The Yijing As A Mathematical Metaphysics

The Yijing as a Mathematical Metaphysics
Dr Andreas Schöter*
Introduction
In this paper I weave together a number of apparently distinct threads of investigation: the spiritual
function of mathematics, the Image and Number (Xiangshu 象數) approach to the study of change,
information theory and reality, divination and consciousness. The general background to this
discussion is the idea that the study of mathematics forms a spiritual pursuit; that the investigation
of abstraction through precise formal language provides, at the least, an analogue of transcendent
reality. This was once a key underlying assumption of mathematics, but it is largely neglected in
the modern world. The Image and Number approach to the study of Change embodies this ideal
and asks us to take seriously the idea that, just as mathematics can describe the physical dimensions
of the world, so too it can provide a language to investigate the psycho-spiritual dimensions.
In physics, vacuum polarization is explored. This started as a theoretical consequence of a

mathematical description from quantum theory which, decades later, later received experimental
verification. I suggest there is a strong parallel between this effect and the metaphysical
progression from Wuji 無極 to Taiji 太極. This serves as the canonical example of the meeting
point between mathematics, physics and metaphysics. I then look at comparisons between the three
realms of Heaven (Tian 天), Earth (Di 地) and Humanity (Ren 人) as described in the Dazhuan «大
傳» and the philosophical physics of David Bohm, in particular his key idea of the implicate and
explicate orders and their relationship to each other and to consciousness.
The pivotal role of consciousness in the structure of the cosmos suggested by both the traditional
and modern approaches then leads me to consider Chaitin's information theoretic perspective on
randomness, especially the role of the cognitive faculties of the mathematician in determining
patterns in data. The combination of Chaitin's ideas on pattern and randomness with Bohm's
metaphysics suggests a way of understanding the Jungian notion of synchronicity as something
more than a purely psychological phenomenon. Instead, this phenomenon can be seen as a direct
effect of recognizing the integration of the human psyche into the broader fabric of the universal
reality. In turn, this leads to a consideration of what the process of divination means in the context
of the Western scientific mind set and, finally, how such a shift in perspective should lead us all to
seek a harmonious way of being, both with each other and with the world which supports us.
Mathematics and Abstraction

Although contemporary mathematics is largely concerned with the complex technicalities of
developing and extending the impressive edifice of proof and structure that has been built up over
the generations, it is generally well accepted that the early history of the study involves a concern
for matters we would call metaphysical, even spiritual. There was a mystery and, often, a
mysticism surrounding numbers and the rules that governed them. This is true both in the Greek
roots of Western mathematics and in the philosophical traditions of China. In the Greek tradition,
this partly finds expression in the Pythagorian and Platonic conception of the reality of numbers, the
* Shorter versions of this paper have appeared in the Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on the Yijing, 14-18
June 2010, Wuxi, China, and in The Journal of Chinese Philosophy, Volume 38, Number 3, September 2011, pp412-
426. I would like to give my thanks to Professor Chung-ying Cheng in particular for valuable feedback on my
article, to Bent Nielsen, Eric Nelson, Friederike Assandri and Heinrich Geiger for useful and stimulating discussion
during the conference, and to Linyu Gu for invaluable help preparing the version of the article for the journal.
http://www.yijing.co.uk 1
The Yijing as a Mathematical Metaphysics Dr Andreas Schöter
idea that numbers have a real existence separate from, yet somehow connected with, the world of
sensory experience. In the Chinese tradition, especially in connection with the study of Change,
numerical mysticism is explored in the the School of Image and Number (Xiangshu Xue 象數學).
Shao Yong and Leibniz

One of the great exponents of the numerical study of Change is the Song 宋 dynasty philosopher
and mathematician Shao Yong 邵雍 (1011-77CE) who developed a sophisticated theory relating
numerical and symbolic representations to our capacity for knowledge of reality. 1 The underlying
assumption behind the development of his ideas is summarized by Birdwhistell (1989 pp76-77):
Shao believed that every event and thing has a numerical aspect. Working from
the numerical principles of those things that are immediately accessible to
ordinary sense experience, one extends numerical principles to include all things
and processes. Given the belief that the universe is regular and predictable, Shao
assumed that a knowledge of the world's numerical structure would lead to
further understanding of the universe and its process of change.
This position is essentially the same as that taken by mathematical physics today.2 Now, given that
the realm of numbers is to serve as an explanatory mechanism for events in the phenomenal world,
it is important that there is a clear connection between the abstract realm of mathematics and the
world of concrete experience. This is not a trivial issue. It still raises questions for contemporary
mathematicians, and Shao was well aware of the importance of providing a consistent description of
this key relationship. Modifying the ideas Wang Bi 王弼 (226-249CE) connecting ideas, images and
words, Shao said (translated Birdwhistell ibid., p76):
If there are ideas, there must be words. If there are words, there must be images.
If there are images, there must be numbers. After the numbers were established,
then the images were produced. After the images were produced, then the words
were clear. After the words were clear, then the ideas were manifest.
Thus, he seems to be suggesting a direct connection from the entities in one realm to the entities in
the other realm. Whether this connection is causal is not clarified, but it certainly carries a force of
necessity. Numbers are the most abstract level of reality, able to represent the abstract structure
implicit in our sensory reality. Everything else, images, ideas, words, events, follow from the
abstract structure. The precise ontological status of this realm of number is a question that I will
return to presently.
In the 17th century the mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716CE) still professed a view of
mathematics as a spiritual endeavour. For Leibniz “a universal truth underlay the diversity of
human experience [and] that universal truth could be explained and proved mathematically”
(de Fancourt, 1997 p156). The parallels between Leibniz's binary arithmetic, based only on 0 and 1,
and Shao Yong's systematic arrangement of the gua 卦 are striking even now and must have come
as a powerful confirmation of his views when Leibniz was first shown the arrangement by the Jesuit
missionary Bouvet. For both Leibniz and Shao Yong, separated by centuries and thousands of
1 The parallels between Shao's thought and the ideas of Pythagoras are explored by Ding (2005).
2 Of course, we need to be wary of imposing our contemporary conceptions onto a mindset from an earlier age.
However, restricting ourselves to Shao's theoretical writings, there do seem to be striking similarities.
miles, “the cosmos was created according to the binary system, which is reflected in all things and
discoverable by human beings” (Ryan, 1996 p59). In particular, Leibniz came to believe that this
system showed how God, which he saw entokened in 1, created everything from the void,
entokened in 0.
The mystical and spiritual concerns expressed by Leibniz about the nature of the binary system are
typically ignored or even derided in modern discussions of the history of mathematics. This reflects
what we might call the secularization of mathematics in the modern age – a shift away from a
concern with the metaphysical underpinnings of the subject as physical materialism has come to
dominate the Western scientific mindset. However, there remain important connections between
mathematical knowledge and spirituality. For example, Graham and Kantor (2009) describe how
nineteenth century Russian mysticism became deeply intertwined with the development of the
mathematical study of infinity. In fact, they suggest that it was the spiritual outlook of the
mathematicians that allowed them to solve issues that had thwarted their more rationalist French
colleagues. Most recently, perhaps, the philosopher and mathematician Merrell-Wolff said of
mathematics that “our most abstract language is the best vehicle of ultimate truth” (cited
McFarlane, 1995). I believe that this connection between mathematical abstraction and spiritual
understanding is what makes the Yijing «易經» such a powerful tool across such a wide variety of
both metaphysical and practical domains.
Mathematics and Reality

