University of Pennsylvania

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Theses (Historic Preservation) Graduate Program in Historic Preservation

2002

The Interpretation of Ruins at Sites of Memory

Kate Daly
University of Pennsylvania

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Daly, Kate, "The Interpretation of Ruins at Sites of Memory" (2002). Theses (Historic Preservation). 520.
http://repository.upenn.edu/hp_theses/520

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Suggested Citation:
Daly, Kate (2002). The Interpretation of Ruins at Sites of Memory. (Masters Thesis). University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

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The Interpretation of Ruins at Sites of Memory
Disciplines
Historic Preservation and Conservation

Comments
Copyright note: Penn School of Design permits distribution and display of this student work by University of
Pennsylvania Libraries.

Suggested Citation:

Daly, Kate (2002). The Interpretation of Ruins at Sites of Memory. (Masters Thesis). University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA.

This thesis or dissertation is available at ScholarlyCommons: http://repository.upenn.edu/hp_theses/520

 IP

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UNIVERSlTYy
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 The Interpretation of Ruins at Sites of Memory

Kate Daly

A THESIS

Historic Preservation

Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

2002

Supervisor der
David Hollenberg David De Long
Lecturer in Historic Preservation Professor of Architecture

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Graduate Uroup Chair
Frank G. Matero
Associate Professor of Architecture

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 UNIVERSITY

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the staffs at the three historic sites studied in this thesis for

their generosity in giving time and information. In particular, I appreciate the

assistance of Sally Elk, Executive Director of Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site;

Frank Hays, Superintendent of Manzanar National Historic Site; and Steve Long,

Curator of the Lower East Side Tenement Museum.

I would also like to thank my advisor, David Hollenberg, for his invaluable

guidance throughout the process of conceptualizing and writing, and my reader, David

De Long, for his insightful comments.

Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the support and encouragement I received

from my family.

11
Table of Contents

List of Illustrations iv

Chapter One: Introduction 1

Chapter Two: Heritage and History 5

Chapter Three: The Interpretation of Ruins 19

Chapter Four: Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site 34

Chapter Five: The Lower East Side Tenement Museum 52

Chapter Six: Manzanar National Historic Site 67

Chapter Seven: Conclusion 85

Illustrations 88

Bibliography 96

Index 103

ui
List of Illustrations

Figure 1: Lithograph, 1855, Eastern State Penitentiary 88

Figure 2: hiterior cell block, 2001 Eastern State Penitentiary

, 89

Figure 3: The ruins apartment, 1995, Lower East Side Tenement Museum 90

Figure 4: The Gumpertz apartment, 1995, Lower East Side Tenement Museum 91

Figure 5: Entry sign, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center 92

Figure 6: Entry sign, 1999, Manzanar National Historic Site 93

Figure 7: High School Recess Period, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center 94

Figure 8: Barracks foundations, 1999, Manzanar National Historic Site 95

IV
Chapter One: Introduction

B y the close of the twentieth century, American historic sites increasingly

commemorated periods and events that represent shameful or dark

episodes in U.S. history. No longer content to preserve only those parts of the built

environment that honor military victories or housed elites, communities began to

memorialize labor and immigration history and the history of women and people of

color. As a consequence, sites that still have the power to make visitors uncomfortable,

such as nineteenth-century factories and slave quarters, were restored and opened for

tours. This development in the United States was influenced in part by the growing

international focus on what have been called "sites of conscience" or "lieux de

memoire-y places of memory and memorial.

Within the past ten years, three such historic sites of conscience that share a

common history have been adaptively used as museums. Eastern State Penitentiary in

Philadelphia, the Lower East Side Tenement Museum in New York City, and

Manzanar National Historic Site in California all served as housing for marginalized,

displaced or imprisoned persons, were abandoned and left to decay, and are now open

to the public. All three sites have been chosen to commemorate important periods or

events in American social or political history that have not been memorialized as

integral parts of U.S. history. Abandoned and forgotten by most, the neglect of the

sites led to their deterioration, until they were resurrected by non-profit organizations

or the National Park Service to serve as museums or historic sites open to the public.

