She refused to leave Russia after the

St. Elizaveta Feodorovna Bolshevik coup in October 1917. Arrested in

(1864–1918) the spring of 1918 with the nun Barbara, her
KONSTANTIN GAVRILKIN assistant, she was sent to Siberia, where other
Born as Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Luise members of the Romanov family had also
Alice of Hesse, she was the older sister of been imprisoned. In July 1918 she and others
Alexandra of Hesse, the future wife of Tsar were thrown alive into a mine shaft a few
Nicholas II (1872–1918). In 1884 Elizabeth miles from Alapaevsk. Their bodies were
became Orthodox and married Grand recovered in the fall of the same year by the
Duke Sergei (1857–1905), the fifth son of White Army, which advanced to the region in
Emperor Alexander II (d. 1881). She October 1918. Eventually, the bodies of
assumed the name of Grand Duchess Elizaveta Feodorovna and the nun Barbara
Elizaveta Feodorovna of Russia and quite were taken to Jerusalem and buried in the
soon became actively involved in various Church of St. Mary Magdalene, according
charities, especially for women and children to the will of the Grand Duchess expressed
from poor and destitute families, creating in 1888 during her visit to Jerusalem. In 1992
for them jobs, hospitals, schools, and affordable the Moscow patriarchate canonized her and
housing. In 1891 the couple moved to Barbara as new martyrs of Russia.
SEE ALSO:
Moscow, where her husband was to serve as New Martyrs; Russia, Patriarchal
governor general. In 1905 the terrorist Ivan Orthodox Church of; Women in Orthodoxy
Kaliaev assassinated Grand Duke Sergei by REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED
throwing a bomb at his carriage. READINGS
Widowed, Elizaveta decided to stay in Mager, H. (1998) Elizabeth, Grand
Moscow and dedicate her life to poor and Duchess of Russia. New York: Carroll and Graf.
Miller, L. (1991) Grand Duchess Elizabeth of
sick women and children through personally Russia. Redding, CA: Nikodemos Orthodox
supervised charities in a convent she founded Publication Society.
in 1907. The Marfo-Mariinskaia Obitel’
Tsitriniak, A. and Khemlin, M. (2009) Velikaia
Miloserdiia (Mercy Convent of Saints
kniaginia Elizaveta Fedorovna. Moscow:
Martha and Mary) was established on the Tsentr knigi VGBIL im. M. I. Rudomino.
territory of the estate near the Kremlin, purchased Warwick, C. (2006) Ella: Princess, Saint and Martyr.
with the funds raised from the sale of Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
the Duchess’s personal items and jewelry. It
was rebuilt to include a hospital, pharmacy,
and soup kitchen for the poor, a library, and
school for girls and women, and was officially St. Sergius of Radonezh
opened in 1909. In 1910 Grand Duchess (1314–1392)
Elizaveta became a nun herself. According KONSTANTIN GAVRILKIN
to the statute of the convent, approved by the Founder of the Trinity Monastery, now
holy synod in 1911 (and revised in 1914), she known as Troitse-Sergieva Lavra (Sergiev
was to remain the head of the convent for Posad, north of Moscow), St. Sergius of
life. During World War I, Elizaveta helped Radonezh is considered the most influential
with creating moveable hospitals, medical saint of the Russian Orthodox Church.
emergency teams, and commissions for Together with his great contemporary Alexii,
accommodating the wounded who returned Metropolitan of Moscow in 1354–78, he is
from the war zone and for helping the families credited with the spiritual revival of Ancient
of military personnel. Her convent was Rus at the time of the Mongol invasion and,
reorganized to accommodate a military hospital ultimately, with liberation from that oppression.
where 150 nuns worked under her direct Sergii, known before monasticism as
supervision. Bartholomew, was born to a noble family
In addition, after the death of her near Rostov, but in the late 1320s the
husband who had chaired the Imperial impoverished family moved to the Moscow
Orthodox Palestine Society since its establishment region and settled in the town of Radonezh
in 1882, Elizaveta assumed his (10 miles from Sergiev Posad). His parents
post and held it until her resignation after eventually became monastics in a local
the February Revolution of 1917. The monastery, and after their death the youth
society supported Orthodox institutions in Bartholomew himself began an ascetic life,
the Holy Land (churches, monasteries, joined by his widowed brother Stefan. In
hospitals, and schools), pilgrimages, and 1335, on a site occupied by today’s Cathedral
scientific studies of the region. of the Holy Trinity, he built a wooden church
with the same name. When his brother left Holy Trinity Seminary Press.