Echoing Shao Yong's concern to establish a basis for the connection between number and
phenomenal reality is the recent focus on what is often described as “the unreasonable effectiveness
of mathematics”. That is, the fact that scientific theories, most especially in the domains of physics
and engineering, make spectacular predictions and enable the construction of fabulous mechanisms
entirely through mathematical reasoning. Wigner (1960 p1) says that “the enormous usefulness of
mathematics in the natural sciences is something bordering on the mysterious and […] there is no
rational explanation for it.” Wigner presents no solution to this apparent dilemma and, when
revisiting the question two decades later, Hamming (1980) can shed no further light on the question
beyond stating that our intellectual apparatus determines the results we find. I wish to suggest that
the problem for both of these writers, in relation to this, is that they did not think radically enough
about the issue. Hamming explicitly states that mathematics is the product of the human mind, and
I believe it is this perspective that, in part, makes the most obvious answer so elusive.
There are a variety of possible views around the “reality” of mathematics. Understanding
mathematics as a purely mental construct is the idealist perspective. An idealist may be completely
subjective, where each individual has their own mental construction of mathematics, or inter-
subjective, where our common cognitive substrate gives us a shared mathematical construct; but
they all agree that without minds there would be no mathematics. The counter position to this is
ontological realism, where the subject matter of mathematics, numbers, sets, and so on, are taken to
exist independently of the mind of the mathematician.3 The exact nature of this objective existence
can vary from, at one extreme, the position of hypothesizing an actual realm of existence where
these mathematical objects reside to, at the other, simply asserting the objective nature of
mathematical truth (see Shapiro 2000 for an extensive discussion of these matters).
3 Following its roots in Greek mathematics, this view is sometimes referred to as Platonism.
However, ontological realism is not enough, on its own, to solve the problem of the “unreasonable
effectiveness” of mathematics. In fact, on its own, it merely raises the question in a different form.
Consider the view of the prominent contemporary mathematician Roger Penrose, expressed in his
encyclopedic review of physics (Penrose, 2005 pp17-21). For Penrose, there are three distinct
realms that together form reality, which he calls the world of Platonic mathematics, the physical
world, and the mental world. These worlds are not separate, but have “mysterious connections”: the
physical world is somehow governed by mathematical principles, the mental world is dependent on
certain physical phenomena, and the mathematical world is somehow perceived by some forms of
mental activity. The precise nature of the connections between the various worlds has simply
replaced the problem of how mathematics is effective at describing the world.
Max Tegmark (2007) takes a different position and, as a result, completely sidesteps these
problems. For Tegmark, as an ontological realist, mathematical structures are not the product of the
human mind, instead we discover them; our only invention is the notation we use to describe them.
However, he pushes this view to its logical conclusion with what he calls the mathematical universe
hypothesis: “our universe is not just described by mathematics – it is mathematics … our physical
reality is a mathematical structure”. Of course, if the universe is a mathematical structure, then it is
not at all mysterious that mathematics should be so useful in describing it. If the universe is a
mathematical structure, then everything within it, our consciousness included, is also a
mathematical structure.4 This view also finds expression in the idea that the constantly changing
universe is essentially the result of an ongoing quantum digital computation (see, for example,
Lloyd 2006 and Seife 2006). This view is not meant as a metaphor by its proponents, but as a
literal, objective truth about the fundamental nature of reality. From this perspective everything is,
at root, information, and events are the results of the computational processes that occur when the
information from two or more 'separate' components interact. Shao's solution to the problem of
connecting numbers, images, ideas and words finds a strong echo in the contemporary information
theoretic approach to meaning and reality. Lloyd says (2006 p27):
Although meaning is hard to define, it is one of the most powerful features of

information. The basic idea of information is that one physical system – a digit, a
letter, a word, a sentence – can be put into correspondence with another physical
system.
All physical properties have units of measurement. For example, science measures length in meters
and mass in grams. So too, information has a unit of measure: the bit. This is the smallest amount
of information that anything can carry and it is simply the distinction between 0 and 1. Therefore,
because everything is, at root, information everything can be accurately expressed using the binary
notation of 0 and 1.
These radical views on the nature of reality have important consequences below, when we consider
the interaction between the unfolding of physical phenomena, our consciousness, and the symbolic
language, the gua 卦, of the Yijing.
4 Although I share Tegmark's basic position regarding the nature of reality, my view of the nature of mathematical
structure is somewhat different. Rather than being fixed, eternal and unchanging, as a Platonist would hold, I
believe the mathematical structure itself evolves over time as aspects previously implicit become explicit. This
happens as a the result of the computation which occurs when information is processed through quantum
interactions.
The Yijing as a Notation System