These three sites were chosen for this study because they present similar theoretical

1
challenges to their curators. Rather than attempt to restore the sites completely and

recreate an imagined past, the sites' managers have elected to allow decayed areas of

the sites to remain as testimony to the passage of time, permitting the period of

abandonment to remain an integral part of the sites' histories and implicitly

acknowledging that the decay contributes to the impact of the sites. At some sites, the

visible signs of age and decay make the buildings more evocative for visitors, as the

decay represents the period of neglect and perhaps evokes the marginalization of the

site's former occupants. At other sites, the decay may serve to distance visitors from

the events being interpreted, and diminish the relevance of past events to current

concerns. Visitors' perceptions of the decay is relevant to the sites' interpretations,

since each of the three sites has a contemporary mission that shapes curatorial

decisions to use the "theatre of decay" as an interpretive tool.

This study seeks to evaluate how the interpretation of each of these three sites is

shaped by efforts to preserve the existing decay, to incorporate it into the site's

message, and to balance the theatricality of the interpretation of this decay with ethical

and professional standards of conservation. While a comparison of the three sites

serves to illustrate some of their similarities, the sites have dissimilar origins, histories,

and contemporary missions. Prisoners, immigrant tenement dwellers, and Japanese-

American internment camp detainees all experienced different forms of displacement

as a consequence of divergent economic, political, and social factors.

 Chapter Two of this study focuses on the concept of "heritage" as it is used and

manipulated at American historic sites, and how the concept of heritage has been

appHed to sites of uncomfortable history. Museums and memorials have begun to play

a more prominent role in helping the public engage with the positive and negative

aspects of the past. Tourism exerts a significant influence on the promotion and

creation of heritage, and has encouraged a level of theatricality at some historic sites

that affects the historic integrity of the site.

Chapter Three addresses the changing perceptions of ruins in Europe and the

United States. An examination of theories of ruin and reconstruction in Asia and the

Middle East is beyond the scope of this study, since non-European cultures have had

less influence on theories of decay in the United States than have England, France, and

Italy. Attitudes toward ruins that were created through acts of war differ greatly from

attitudes toward ruins that were created through neglect and abandorunent. This

chapter presents an overview of nineteenth- and twentieth-century cults of ruins, and

assesses their relevance to the three sites studied. This discussion of the aesthetics of

decay seeks to shed some light on the extent to which decay lends "authenticity" to the

sites or, conversely, serves to symbolize the disjunction between the past and the

present.

The subsequent three chapters are devoted to case studies. Of the three sites in

this study, one, the Lower East Side Tenement Museum, is an institutional founder of

the International Coalition of Historic Site Museums of Conscience. Tenement

Museum curators reconstructed several apartments to portray inhabitants' lives during

different periods in the building's history, and left one apartment and portions of the

hallway in the state of ruin in which they were found in 1988. This site is the only one

of the three for which the mission preceded the building. Museum directors sought a

site suitable for their plan to create a museum that emphasized a "usable past."

Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site is in an extreme state of deterioration.

Stabilization, rather than restoration, is the first priority at the site, which offers historic

tours and exhibits site-specific art installations.

The third case study, the Japanese-American internment camp Manzanar, offers

the greatest challenge to curators, since most of its buildings were relocated or

destroyed when the camp was dismantled after World War II. The chapter on

Manzanar National Historic Site will explore the National Park Service's decisions to

relocate or reconstruct some elements of the built environment and allow others to

remain in ruins in an effort to balance the powerful image presented by the windswept

and barren camp with the need to interpret the site in a coherent and instructive way.

The final chapter of this study will present the conclusions drawn fi-om an

evaluation of the interpretive goals of each of the three sites.

Chapter Two: Heritage and History

"n order to assess the increased attention to sites that commemorate

I .uncomfortable history, this study will briefly examine the concepts of

heritage and history that guide the interpretation of historic sites in the United States,

and the relatively recent shift in interpretation to engage the public in the present-day

relevance of less widely embraced aspects of our shared heritages and multiple pasts.