for a Moscow monastery, he invited
another monk, Igumen Mitrofan, to join
him as a replacement companion. Mitrofan
St. Tikhon (Belavin)
tonsured Bartholomew with the name (1865–1925)
Sergius. Within a few years, other ascetics, KONSTANTIN GAVRILKIN
attracted by Sergius’ strict ascetic life, Vasilii I. Belavin was born into a priestly
discipline of prayer, humility, and wisdom, family in the Pskov diocese. He studied
came to join him, and in 1345 they officially at the Pskov Seminary and St Petersburg
established the Holy Trinity Monastery. Theological Academy, became a monk with
Although Sergius demanded that all the name Tikhon in 1891, and was ordained
monks sustain the monastery by their manual to the diaconate and priesthood shortly after.
labor, with time the community grewand After a few years at the Kholm Seminary,
among those who joined it were people of where he became the dean, he was
different ranks and means – frompeasants to consecrated bishop of Lublin, vicar of the
princes – who often donated their wealth to Kholm-Warsaw diocese, in 1897, but a year
the monastery. Patriarch of Constantinople later was sent to the United States as bishop
Philotheus (1300–79) advised Sergius to of the Aleutians and Alaska, and he
introduce the coenobitic rule. With the blessing remained there until 1907. In his nine years
of Metropolitan Alexii of Moscow, he in America, Tikhon reorganized and
followed the advice; within a few decades expanded the diocese, initiated a number
his disciples founded many monasteries of of missions, and encouraged the use of
the same style in various Russian principalities. the English language (instructing that Anglican
In his late years, Alexii of Moscow urged prayer books should be used until translations
Sergius to became his successor, but the latter of Orthodox texts could be
would not abandon his monastery for published). He provided pastoral care for
the metropolitan throne. Sergius is credited diverse ethnic groups of Orthodox immigrants
with playing a peacemaking role in the from the Old World, since the Russian
disputes among Russian princes whose Church was the only autocephalous church
dynastic quarrels divided and weakened with a proper administrative presence and
Rus at the time of the Mongol oppression, resources in the United States at the time
and encouraging their union with the (the situation dramatically changed after
Moscow principality and its ruler Dmitrii the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917,
Ioannovich (1350–89), who in 1380 led when its material support of the church also
the united Russian forces to victory against evaporated). By 1907 the now archdiocese of
the Golden Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo. the Aleutians and North America had two
Epifanius the Wise (d. ca. 1420), the disciple vicar bishops (in Alaska and Brooklyn) and
of the saint, wrote the first biography St. Tikhon’s Monastery in Pennsylvania was
(Zhitie) of Sergius, which was later revised under construction, together with new
by the famous hagiographer Pachomius the churches in various regions.
Serb. Prior to the mid-16th century the In 1907 Tikhon was summoned back to
Russian Church did not have a formal Russia and appointed first to Yaroslavl’, then
process of canonization, but according to to Vilnius (1913), and finally to Moscow
the available sources Sergius of Radonezh (June 1917). When the Council of the
was venerated as saint already in the 15th Russian Orthodox Church was convened
century for his spiritual wisdom, his asceticism, in Moscow in August 1917 for the first
and the power of his healing prayer. time since the 17th century, Tikhon was
SEE ALSO: elected its chairman and elevated to the
Monasticism; Russia, Patriarchal rank of metropolitan. The council continued
Orthodox Church of its work despite the Bolshevik coup
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED d’e
READINGS ´
Golubinskii, E. E. (1892) Prepodobnyi Sergii
tat in October and the beginning of the
Radonezhskii i sozdannaia im Troitskaia Lavra.
Sergievskii Posad: A. I. Snegireva. new regime’s persecution of the church,
Kloss, B. M. (1998) Izbrannye trudy. T. 1: Zhitie which intensified after the outbreak of the
Sergiia Radonezhskogo. Moscow: Iazyki russkoi Civil War in 1918. Among the council’s
kul’tury. primary goals was reestablishment of
Kovalevsky, P. (1976) Saint Sergius and Russian
Spirituality, trans. W. Elias Jones. Crestwood, canonical order in the administration
NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. of the church and, first of all, the restoration
Tsurikov, V. (ed.) (2004) The Trinity: Sergius Lavra of the office of patriarch, which had been
in Russian History and Culture. Jordanville, NY:
abolished by Peter the Great in the early the diocesan seminary and trying to institute
18th century. After a few rounds of voting, schemes to raise the standard of the
Tikhon was elected out of the three leading diocesan clergy. But in 1767 he suddenly,
candidates by the drawing of lots. and without explanation, sought permission
Tikhon led the Russian Church in the to retire into an obscure monastery, settling at
period of persecution by the hostile regime, Zadonsk,wherehestayeduntilhediedin
when virtually all of its infrastructure was 1783, aged 59.