Even if mathematical structure is the root of our reality, and has some kind of objective existence
separate from our conceptions, the notation that we use to express that reality is an invention of the
human mind. This makes notation, as suggested by Long (1999 p21), our “primary interface
between minds and realities” and, as such, its development and refinement deserves a great deal of
attention. David Bohm (1980) suggests that the most pervasive problem facing the modern world is
fragmentation. This fragmentation exists at all levels of our world view and culture because our
thought itself is fragmented. Although division of the world into categories and entities is a
practical necessity, it is important to realize the nature of the relationship between thought and the
world. Fragmented thought leads to a systemic confusion where the divisions in thought are
mistaken for real divisions in the world. This makes it difficult to recognize the true nature of
problems, and it is therefore impossible to find appropriate solutions. Because of this, healing the
fragmentation of thought is a crucial first step if we are to solve any of the many serious problems
we are currently facing. One of Bohm's suggestions for helping to first see, and then heal, this
fragmentation, is close attention to the use of language and thought. He introduces what he calls the
“rheomode” for language, where he seeks to develop a mode of speaking/thinking which recognizes
the nature of reality as a seamless, connected flow and actually draws attention to the function of
language in its actual use.5 He suggests that each of us should become an active experimenter with
our use of language and thought.
Long (2005 p2) describes notation systems as “a cognitive technology that in fact has been essential
for the development of modern civilization and the modern mind” and that such systems (ibid. p4)
“enable its users to see and utilize facets of reality that they literally had not been able to see
before.” Thus, notation systems are extremely powerful tools. I further wish to suggest that,
considered as a notation system, the Yijing can play an important role in Bohm's project of
developing language modes and conceptual tools which recognize the nature of reality as a
continuously interacting flux.
The Symbols of Change

Long (1999 p22) provides a description of the different levels of a notation system. This is
summarized in Table 1 below. The numbering of the levels and the additional column relating the
levels directly to the Yijing are my own.
Level Description Yijing

4 Fashions of Use Style Schools
3 Testing Rules Acceptance Divination
2 Combination Rules Syntax Lattices
1 Symbol Set Tokens Gua
0 Abstraction Space Semantics Abstract Jin
Table 1: Levels of a Notation System
5 As a brief aside, I suggest that a comprehensive development of the rheomode could potentially provide an excellent
basis for interpreting the texts of the Yijing.
At level 1, the tokens, the gua 卦 of the Yijing, are the most visible aspect of the Book of Change
when considered as a notation system. The symbol set includes single lines, bigrams, trigrams and
hexagrams. However, in the general case it should also be taken to include four and five lined gua
and symbols of arbitrary size. There are a number of aspects of the gua, considered purely as
tokens in a symbol system that I wish to mention. Firstly, these symbols have an important
property: they are binary. That is, the gua are already expressing their information in the most
fundamental units of information theory – the bit. This property makes them extremely flexible as a
form of notation. It has been reported (Combs & Holland, 2001 pXIX) that the psychologist Jung
and physicist Pauli speculated that the counting numbers form the lowest level of archetypal
structure.6 It is of great interest, in the context of this discussion, that they suggest that a
mathematical structure could form the basis of the psychoid archetypes; however, I wish to suggest
an alternative mathematical structure for this basis. We will see below that the notion of polarity
sits at the foundation of the metaphysics of the Yijing and this, I contend, is the obvious choice for
the base archetype. Thus, as patterns of polarity, the gua are not only fundamental from an
information theoretic perspective, but also from the perspective of psychoid archetypes.
Next, although the precise details are today called into question, the suggestion by Miller (1956)
that human short term memory can process, on average, between 5 and 9 items (the so-called
“seven plus or minus two” hypothesis) remains a good rough guide to our immediate cognitive
capacity. With six lines, the hexagrams fall easily into this range, making them a digestible packet
of information for the human mind to process. Of course, the question then arises as to why six
lines, and not seven or eight? I believe that part of the answer to this question lies in the third
important property of the symbols, and that is the high factorability of the number six. That is, 6
can be divided by both 3 and 2, which are significant numbers in the metaphysics of the Yijing.
This is the only number in the range of short term memory that has such a property. The next such
number is twelve, which is too large to be easily processed.
It is the combination of these three properties that makes the symbols of the Yijing so compelling:
i) They are binary, already expressing the fundamental units of information; ii) they are easily
processed by our cognitive apparatus; and iii) they have the right factors for their internal divisions
to fit directly into the underlying metaphysics.
The Abstraction Space for Change