"Heritage" is a contentious term that holds different meanings for different

groups. Historians J.E. Tunbridge and G.J. Ashworth, authors of one of the few texts

written on the interpretation of uncomfortable history, evaluated the five commonly

used definitions of heritage: heritage as a synonym for physical manifestations of the

past; heritage as defined by collective memory; heritage as a synonym for culture;

heritage as indigenous values or landscapes that can be passed on to successive

generations; and the "heritage industry," which involves the commercialization of an

area or craft for tourist revenue. Tunbridge and Ashworth used a marketing model to

emphasize that heritage is an inherently selective, culturally constructed product, and

that the development of audience demand precedes the development of a heritage site.'

In Great Britain and the United States there has been a great deal of scholarship

and debate about the term heritage. Historic sites and conservation organizations in

both Britain and America use the word "heritage" to define their cultural and historic

resources. Because heritage tourism is a significant part of the economies of both

J.E. Tunbridge and G.J. Ashworth, Dissonant Heritage: The Management of the Past as a Resource in
Conflict (Chichester, England; John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 1-2, 8.
nations, the preservation of a defined cultural heritage, as reflected in the built

environment, is of vital interest to the regions that increasingly depend upon it.

In the United States, the non-profit National Trust for Historic Preservation

offers a Heritage Tourism Program to help communities develop heritage tourism. The

Trust program equates heritage tourism with an authentic interpretation of the past:

Heritage tourism is travel that allows visitors to experience the places

and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the
past. It is one of the fastest-growing segments of the travel industry, one
that can bring many benefits to travelers and to communities.^

The economic imperatives of heritage tourism are made even more explicit by

England's equivalent to the National Trust for Historic Preservation: English Heritage.

The organization's 1992 report, Managing England's Heritage: Setting Our Priorities

for the 1990s, emphasized the multiples roles played by heritage:

To understand our past helps us to come to terms with the present and
provides the foundations for the future. Our heritage plays an important
educational role, but even more importantly, a vital social role. Our
heritage also plays an important role in the economy. Tourism is a
major producer of invisible earnings for the country. It is our stately
homes and historic monuments, our battlefields, our fortresses, our
landscapes which draw visitors to our shores and money into our
economy. Without these attractions we would be the poorer in more
than just the visual sense.^

The prevalence of heritage tourism has altered the meaning of the term

"heritage" and opened it up to criticism as a vague generalization that sheds little light

"
web site: www.nationaItrust.org.
National Trust for Historic Preservation
Jocelyn Stevens, Managing England's Heritage: Setting Our Priorities for the 1990s (London: English
Heritage, 1992), quoted W.E. Krumbein, P. Brimblecombe, D.E. Cosgrove, and S. Staniforth, eds..
in:

Durability and Change: The Science. Responsibility, and Cost of Sustaining Cultural Heritage (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), 233.
 ^

on the accurate presentation of the past. Historian B. Goodey asserts that heritage's

educational and social roles may be eclipsed by its economic role, noting that since the

1980s, "heritage interpretation" has been packaged to create "heritage attractions" and

"heritage experiences."'' Historian John Brinckerhoff Jackson derides the tendency of

heritage interpretation to displace more edifying interpretations of history:

...A kind of historical, theatrical make-believe is becoming increasingly

popular; not only the noonday shootouts and other roadside attractions,
but costumed guides in historical show places, candlelight concerts of
period music, historically accurate dinners and feasts, re-enactments of
historic episodes are gradually changing the new reconstructed
environments into scenes of unreality, places where we can briefly
relive the golden age and be purged of historical guilt. The past is
brought back in all its richness. There is no lesson to learn, no covenant
to honor; we are charmed into a state of innocence and become part of
the environment. History ceases to exist.