destroyed and internal divisions weakened All his life he found it difficult to engage
its unity. In addition, the Bolshevik government with people. He suffered from irritability,
used various provocations to undermine and what his first biographer, Bishop Eugene
Tikhon’s authority and legitimacy, Bolkhovitinov, described as a “melancholy
and his condemnation of the violent repression nervous illness” and which we today would
of the church was widely publicized as probably call serious bi-polar disorder. One
anti-Soviet ideology. Eventually, in order to of his monastic assistants, after his death,
protect thousands of people from certain spoke about his nervous hypochondria. His
death, the patriarch appealed to the clergy forced involvement in the state-mandated
to abstain from direct involvement in the deposition of Metropolitan Arseniy
political struggle, but this measure did Matsievich in Moscow in 1763 deeply
not change the Bolsheviks’ attitude to disturbed him. Tikhon always preferred
the church or alleviate mass repressions of to avoid social engagement, making an
the Orthodox clergy and laity. Between exception (which he had to force against his
1922 and 1925 Tikhon was practically inclination) to visit the imprisoned, and
under house arrest in the Donskoi Monastery minister to the peasants, whom he helped
in Moscow, where he died in 1925. from his state pension while living in great
He was canonized in October 1989. His personal simplicity.
shrine is today in the Donskoi monastery Tikhon was canonized in 1861. His
church. spiritual work, mostly composed in solitude
SEE ALSO: in Zadonsk, is typical of much that was
New Martyrs; Russia, Patriarchal happening in 18th-century Russia, and
Orthodox Church of; United States of shows familiarity with western pietistic and
America, Orthodoxy in the evangelical trends. His Spiritual Treasure is
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED an Orthodox adaptation of Occasional Meditations
READINGS by the 17th-century Anglican theologian
Gubonin. M. (ed.) (2007) Sovremenniki o
Patriarkhe Tikhone, 2 vols. Moscow: PSTGU. Joseph Hall, bishop of Norwich.
Lobanov, V. V. (2008) Patriarkh Tikhon i sovetskaia Johann Arndt’s treatise True Christianity
vlast’ (1917–1925 gg.). Moscow: Panorama. also was a strong influence on him, though
Swan, J. (1964) The Biography of Patriarch Tikhon. in his own book, of the same title, Tikhon
Jordanville, NY: Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox
Monastery. moderated Protestant pietism with deep
currents from Russian Kenoticism that
St. Tikhon of Zadonsk were familiar to him. Fedotov, in his study
(1724–1783) of Russian spiritual masters, says that his
JOHN A. MCGUCKIN “personality is much more interesting than
Russian bishop and spiritual theologian of his writings. He is the first ‘modern’ among
the baroque era. He was born Timothy the Russian saints, with his interior conflicts,
Sokolov, son of a village church lector, his painful groping for his spiritual
who died when he was a child, leaving the way – the constant shift of light and shadow,
family impoverished. He entered the of ecstasy and depression” (Fedotov 1950:
Novgorod seminary (with a very pro-western 183–4). At Zadonsk, Tikhon devoted every
curriculum) where his extreme poverty night to prayer, sleeping only at sunrise.
evoked ridicule from other students, but When he was overcome with depression he
eventually became a professor, and rector of would ceaselessly chant: “Lord have mercy
the Tver seminary. His lectures on dogmatics on me. Lord forgive. Giver of life have
were later published and focus on the doctrine mercy on me.” And when he was happy he
of the redemption in western terms of would replace the invocation with “Praise
atonement. In 1758 he was tonsured as the Lord in heaven.” Late in life he received
a monk and priested, and in 1760 he became ecstatic visions of Christ, the Theotokos,
head of the Otroch monastery. In 1761 he and the joy of heaven. In his writing profound
was consecrated as assistant bishop in Novgorod, devotion and love for Christ crucified
and two years after that was appointed are manifested. His path to sanctity was
bishop of Voronezh. He was active in restoring one that was navigated through many psychological
fragilities; a fact that makes him Crimea, were suited for the appointment.
unusual in the annals of Orthodox spiritual Prior to the departure and under Cyril’s
writing of the modern period. Dostoevsky supervision, a team translated sacred texts
saw in Tikhon a model of spirituality that from Greek into Slavonic using a rough
he reflects in several of his writings. Slavic alphabet that possibly existed in a
SEE ALSO: rudimentary form prior to Rastislav’s
Russia, Patriarchal Orthodox request. As developed and finally attributed
Church of to Constantine, Glagolitic is a creative and
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED original alphabet that is a testament to his
READINGS talents as a philologist.