Level 0 describes the referents of the tokens. In Long's analysis the tokens do not refer directly to
the real world, but instead to an abstraction space. This abstraction space then refers to the real
world or even, in some cases perhaps, generates the real world. This indirection gives notation
systems a great deal of flexibility: different abstraction spaces allow us to see the real world from
very different perspectives. Long says (1999 p26) that “the abstraction spaces which are reified in a
notational system refer to something that is independently discoverable by different minds.” And
that abstraction spaces are (ibid. p27) “the foundation of notational systems: the existence of a
useful notational system implies something about the nature of reality.”
So, given its key role in a notation system and the implications carried for the nature of reality, it is
vital to identify the abstraction space of the Yijing if we are to make sense of it as a notation system.
6 In Jungian psychology an archetype is an essentially irrepresentable basic form that bridges the physical and mental
domains and provides common organizing structure for the content of thought. Because archetypes are not purely
psychological, Jung called them psychoid. See, for example, Jung 1960.
Perhaps this space has already been identified for us – Wang Bi (translated by Lynn, 1994 p31)
gives the following description:
The words are generated by the images, thus one can ponder the words and so
observe what the images are. The images are generated by ideas, thus one can
ponder the images and so observe what the ideas are.
Notice how Lynn translates Wang's description of this relationship: the ideas generate the images,
which generate the words. In the analysis of the Yijing as a notation system the images are the
tokens of the system, the gua. Following this, the abstraction space would correspond to the ideas.
However, this does not help us much. What, exactly, is meant by “idea” in this context? Instead, I
wish to explore how patterns of energy, as directly represented by patterns of Yin 陰 and Yang 陽 in
the gua could form a viable abstraction space.
The term jin 勁 is used in the martial arts to refer to the various ways of expressing energy through
the body. These cover a wide range of possibilities, for example Yang (1996 pp106-107) gives 53
distinct jins for Taiji Quan 太極拳. Thus, fa jin 發勁 is the explosive release of energy into an
opponent; na jin 拿勁 is locking energy which involves locking joints to control your opponent's
movement; hua jin 化勁, neutralizing energy, is using softness to overcome the opponent's attack by
redirecting their energy; and ting jin 聼勁 is the sensitive application of one's own energy to listen
to an opponent's intentions. Now, given that the trigrams are often traditionally used to represent
eight of the key jin in Taiji Quan (see, for example, Huang, 1984 p90 or Schöter, 2004a), I wish to
suggest that a suitably generalized notion of jin – what we might call abstract jin, chouxiang jin 抽
象勁 – form a good candidate for members of the abstraction space of the Yijing. Such abstract jin
would need to include psychological and spiritual as well as physical energies, identifying the key
properties of energetic expression that can be understood and applied across a wide variety of
domains.7
Long (1999 p23) allows for the possibility that the same tokens might appear in distinct notation
systems. Therefore, I also wish to suggest that a key feature of the Yijing is that it actually
embodies a family of potentially distinct notation systems whose detailed interpretation depends on
the precise abstraction space that is chosen for the gua. However, I also suggest that each of those
abstraction spaces would be specializations of the most general space of abstract jin. An interesting
example of the application of the energetic images associated with the gua that, I believe, fits with
the idea of abstract jin can be found in Suler (1993 Chapter 9). He uses the traditional attributes of
the trigrams, the Yin/Yang patterns in the lines in individual gua, and the relationships between gua
to describe aspects of the dynamics of the psychotherapeutic process.
The Other Levels of a Notation System

The syntax of a notation system, how symbols are composed and combined, forms level 2. In the
Yijing this includes, for example, elements of internal structural composition such as the
interlocking trigrams (hu gua 互卦) and containing trigram (bao gua 包卦), as well as the various
forms of opposition such as the overturned hexagram (fan gua 反卦) and laterally linked hexagram
7 Given recent work that seems to show that abstract thought is, in fact, strongly correlated with physical movement in
our bodies (Anathaswamy, 2010) this might actually be a very useful starting point. Bohm (1992 p42) takes this a
step further, saying that “thought is not merely the intellectual activity; rather it is one connected process which
includes feeling and the body, and so on. Also, it passes between people – it's all one process all over the world.”
(pang tong gua 旁通卦). Nielsen (2003) is a comprehensive source of information about these
traditional syntactic aspects of the gua in English. It is also possible to apply a wide range of
contemporary algebraic techniques to the gua. This can be done to provide a precise formal
description of some of the traditional syntactic manipulations (for example, Schöter 1998 and
1999). It is also possible to apply these techniques to generate and analyse novel structural aspects
of the gua. For example, in Schöter 2004c and 2005 I apply Boolean lattice theory to provide a
detailed structural description of the unfolding of Change. Much of my previous research has
focussed on this level of notation systems, and I refer the interested reader there for more details on
this aspect.
Long describes level 3 as defining the rules we use to validate the expressions that are generated at
level 2 of a notation system. Generally we could consider this as, firstly, the application of the
notation system to its intended problem domain in its intended manner and, secondly, the evaluation
of that application, including the criteria of such evaluation. He says (1999 p23) that “each broad
kind of disciple has its own distinct rules for acceptance.” For the Yijing the acceptance of the
notation system depends, on the one hand, on its successful use as a language for clarifying
philosophical and metaphysical discourse and, on the other, on its practical application as a tool for
individual spiritual development and for providing insight into resolving personal problems. This
covers a great deal of territory but nonetheless accurately reflects the historical range of application
of the book.
The final level of a notational system is the stylistic level, involving what Long describes as “the
fashions of use”. I have little to say about this level in this paper, except to note that the different
schools of interpretation such as Meaning and Principle (Yilixue 義理學) and Image and Number
(Xiangshuxue 象數學) arise at this level.
Physics and Metaphysics

I am fond of quoting Russell (1917 p20), where he characterizes metaphysics as “the attempt to
conceive the world as a whole through thought.” To this we must add Bohm's proposition
(1980 p71) that such comprehension “be considered an art form, like poetry, which may dispose us
toward order and harmony in the overall 'dance of the mind' (and thus in the general functioning of
the brain and nervous system).”
Above I suggested that the abstraction space for the Yijing could be considered as being composed
of abstract jin. However, these patterns of energy do not exist in isolation; they exist in the context
of a background field described by the underlying metaphysics of Change. In this section I shall
explore some of the connections between these metaphysical expressions and ideas from physics.
As physics is the canonical example of the successful application of the language of mathematics to
describe the world, it is very interesting that we can draw some strong parallels between some of its
concepts and the metaphysics of the Yijing.
Vacuum Polarization
The paired appearances (liangyi 兩儀) of Yin 陰 and Yang 陽 provide the foundation of the Yijing's
notation system – both for the recursive, graphical development of the actual symbols and, more
generally, for the abstraction space itself. The key relationship between Wuji 無極, Taiji 太極 and
Yin and Yang is spelt out in the opening lines of the “Explanation of the Taiji Diagram” (Taijitu
Shuo «太極圖說») by Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤 (1017-73CE). This says (translated Adler, 2009 p2):
Non-polar and yet Supreme Polarity!