The use of history as escapist entertainment is only one facet of heritage

interpretation. Some heritage interpretation eschews theatrical display in favor of

presenting an "authentic" past to visitors who seek a truer representation of historical

events. However, most heritage interpretation may be differentiated from the selective

presentation of the past that can be characterized as "history." Historian David

Lowenthal distinguishes heritage from history as follows: "History explores and

explains pasts grown ever more opaque over time; heritage clarifies pasts so as to

"*
B. Goodey, "Selling Cultural Heritage; Conflicts and Possibilities," in W.E. Krumbein, et al.,
Durability and Change, 225-239.
'
John Brinckerhoff Jackson, The Necessity for Ruins and Other Topics (Amherst: University of
Massachusetts Press, 1980), 102.
infuse them with present purposes."'' Of course history, like heritage, is subjective, and

what historians and curators select to exhibit and interpret is necessarily infused with

present purposes. "Heritage interpretation," however, goes a step beyond historical

scholarship. It has been called "an uneasy mixture between scholarship and marketing

hype, fact and nostalgia, educating and entertaining, and monologue and dialogue."^

The pressures of tourism intensify the commodification of history, as heritage tourism

grows in popularity and economic potential. Critics assert heritage interpretation

simplifies history by smoothing over complications, like contested memories and the

representation of diverse pasts, that might interfere with an easily consumable

experience at historic sites.

Most critics of the term agree that "heritage" fails to encompass diverse cultures

and identities. Although many heritage sites do seek to recognize the multiple cultures

that participated in the history presented at the site, most sites in the United States still

carefully avoid any controversy that could arise from contested interpretations of

events and places. The "whitewashing" of negative historical moments or sites has

long characterized the American historic landscape. Reflecting the importance of

patriotism and nationalism in forming the American collective memory, the majority of

historic sites in the United States emphasize the positive contribution to American

"David Lowenthal, Possessed by the Past: The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998), xiii.
Stuart Hannabuss, "How Real Is Our Past? Authenticity in Heritage Interpretation," in Heritage and
Museums: Shaping National Identity, ed. J.M. Fladmark (Dorset: Donhead Publishing Ltd., 2000), 351.

8
history made by the person or events commemorated by the site.*^ James W. Loewen's

recent survey of American historic sites led him to conclude:

Guides almost always avoid negative or controversial facts, and most

monuments, markers, and historic sites omit any blemishes that might
taint the heroes they commemorate, making them larger and less

interesting than Hfe.... These misrepresentations on the American

landscape help keep us ignorant as a people, less able to understand
what really happened in the past, and less able to apply our
understanding to issues facing the United States today.*^

For several decades, historical sites and museums in the United States have

been criticized for presenting selective history and failing to acknowledge the

connection between the past and the present. The growing popularity of "heritage

interpretation" in many ways contributes to the packaging of history as an

uncontroversial narrative of a knowable past. Historian Kevin Walsh has stated:

One of the most important effects of heritage has been its intensification
of the modem emphasis on promoting the past as that which is entirely
complete and removed from the present. This has served to neuter the
past and permit its manipulation and trivialization in the present.'^

The idea of a usable past, described by historian Michael Kammen as a

necessary part of shaping national, group, and personal identity, is being employed

more and more by public historians who seek to shape the interpretation of the past in

new ways. Today, an increasing number of historic sites seek to link the past to the

present in order to encourage visitors to see the contemporary relevance of history, and

Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in Ameiican Culture
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 10.
James W. Loewen, Lies Across America: What Our Historic Sites Get Wrong (New York: The New
Press, 1999), 17, 19.
Kevin Walsh, The Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in the Post-Modern World
(London: Routledge, 1992), 4.
many museums and memorials acknowledge the role they have to play in helping the

public confront both the positive and negative aspects of the past.

In addition to allowing visitors a deeper understanding of and connection to

historical events, some museums and historic sites actively seek to promote social

engagement. The National Park Service recently considered launching an initiative to

move beyond its recent efforts at some sites to discover and to tell "untold stories," and

to enhance the process of "civic dialogue" within the parks and monuments under its

purview. A National Park Service paper connected with this potential initiative stated:

We want to enable the National Park system to look at our own parks in
a different way, not only as keepers of American cultural and natural
resources but also as centers for important dialogue on civic issues.

