dose-dependently with the dependent manner (Figure 8).
extract concentration, starting from the concentration of 1
µg/ml. The expression of arp-2 decreases at all used flax
extract concentrations explaining the strong formation of DISCUSSION
stress fibers in MCF-7 cells after treatment with higher
concentrations (10 to 50 µg/ml) of extract. The increased In previous work we could show that the flax root extract
profilin-1 expression initiates the polymerization of F- plunged a concentration-dependent decrease of the
actin, and the reduction of arp-2 protein prevents a strong proliferation of the breast tumor cell line MCF-7 (Engel et
side branching of actin. The actin fibers therefore are al., 2012). In order to clarify the underlying mechanisms,
long and not branched (Figure 6). a systematic study of the anti-tumorigenic properties of
 Adv Med Plant Res 102

Figure 6. Visualization and quantification of actin filaments in MCF-7 cells under control
conditions (vehicle 0.1% ethanol) and after treatment with 50 µg/ml flax root extract for 48 h.
left column: confocal images of actin stained cells in a monolayer (LSM 780, Carl Zeiss, bar =
25 µm), middle column: single cell images, right column: automatically processed images
obtained from FilaQuant software (University of Rostock, Institute of Mathematics,
Mathematical Optimization). Actin filaments are shown as colored lines. Note that the actin
filament length and number are impressively increased after exposure to the flax root extract.

Table 2. Quantification values of actin filament number and length calculated by

the FilaQuant software. (mean ± SD, unpaired t-test, ***p < 0.001; n = 20 cells).

Parameter Control 50 µ/ml L

Filament number 9.24 ± 2.62 85.9 ± 6.43***
Total filament length (µm) 54.95 ± 9.18 650.46 ± 56.82***
Average filament length (µm) 5.68 ± 1.87 7.60 ± 2.01

the extract was placed in the center of this work. In the cell is initiated - the cell has become stiff and
addition to the proliferation as revealed earlier also inflexible (Kallergi et al., 2003). Among others this
adhesion and motility, important features of cancer cells, stiffness could lead to the disruption of cell-cell contacts
were examined. It was shown that the flax extract (Figure 5) and a displacement of ß1-integrin (Figure 4).
strongly inhibited the cell impedance, initial cell adhesion ß1 integrin is believed to be associated with tumor
and migration ability of MCF-7 cells. By means of testing progression and metastasis-associated cell behaviors
the expression and intracellular distribution of adhesion (Ivanova et al., 2013; dos Santos et al., 2012). The lack
related proteins, it has been possible to evaluate that the of cell-cell contacts can break down the tumorigenic
actin cytoskeleton is remodeled by the flax root extract. epithelial cell structure, thereby interrupting cell
This is achieved by an overexpression of profilin-1 and a communication. Therefore induction of apoptotic signals
reduced expression level of arp-2, which resulted in an is likely.
increased formation of actin stress fibers spanning the The dissolution of the cell assembly is also confirmed
entire cell. Normally, MCF-7 cells harbor a cortical by the impedance measurements on the Bionas device
cytoskeleton with short F-Actin fibers, which enable cells (Figure 2). The loss of 50% cell impedance can be either
to grow, migrate and adhere much faster than normal traced to the detachment of the cells from the metabolic
epithelial breast cells like MCF-10A (Haynes et al., 2011). chip surface or to a reduced resistance of the chip, whilst
By the extension of the F-actin filaments a stabilization of more gaps between the cells have emerged. However, a
 Engel et al. 103

Figure 7. Expression analysis of profilin-1 and arp-2 proteins in MCF-7 cells detected by western blotting in a concentration
depended series after treatment with 0.1 – 100 µg/ml flax root extract for 48 h. Representative western blots were displayed
on top of the graphs. Quantification of western blotting results was carried out with individual passaged cells for at least three
times (Densitometric analysis). Loading controls were guaranteed by stain-free imaging of the SDS-PAGEs prior blotting
procedure.Note that profilin-1 expression lowered at all concentrations used. Representative example of three western blot
experiments is shown. Unpaired t-test, *p < 0.05; n = 3.

detachment of the cells from the substrate was excluded extracts in vitro and in vivo. For example, two studies
by the micrographs (Figures 3, 4 and 5). As a have shown that dietary supplementation with flaxseeds
consequence of the increased stiffness of the MCF-7 (rich in lignans) was associated with reduced tumor
cells, rapid locomotion and initial adhesion capacity of biologic markers (e.g., Ki-67 labeling index) and an
suspended cells are prevented (Figure 3). increased apoptosis and induced cell death in
That the elasticity of a cell is sufficient for their postmenopausal breast cancer patients (Saarinen et al.,
tumorigenic potential was already published (Plodinec et 2006; Thompson et al., 2005). Nevertheless, it can be
al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012). But this work describes for the assumed that the combination of a variety of lignans and
first time that a native plant extract directly can modulate isoflavones generates the biological activity of the flax
stiffness of a breast cancer cell by the reconstitution of root extract. It should be emphasized that it was shown in
normal cytoskeleton features. In future studies the in vivo this study for the first time that the combination of
potential of the flax root extract will be tested, in order to phytoestrogens within a natural extract not only
establish a perspective view of this extract in the influenced the proliferation or apoptosis of hormone-
prevention and/or treatment of estrogen receptor positive dependent tumor cells, but also the cell architecture
breast tumors. which decisively determined the invasive potential of a
However, these cell biological alterations induced by tumor cell.
the flax extract are probably due to the secondary plant
ingredients. Beside lignans like secoisolariciresinol,
lariciresinol, matairesinol, and pinoresinol, also CONCLUSION
isoflavones e.g., daidzein, fisetin, and biochanin a could
be detected by LC-MS based techniques. Many studies For the first time, this study evaluated that a mixture of
and articles exist, describing the effectiveness of singular phytoestrogens within the natural root flax extract posses
phytoestrogens and phytoestrogens-enriched plant potential anti-tumor actin by remodeling of the actin
 Adv Med Plant Res 104

migration and colony formation in vitro. This illustrates

that the use of natural plant extracts in cancer therapy is
a reasonable alternative to singular agents such as
genistein.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Deutsche Krebshilfe (FKZ:

107821) and the BMBF habilitation scholarship program
of the University of Rostock for the funding of our work.

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