The Supreme Polarity in activity generates yang; yet at the limit of activity it is still. In
stillness it generates yin; yet at the limit of stillness it is also active.
Activity and stillness alternate; each is the basis of the other.
We can visualize this development graphically through the

simplified diagram given as Figure 1. Here we see a bi-directional
connection between Wuji and Taiji, indicating their interconnected
relationship: Wuji is undifferentiated, but nonetheless contains the
potential for differentiation to arise. Once differentiation occurs,
then the two poles, Yin and Yang, must be identified and
characterized. This progression lays the foundation for the recursive
generation of the gua by showing how Yin and Yang arise, via Taiji,
from Wuji. Wuji is the primordial, limitless void, it is the
unpolarized state before any phenomena arise. In contrast, Taiji is
the “supreme polarization”, the arising of something from nothing.8
This description is very interesting from the perspective of quantum

mechanics, particularly with respect to the phenomena of virtual
particle pairs and vacuum polarization.9 Briefly, energy and lifetime
of a particle, or group of particles, form a complementary pair of Figure 1: Wuji, Taiji, Yin and
properties: the more precisely one knows the energy of the particles, Yang
the uncertain one is of the lifetime, and vice versa. Therefore,
applying Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle to these properties means that it must be the case that
the apparent vacuum is actually constantly giving rise to short-lived pairs of particles and anti-
particles; for example, an electron-positron pair can arise spontaneously out of the quantum
vacuum. The energy required to create the pair of particles is repaid by the energy released in their
mutual annihilation. The combined uncertainty of the energy and lifetime of these pairs is so small
that the Uncertainty Principle renders them unobservable and this in turn ensures that the
conservation of energy is not violated. As Barrow (2001 p233) says “the quantum vacuum can be
viewed as a sea composed of all the elementary particles and their antiparticles constantly appearing
and disappearing.” I suggest that this is a modern rendering of the idea that Taiji arises from Wuji:
Wuji describes the quantum vacuum – an apparently empty, but infinitely creative state; then Taiji
can be seen as the closely bound pair of a particle and its antiparticle that arise spontaneously from
the vacuum.
Although Yin and Yang exist in Taiji they are still tightly bound together, and the final stage in the
metaphysical development shown in Figure 1 can be seen as the arising of Yin and Yang as
individual, yet connected pair, of principles which interact to create observable phenomena. Cheng
8 As Adler (2009 p24) notes, whilst the usual translation of Taiji as “Supreme Ultimate” catches its colloquial
meaning, it “completely misses the significance of the term” in relation to Wuji and Yin/Yang as polarity being the
most fundamental principle of ordering reality. Earlier (p11) in he describes Taiji as “the principle or pattern of
polarity”, equating Taiji 太極 with li 理. It is because of the verbal, rather than the nominal, mode of this expression
that I prefer the translation “supreme polarization”.
9 The full details of this phenomenon are complex and would take us too far afield here. The interested reader can
find a digestible account in Barrow (2001 pp230-235).
Chung-ying (personal communication, email 25 May 2011), notes that the quantum description of
this phenomenon is “a continuous process of 'immediate birth and immediate death'” and raises the
question of “how this process could eventually bring out a process of differentiation of things based
on the initial action of yin and yang which cooperate with, rather than eliminate, each other.” To
answer this question, the time scale of vacuum polarization needs to be considered. Firstly, it is not
strictly accurate to describe this as “immediate” birth and “immediate” death: the mathematics
provides a precise bound on the time interval for which the particle/anti-particle pair can exist,
which is inversely proportional to the amount of energy required to bring the pair into existence.
Now, if the virtual particle pair is charged then, for the duration of their existence, they create an
electromagnetic field between them. I would therefore suggest that, for the duration of its
existence, the virtual particle pair is manifesting a Yin/Yang interaction.
Cheng also asks if there is “a principle of non-parity which makes the event of generating or sheng
生 possible?” and if so, how such non-parity is possible? In asking this question in this context
Cheng touches on a question that remains troubling to physicists. One tentative explanation for the
“big bang” view of the creation of the universe is that it was an instance of vacuum polarization.
Then, everything that is, is simply an aspect of a quantum fluctuation that will, eventually, collapse
back into the void. But, according to the mathematical theories, there should be equal amounts of
matter and antimatter in the universe. Cheng's question then, amounts to asking why there is more
matter than antimatter, and to that question no one currently has an answer.
Bohm's Holographic Universe

Bohm (1980 p181) says “not only is undivided wholeness implied in the content of physics (notably
relativity and quantum theory) but also in the manner of working in physics.” As a result of this he
argues for a radically new order aimed at exploring the connection between theoretical frameworks,
observations and instrumentation which, he says, cannot be coherently regarded as separate from
each other. He proceeds by analogy with the hologram which captures a three-dimensional image
of a solid object on a two-dimensional photographic plane by means of recording the interference
patterns in coherent light. Each portion of the hologram contains information about the whole
image. Thus, when we look at the whole image, we are able to see the original object from various
angles as we change our view point on the hologram. However, if we take only a portion of the
hologram, we see not a part of the original object, but rather the whole original object but with
reduced brightness and from restricted viewpoints. So, each the pattern in each region of the image
encodes aspects of the whole object and, conversely, each part of the object is encoded across the
whole pattern of the hologram. This is clearly very different from an ordinary photographic image,
where each portion of the image merely encodes a portion of the object and taking only a portion of
the image shows us only a portion of the original object.
Bohm conceives of the whole of reality in such a holographic manner. That is, each part of reality
contains information about the structure of the rest of reality “enfolded” within it. This enfolded
structure is what Bohm calls the implicate order. The notion of implicate order is to be contrasted
with explicate order: the aspect of reality that is immediately available to our senses and
instrumentation. From one perspective, parts of the implicate order are carried as information. For
example, the patterns of vibration in light waves enfold information about the objects they have
interacted with on their journey through the universe. More generally, the information structures of
the implicate order are carried by the holomovement – a generalization of all the possible carriers of
implicate order. The explicate order, our manifest reality is continuously unfolding from the
holomovement of the implicate order and then re-enfolding into it. In this picture, the implicate
order is primary. What we see as causal links between events in the explicate order are, more
properly, to be seen as connected unfoldings from the implicate order, related by deeper principles
which are to be expressed in terms appropriate to the implicate order, rather than the gross
mechanical rules of classical physics.10
Consciousness plays a key role in this picture of the structure of reality. Bohm uses the example of
our perception of music. The notes of a melody arrive sequentially, separated in time, but it is the
reverberation of earlier notes continuing in our consciousness that provides the context for the
understanding of the current note. The earlier elements of the music, although they have ceased to
exist in the explicate order, have been enfolded into the implicate order of our mind, whilst the
perception of the immediate sensation of the new note forms an explicate order of thought. It is the
interaction between these two aspects that actively creates the structure of the piece. Thus, our
bodies, as stable, extended physical structures are clear members of the explicate order, whilst our
mind, able to enfold and unfold information, is in the implicate order.
I have previously suggested (Schöter 2004b) that we can make a strong parallel between the picture
of reality given by Bohm and the structure given in the Yijing based on the traditional realms of
Tian 天 (heaven), Di 地 (earth) and Ren 人 (man). Consider the following lines from the Dazhuan
«大傳» translated by Wu (1991 p263):
In the heavens images are completed.