This effort to involve an engaged public in bringing the present into the

interpretation of the past can be seen as part of an incipient movement in the United

States. Proponents of a new role for museums and historic sites seek to involve local

communities in the interpretation and presentation of their histories. Museums like the

Anacostia Neighborhood Museum in Washington, D.C., and the Lower East Side

Tenement Museum in New York City participate in this movement by involving local

communities in their interpretation of the past and present experiences of urban life.

Greater participation by the public in their own history may reveal sources of

conflict among diverse cultures and viewpoints. These contested histories often play

themselves out within contested spaces. For example, at the Lower East Side

" National Park Service, "The National Park Service and Civic Dialogue" (paper prepared for a
workshop sponsored by the National Park Service, New York, NY, December 2001).

10
Tenement Museum, some local groups have expressed their dissatisfaction with their

representation within the museum, which they do not believe accurately represents or

interprets the ethnic composition of the neighborhood's past. At Manzanar National

Historic Site, Native Americans, Japanese-Americans, and European-Americans each

lay a claim to the site's history, and have sought to prevent the primacy of one historic

period or defined heritage over another in the National Park Service's interpretation of

the site. Museums have begun to play a role in balancing contested histories by

mediating controversies in which personal commemoration is at odds with historic

interpretation.

A deeper understanding of past and present through civic dialogue and social

engagement can be implemented at heritage sites that commemorate as well as heritage

sites that celebrate. Edward Linenthal has perceived the role memorials in particular

can play in effecting a civic transformation of the public. Asserting that memorial sites

have emerged as points of moral order, Linenthal suggested that such sites should play

a more active role as institutional agents of moral influence. He suggested the public

'"
For a more extensive discussion of contested memory, see Edward Linenthal's analysis of successful
between memory and history in the context of the United States Holocaust
efforts to achieve a balance
Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., where curators included both commemorative and historical
perspectives in consultation with survivors; and less successful efforts surrounding the well-publicized
The Atomic Bomb and the
cancellation in 1995 of the Smithsonian Institution exhibit "The Last Act:
End of World War II," as a result of protests from veterans groups and other critics. Edward T.
Linenthal, "Can Museums Achieve a Balance Between Memory and History?" The Chronicle of Higher
Education. 10 February 1995.

11
should enter museums as "civic pilgrims" and leave transformed and empowered by

the moral narrative encountered at the site.'^

The increased visitation to sites around the world that commemorate events that

are to be remembered but not celebrated may reflect an increased willingness on the

part of historic site managers and the public to examine as moral narratives the less

appealing facets of their shared heritage. These sites range from European

concentration camps like Auschwitz (now a World Heritage Site) and other sites of

atrocities to sites not explicitly associated with death, but rather with exploitation and

marginalization, like the Workhouse in England and the Gulag Museum in Russia.

However, it is not clear that these sites of conscience inherently effect the "civic

transformation" envisioned by Linenthal. Some historians express concern that sites of

particular horror, such as concentration camps, may seem exceptional, with no overt

cormection to events of the present day. hi describing a visit to Auschwitz II at

Birkenau, Donald Home concluded: "When we stand piously in the presence of these

ruins, we comfort ourselves by imagining that this is the past —never the present, never

the fiiture." Additionally, some historians question whether the altruistic intentions

of site curators at sites of atrocity and other less horrifying sites are necessarily

paralleled by similar morally valuable motives on the part of the visitors, who in

Edward Linenthal, "September ll"" and After: Museums, Memory & Meaning" (paper presented to
the College of Physicians, Philadelphia, PA, November 2001),
Donald Home, The Great Museum: The Re-Presentation of History (London and Sydney: Pluto Press,
1984), 247.

12
consuming both the education and entertainment offered by the sites may or may not

be receptive to the moral message of the site.'"