Bolshakoff, S. (1980) Russian Mystics. Kalamazoo:
Though the embassy was received favorably
Cistercian Publications, pp. 61–78.
Fedotov, G. P. (ed.) (1981) A Treasury of Russian in Moravia, German Catholic clergy
Spirituality, 3rd edn. London: Sheed and Ward, bitterly opposed their work on the grounds
pp. 182–241. that the gospel ought to be preached only in
Spidlik, T. (1991) “Tikhon de Zadonske,” in
three languages: Hebrew, Greek, or Latin
Dictionnaire de spiritualite
´ (trilingualism). This argument would be
, Vol. 15. Paris: dismissed by Pope Hadrian II, who greeted
Beauchesne, cols. 960–4. the brothers when they arrived to appeal
in Rome in 867 with native Slavic clergy
to be ordained, and offering the relics of
Sts. Constantine (Cyril) St. Clement (currently at rest in the Basilica
di San Clemente). While in Rome the
(ca. 826–869) and brothers learned of Emperor Michael III’s
Methodios (815–885) death and the deposition of Patriarch
BRENDA LLEWELLYN IHSSEN Photios; Constantine, who was ill, recognized
Brothers Constantine-Cyril and Methodios that he would likely die in Rome,
were born, raised, and educated in and subsequently took solemn monastic
Thessaloniki, an area populated by Slavs for vows, electing the name “Cyril.” Since
several centuries before them. Their heritage is transfer to Constantinople was impractical,
uncertain, but their home was probably Cyril’s body was also buried in the Basilica
bilingual, Greek and Slavic. Constantine studied di San Clemente at Methodios’ request.
at Constantinople under the guidance of Methodios was consecrated as archbishop
future patriarch Photios, and was elevated to and returned to Moravia, where he
chartophylax, a position he resigned in favor faced mounting opposition from Frankish
of a monastic vocation. Constantine was clergy. After successfully defending his
appointed professor of philosophy at the Orthodoxy in Constantinople he returned
imperial university, his brother Methodios to Moravia and labored to complete a full
was appointed archon of an unnamed Slavic translation of the Bible into the vernacular
territory, a position he also renounced in favor before he died in 884.
of monasticism. The brothers were united The brothers are central figures in the
again for a diplomatic and religious mission history of Slavic Orthodoxy. In addition to
in the Crimea, where their talents with the alphabet and the transmission of sacred
languages and apologetics were tested in texts, they were responsible for transmitting
conversation with Jewish and Islamicinfluenced the wider context of meaning for what was
Khazars, as well as the Rus. translated. Subsequently, the Slavic world
Facing territorial pressure from Germans inherited the harvest of their labors in the
and Bulgars, Moravian Prince Rastislav form of a literary, spiritual, theological,
requested that Byzantine Emperor Michael and artistic tradition which is marked to
III (842–67) send a bishop and teacher this day in the unique character of the Slavic
to provide ecclesiastical instruction in Orthodox people.
Slavonic for building national unity and SEE ALSO:
consciousness, and intellectual and religious St. Photios the Great (ca.
culture among various tribes in the 810–ca. 893)
territory known to historians as “Greater REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED
Moravia.” A secondary goal was a diplomatic READINGS
Dvornik, F. (1970) Byzantine Missions Among
alliance with Byzantium, which
the Slavs: SS. Constantine-Cyril and Methodius.
would be able to provide political protection Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
for Moravia from menacing neighbors. Soulis, G. C. (1965) “The Legacy of Cyril and
The brothers, with language and diplomatic Methodius to the Southern Slavs,” Dumbarton
Oaks Papers 19.
skills recently tested on their mission in the
Tachiaos, A. N. (2001) Cyril and Methodius
of Thessalonica: The Acculturation of the Slavs.
Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press.
Vlasto, A. P. (1970) The Entry of the Slavs into
Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval
History of the Slavs. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.