On the earth bodies are formed.
…
Qian knows the great beginnings.
Kun makes and finishes things.
The trigram associated with heaven is Qian 乾, the Creative; this is the source of all movement, and
generates the patterns which events follow. In contrast, the trigram associated with earth is Kun 坤,
the Receptive; this provides a material substrate in which the unfolding of the Creative patterns can
actually take form. The parallels between the implicate order as Tian and the explicate order as Di
are clear. Further, in the traditional metaphysics man, Ren, arises between, and serves to connect,
heaven and earth, which is exactly how consciousness functions in Bohm's picture.
This relationship is represented directly in the structure of

the hexagram as shown in Figure 2. I mentioned the
factorability of the six lines of the hexagram above, and
here we can see this graphically. Consider the major
division into two domains first: the top three lines of the
gua form the upper trigram, which represents the pattern of
energy in heaven, the implicate order; the bottom three lines
form the lower trigram, which represents the pattern of Figure 2: The Domains of Change
energy in earth, the explicate order.11
10 Bohm actually suggests a whole hierarchy of implicate and super-implicate orders, each unfolding into the order
below until the phenomena become manifest in the explicate order. The simplification, in this paper, of talking only
of the implicate order does not detract from the essence of his view.
11 In the hexagram, these two domains are distinct and do not overlap. However, the traditional relationship of
correspondence, Ying 應, describes a dynamic connection between the patterns in the two domains.
Now consider the ternary division shown on the right of the diagram. Here the middle two lines are
assigned to the domain of man. Thus, the bottom line of the top trigram (heaven) and the top line of
the bottom trigram (earth) combine together to give form to humanity, where the function of the
mind acts in the implicate order and the body is a manifestation in the explicate order.
I have now presented two key metaphysical aspects of the foundation of the Yijing. The first
described how the basic polarization of experience arises spontaneously from the undifferentiated
void. The second described the division of reality into distinct but interacting domains. These two
ideas contribute to the conceptual foundation of the abstraction space of the Yijing – the space where
the gua find their referents. In both cases we found ideas in modern physics that provide striking
parallels. I suggest that this lends weight to the assertion that the underlying symbolism of the
Yijing is, in a strong sense, universal, and can therefore provide a useful notation system for
exploring a wide range of issues.
Information Theory and Divination

For Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130-1200CE) the act of divination is at the heart of understanding the Yijing;
describing the original meaning of the work as “not in its various layers of text, but in the oracular
function of the hexagrams.” (Adler, 1990 p1). The ancient understanding of the manner of
divination's function relied on the agency of gui-shen 鬼神 (ghosts and spirits). However, although
he used this terminology, Zhu interpreted these as essentially impersonal: one the one hand, they
were “nothing more than the waxing and waning of yin and yang” and on the other, were also
“traces of the creative process” (Adler, ibid. p22-23). Thus, divination is not concerned with the
supernatural, but with the more subtle aspects of the natural. In Zhu's view divination is a technique
for self-cultivate and requires a quiet mind that can listen to the waxing and waning of yin and
yang; only if one is peaceful and concentrated is it possible to hear the response of the gui-shen.
Divination is a difficult practice for the modern scientific framework to accommodate. Perhaps the
best we might hope for from the perspective of classical science is an explanation based in the
psychological aspects of interpretation and significance. I have previously explored divination in
terms of the dynamics of a conversation between the symbolic content of the Yijing and the diviner
(Schöter, 2004b). Here I wish to revisit some of those ideas, delving a little deeper into the
information theoretic perspective and, eventually, connecting these issues with the metaphysical
foundations already described. The aim is to provide scope for a stronger explanation of divination
that finds a basis in the interaction of the implicate and explicate orders.
To begin with I shall define the process of divination as the interpretation, in relation to a given
situation, of the symbolic output of an unpredictable process.12 Along with the creative act of
interpretation, chance and predictability are therefore at the heart of divination.
Pattern and Randomness