Several organizations with distinct human rights agendas have arisen to

negotiate such issues and guide interpretation at sites of twentieth-century exploitation

and atrocities. The International Coalition of Historic Site Museums of Conscience,

founded in 1999, stated as among its founding principles:

We hold in common the belief that it is the obligation of historic sites to

assist the public in drawing connections between the history of our sites

and its contemporary implications. We

view stimulating dialogue on
pressing social issues and promoting humanitarian and democratic
values as a primary function."^

hi the United States, the National Park Service and the Lower East Side

Tenement Museum, both discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters, are both

members of the Coalition. The Coalition subsequently influenced the organization of

the International Committee of Memorial Museums of Remembrance for the Victims

of Public Crimes, estabHshed in 2001, which defined its mission as follows:

The purpose of the memorial museums is to commemorate the victims

of state and socially determined, ideologically motivated crimes. These
institutions frequently are located at the original historical sites, or at
places chosen by the victims of such crimes for the purpose of
commemoration. Their endeavours to convey information about
historical events are morally grounded and aim to establish a definite
relationship to the present, without abandoning historical perspective.'^

Coalitions such as these recognize that every historic site that claims to represent the

heritage of a nation or particular population interprets the site through a lens of

Tunbridge and Ashworth, Dissonant Heritage, 94.

'*
Ruth J. Abram, "Planting Cut Flowers," AASLH History News (summer 2000): 9.
'
International Council of Museums, press release, 3 July 2001.

13
contemporary interests. By elucidating their own programs, the coalitions encourage

member sites to take advantage of public interest to openly engage visitors in a moral

agenda.

Some understanding of the complexity of sites of uncomfortable history derives

from the different words used to describe them. The phrases "sites of shame," "sites of

conscience," and ^'lieux de memoire," each connote a different meaning. A site of

shame or conscience seems to call for reflection upon shared accountability for an

event, whereas lieux de memoire suggests a shared responsibility for remembrance.

This remembrance can be interpreted through the lenses of both official accounts of

history and the collective memory of the public. At sites commemorating events that

took place in the twentieth century, there are likely to be survivors who may participate

in the site as visitors or advisors, contributing individual and collective memories to the

interpretation of the site.

One of the central questions of this study is whether the ruins of three sites of

uncomfortable history, Eastern State Penitentiary, the Lower East Side Tenement

Museum, and Manzanar National Historic Site, evoke for visitors a past that still

speaks to the present, and how that message is interpreted by site managers. These

sites are not considered in the same light as sites of atrocities, such as European

concentration camps, or other memorial sites that commemorate death. Rather, they

are sites whose physical neglect reflects the marginalized nature of their former

inhabitants and the lack of interest in commemorating the complex histories of the

14
sites. Like most sites of memory, these three sites are interpreted through the lens of a

contemporary moral message that seeks to alert the present to the shameful or less

acknowledged aspects of a shared past.

The commemoration of victims and the promotion of humanitarian values lose

their abstract quality when thousands of visitors begin to visit the sites, whether as part

of a pilgrimage or as part of a vacation itinerary. Museums with a moral agenda seek

to engage visitors with historical lessons that resonate in the present. But in evaluating

the interpretive methods of "activist memorial museums" that commemorate violence

and genocide, Edward Linenthal poses the question: "How can we assume these

1 o
memorials lead to social engagement rather than a lust for vicarious immersion?

The answer may lie in part in the interpretive methods sites use to present their

"heritage" to the public.

The increasing demands tourism places on both celebratory and

commemorative heritage sites leads to the increased commercialization of those sites,

which in turn generates a demand for heritage-related souvenirs and theatrical

programming. The commercialization of sites of uncomfortable history can have a

negative impact on the integrity of the site. David Lowenthal notes that the

domestication of horror as an interpretive display can "defang" the sobering lessons of

history:

Heritage is also chided for hallowing the horrific and selling souvenirs
of catastrophe and scenes of slaughter. The Kennedy death site is

Dallas's biggest tourist draw. Young visitors to Auschwitz glory in

'* 1"'
Linenthal, "September 1 and After."

15
 gore, prize Nazi insignia, and gloat over jackboots.... Heritage tourism
touts locales of classic infamy: Paris sewers, Welsh coal mines, slave
auctions, concentration camps.'