It is significant that modern mathematics has very little to say about the causal source, or lack
thereof, of randomness. Instead, it concentrates on determining whether the symbolic output of any
given procedure could be described as random, regardless of the nature of the generating procedure.
Chaitin’s information theoretic approach to randomness is of interest here (Chaitin, 1975).
12 Note that, on this view, divination is not about predicting the future; it is about revealing something hidden in the
present.
Imagine I was in the habit of throwing a coin 18 times in succession and recording the result. On
one occasion I got:
HTHTHTHTHTHTHTHTHT
And then I did it again and got:
TTHTHHTTTTHTHHHTTH
Psychologically, it is hard to accept that the first sequence is the result of a random process. This is
because we can see the pattern clearly, and the chance of that pattern emerging by chance seems so
unlikely. But there are 262,144 (218) possible sequences that can be generated by tossing a coin 18
times and each of them is equally likely; the first pattern is no more or less unlikely to occur than
the second.
The information theoretic analysis of randomness is concerned with detecting patterns in the data.
The first sequence shows an obvious pattern which can be expressed succinctly as HT×9.
Mathematically then, it must be deemed a non-random sequence. However, the second sequence
does not show an obvious pattern and, mathematically, it would therefore be taken to be random.13
And yet both sequences have been generated by the same source. But, as Chaitin says, the
“provenance of the series” is not enough to certify that it is random. He says (ibid.):
If origin in a probabilistic event were made the sole criterion of randomness, then
both series would have to be considered random, and indeed so would all others,
since the same mechanism can generate all the possible series. The conclusion is
singularly unhelpful in distinguishing the random from the orderly.
Thus, distinguishing whether a particular sequence is random or not is at the crux of the information
theoretic approach, and this must be largely determined by the ingenuity of the mathematician
doing the looking. If they can find an applicable description of the pattern, then they must declare
the sequence as non-random. Only if they cannot find a description can they provisionally declare
the sequence as random. Note that such a declaration can only be provisional because it is always
possible that a more insightful analysis might uncover an applicable description of the pattern.14 So,
from a mathematical perspective, non-randomness is essentially a relationship between the source
data and some well-defined and concise mathematical structure, and not a result of the causal origin
of a sequence. The ability to recognize the relationship is then a perceptual act on the part of the
mathematician.
Perhaps this seems backwards: surely both sequences are actually random, because we know they
were generated by coin tossing; the first one merely seems non-random because we can see an
apparent pattern in the data. Information theory says it is, in fact, the other way around. The first
sequence is actually non-random because there is a concise pattern that describes it. We could say
13 On this analysis, randomness is also related to compressibility. A non-random sequence can be compressed without
loss; that is, described in a succinct way. A random sequence cannot be significantly compressed without loss. Data
compression is an important study in computing, which explains why information theory takes this approach to
randomness.
14 Chaitin notes that it is, in principle, impossible to tell whether the sequence actually is random or only appears to be
random. This result is connected to Gödel's famous incompleteness theorem and thus the nature of randomness
seems to be a fundamental, information theoretical foundation of mathematics.
that information theory contrasts randomness with pattern, whereas typically we would tend to
contrast randomness with predictability. We mistake the nature of randomness as residing in the
process of tossing of the coins whereas the randomness really resides in the results of that process.
What actually resides in the tossing of the coins is the unpredictability of the outcome of each
event. Whether the effectively unpredictable results are random or not is a question that can only be
determined after the process is complete.
Reflect on this characterization of randomness in the context of divination. Mathematically, the

non-randomness of the result lies in the perception of an underlying pattern. Now, in divination the
significance of the result lies in the perception of a connection to the originating situation. In both
cases the source data is taken as a given, and the focus is on the identification of relevant structure.
With this striking parallel in mind, it is interesting to consider that the practice of divination
frequently makes use of explicitly unpredictable sources for the generation of the data.
Synchronicity and The Implicate Order

Combs and Holland (2001 p152) describe systems such as the Yijing as being a form of “active
divination”. The contrast is with the interpretation of omens and similar events, which happen
regardless of the actions of the individual, but which are interpreted relative to the individual's
situation. With the Yijing, however, the individual actively asks a question and then uses a
deliberate technique to generate a symbol which is taken to encode an answer to the question. Even
in the context of the preceding metaphysics, we are left with the question of the nature of the
connection between, on the one hand, the situation that gives rise to the act of divination and with
respect to which the symbols are interpreted and, on the other hand, the actual outcome of the
divination process. More bluntly, how can the resulting symbols, generated by the unpredictable
technique, be relevant to the problem? Answers to this question can take a variety of forms.
As already mentioned, the weakest answer, in terms of connection, is to simply say that the
relevance lies entirely in the act of interpretation. This is similar to the information theoretic
approach to randomness discussed above. In that case, a sequence is considered non-random if an
analyst can find a compact description of the sequence, otherwise it is random. In terms of
divination, the symbolic answer is relevant to the extent that a suitable interpretation can be given in
relation to the original situation. The connection, in this picture, lies entirely in the mind of the
diviner. Whilst such a picture raises interesting psychological questions, it is ultimately
unsatisfactory from the perspective of the metaphysical framework.
Jung's principle of synchronicity is well-known in this context (Jung, 1955). Starting from the
premise, already acknowledged in quantum physics, that causality is a problematical phenomenon,
Jung suggests that there must be other principles that can serve to connect events in certain
circumstances. To that end, he proposes synchronicity as an acausal connecting principle. The
usual definition of this phenomenon is as “meaningful coincidence” – two or more events happen to
occur, sometimes more or less contemporaneously, sometimes separated in time, and a significant
connection is seen between them.15 Of course, it could be argued that this explanation is still
predominantly psychological: the significance is in the mind and perhaps the coincident events have
no other connection. However, we have already seen in the metaphysics of both the Yijing and
Bohm's physics that the explicate physical order, consciousness, and the implicate order of pattern
15 As a brief linguistic aside, it is interesting to consider the Chinese term for coincidence: this is qiao he 巧合 which,
taking the literal meanings of the individual characters, could also be interpreted as an “ingenious combination”.
are woven from the flow of a single fabric. Further, in Bohm's view, what connects events and
things should ultimately be expressed in terms of the implicate order, not the explicate: things
which have the same degree of enfoldment are synordinant, and so will unfold and become
explicate together (Bohm, 1980 p194). But this notion of “together” is neither necessarily
synchronous in time nor necessarily local in space – the implicate order can, in principle, unfold
synordinate events at distinct spaciotemporal locations.
Because the mind is, in part, participating in the action of the implicate order it is conceivable that
one could perceive synordinace even when spaciotemporal locality is lacking. This is, or course,
sensitivity to a subtle, natural phenomenon, and therefore could be seen as listening to the gui-shen.
Adler (1990 p17) notes that divination is to be explained in terms of shen (spirit) which enables
both the mind and the unpredictable technique of the Yi16 to respond to the underlying patterns of
transformation in qi 氣 and that “as a characteristic of [qi] itself shen refers to the coherence of
certain phenomena in which coherence is not empirically observable by the ordinary mind.” In the
context of the current discussion coherence which is not empirically observable could easy be
interpreted in terms of synordinant events in the implicate order. Thus, Bohm's physics offers a
potential explanation for the non-local, acausal phenomenon of synchronicity that weaves the
psychological and the physical together into a single framework.
Morphic Resonance and Divination

Nonetheless, we are left with an explanatory gap. Even if we take on board implicate synordinance
as the basic structural property of reality and allow that consciousness has some direct access to this
ordering, we are left wondering how a series of unpredictable events can result in symbols that are
relevant to the situation being divined about. That is, why, for any given act of divination, should
we expect the patterns resulting from tossing some coins to be synordinant with the particular
situation under consideration? But this is exactly what Jung suggested. Combs and Holland
(2001 p153) say that Jung first introduced the concept of synchronicity in his memorial address for
Richard Wilhelm in 1930, suggesting that it is the very unpredictability of the mechanism that
allows the resulting pattern of the coins to reflect the broader patterns in the situation under
consideration. But there is more to it than this: as Combs and Holland are aware, the attitude of the
person making the divination is also important. Confirming most people's experience, they observe
that bringing an attitude of respect and reverence to the act of consulting with Change is crucial.
This echoes Zhu's admonishment to be “extremely dignified and extremely reverent” when
consulting the gui-shen through divination (Adler, 1990 p23). This attitude is a deeply significant
part of the process, helping the mind to become sensitive and responsive to Change.
The metaphysical framework outlined above allows for the mind to interact directly with the
implicate order. By bringing the mind into a suitable state, its deep patterns may be able to imprint
directly into the implicate order and therefore effect the resulting events that unfold into the
explicate order. This effect is clearly not direct – it does not seem possible to directly control
whether a coin lands heads or tails through thought – but a divination relies on the overall pattern of
the coins, not the individual tosses, and the resulting overall pattern is indirectly interpreted as a
pattern of change.
16 The technique most usually taken to have spiritual content is the milfoil stalk. However, I am suggesting that it is
the random nature of the process, not the physical material used, which carries the spiritual charge.
The idea of the morphic field is relevant here (Sheldrake, 2009). In modern physics everything can
be interpreted in terms of fields: electromagnetic fields are used daily in our radio and television
transmissions, the receiver in the set resonates with the vibrations of the transmission to amplify its
signal. But even particles such as electrons are to be understood as localized excitations of an
underlying field, and the holomovement, discussed above as the carrier for the implicate order, is a
vast collection of interacting fields. Sheldrake extends this idea to every aspect of reality. Thus, the
mind itself generates a field that carries information about its intent and content. In this model then,
the field of a mind, which already interpenetrates with the implicate order, could enter into
resonance with those fields, resulting in a mutual influence where the deep concerns of the mind
affect the content of the implicate order in such a way as to allow the unpredictable technique to
express relevant pattern as it unfolds into the explicate order through the act of the divination.
Of course these ideas are highly speculative. Not only does Bohm's view of reality lack empirical
support, but it is even difficult to see what experimental techniques could be applied to falsify it.
Further, Sheldrake's work is extremely controversial in mainstream science. However, the strength
of this approach is that the theory fits extremely well with the traditional metaphysics of the Yijing
and, taken as a whole, seems to provide a coherent framework, expressed in the vernacular of
science, which at least offers the potential of an explanation for divination.
Conclusion
Adler (1990 p15) provides the following summary of Zhu Xi's view of the function of the Yi:
The hexagrams of the I represent the yin-yang fluctuations and transformations of

the Way. The I as a symbol system “discloses things” by representing natural
pattern in graphic form, making it easier to comprehend.
Bohm, speaking of the mathematicization of the ideas of implicate and explicate orders, says
(1980 p205) that “an algebra contains key features which are similar to the key features of
structures built on implicate orders.” Boolean algebra is one of the most basic forms of algebra and,
as I have shown extensively elsewhere, Boolean algebra can be fruitfully applied to the symbols of
the Yijing. As such, I suggest that the Yijing forms a powerful notational system for exploring the
manner in which the implicate order unfolds into the explicate, for exploring the manifestation of
consciousness within pattern and matter. However, this is only part of the picture. Adler goes on to
say:
But the Way, to be actualized, must also be internalized by the human will and put
into effect in human affairs. Moral decisions must be made, based on an integrated
understanding of the self and the world. Self-doubt is inevitable at this point, and
the I provides a method by which doubts can be settled and intentions trained to
issue spontaneously in a proper direction. Divination is this method.
We have seen that a coherent picture of divination can be expressed in terms of a physics that
directly parallels the metaphysics of the Yi. That the role of human consciousness is significant in
this picture accords with Adler's characterization above. Further, the view of reality that this
physics emphasises is a seamless, continuous field where human beings are deeply integrated into
the basic fabric of reality through their consciousness. Once such a view is taken seriously, the only
rational choice of action is an investigation into the causes of our perception of fragmentation and a
resulting movement towards realizing the true wholeness of reality. This is the essence of self-
cultivation, as espoused by the great proponents of the Yi.
Zhu Xi, cited by Adler (1990 p8) says that we should “approach the old teaching in order to bring
out new views.” The work in this paper is presented in this spirit, and seeks to express the
continuity of idea between the ancient sages of Change and contemporary thought. Bohm
(1980 p31) is in agreement with the importance of this approach:
So what we have to do with regard to the great wisdom from the whole of the past,
both in the East and in the West, is to assimilate it and to go on to new and original
perception relevant to our present condition of life.
I contend that the Yijing, both as a source of abstract philosophical study and as a practical tool for
divination, provides an excellent method for generating “original perception relevant to our present
condition”.
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The Yijing As A Mathematical Metaphysics

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The Yijing as a Mathematical Metaphysics

In physics, vacuum polarization is explored. This started as a theoretical consequence of a

Mathematics and Abstraction

Shao Yong and Leibniz

Mathematics and Reality

Although meaning is hard to define, it is one of the most powerful features of

The Yijing as a Notation System

The Symbols of Change

Level Description Yijing

The Abstraction Space for Change

The Other Levels of a Notation System

Physics and Metaphysics

Non-polar and yet Supreme Polarity!

We can visualize this development graphically through the

This description is very interesting from the perspective of quantum

Bohm's Holographic Universe

In the heavens images are completed.

This relationship is represented directly in the structure of

Information Theory and Divination

Pattern and Randomness

And then I did it again and got:

Reflect on this characterization of randomness in the context of divination. Mathematically, the

Synchronicity and The Implicate Order

Morphic Resonance and Divination

The hexagrams of the I represent the yin-yang fluctuations and transformations of

Ding, Zijiang. 2005.

Penrose, Roger. 2005.

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