Emphasizing the negative consequences of turning sites such as these into

tourist attractions, Lowenthal characterizes the public interest in these heritage sites as

"historical self-flagellation." Yet there are two sides to the public interest in sites of

uncomfortable history. Although tourism inevitably turns the sites into a form of

entertainment for travelers, the interpretation of infamous sites also offers visitors the

opportunity to reject official versions of past events that fail to take into account any

view but that of dominant groups. The opening of these lieux de memoire allows the

sites to remain a part of the public consciousness, and allow the public to participate in

a collective remembering. One difficulty in the interpretation of the sites, however, is

that the sites may engage in a theatrical presentation that ultimately entertains rather

than edifies.

Curators at most heritage sites are expected to create an interpretive exhibit, or

experience, that encourages visitors to feel some connection to the events

commemorated. In order to involve the visitors in complex lessons of the past, the

sites must engage as well as inform. Sites of conscience in particular must maintain a

delicate balance between the need to engage the visitor and the mandate of historical

accuracy and site integrity. The interpretive tools of narrative and storytelling are

deployed in varying degrees at the three sites discussed in this study. The attendant

" Lowenthal, Possessed by the Past, 100.

David Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985),
346.

16
obligation of the sites to maintain equilibrium between interpretive methods and ethical

standards, especially when a contemporary mission influences the interpretation of the

site, will be analyzed in subsequent chapters.

The ethical standards applied to the interpretation of each site also extend to the

curators' and visitors' assessments of the "authenticity" of each site, hi reaction to the

commercial cooptation of many heritage sites, some visitors demand a greater

authenticity at historic sites. Dean MacCannell theorizes that tourists seek "real"

experiences, but can never be certain if their experiences are in fact authentic." If

much of tourism today is motivated by a quest for authenticity, then tourism at decayed

sites of conscience becomes a complicated experience of competing authenticities. The

three sites of conscience evaluated in this study were each transformed from abandoned

sites into heritage sites. What was rejected as part of America's cultural heritage was

later deemed worthy of commemoration through curatorial intervention, altering the

visitors' perceptions of the absence evoked by the decay. At Eastern State Penitentiary

Historic Site and Manzanar National Historic Site, the sites' dramatic states of decay

dispel the notion that the visitor is gaining any understanding of prison life as it was

actually lived at the sites. Similarly, the empty "ruins apartment" at the Lower East

Side Tenement Museum presents an empty vessel: the room as it was after being

abandoned in 1935, not during its occupancy by immigrants. Yet the decay of each of

these three sites creates a different sense of authenticity: because the sites are presented

"'
Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1999), 91.

17
as having been untouched since they were last inhabited or dismantled, they gain

authenticity in that nothing is "staged" for the visitors. The obvious decay of the sites

reheves the visitors' uncertainties about authenticity.

Yet whereas the sites themselves may appear to be undisturbed in their decay,

the visitor does not have an unmediated experience: preservationists and curators make

choices about the presentation of the sites' histories that focus on some aspects and

obscure others. The curators may have fewer illusions about the accessibility of

"authenticity," and likely understand that every fact is mediated by its presenters and

its observers. The professional standards of authenticity that have been established to

assist in the preservation of site integrity, and the application of these standards to each

of the three sites in this study, will be discussed within the context of each site in the

chapters that follow.

Because the interpretation of each of the sites in this study relies, in part, on the

visual impact of the deterioration of their built environment, each site will be evaluated

in terms of the ways in which it gains or loses power from the presence of decay, and

how frankly this is acknowledged in the interpretation of the site. The complex

interpretation of decay at sites not previously considered part of the nation's shared

heritage relies in part on the changing cultural perceptions of decay, which are the

subject of the next chapter.

18
Chapter Three: The Interpretation of Ruins

Historic sites that have been rejected as part of the nation's shared

cultural heritage often receive commemoration only after a long period

of abandonment; their deterioration during this period of "selective oblivion" adds

another layer of meaning to the sites, since their decay serves as a symbol of rejection,

absence, or loss. At sites of uncomfortable history in particular, this selective oblivion

is reinforced by the need for distance between the past and the present that allows

visitors to face and comprehend the commemorative value of the site. Some sites

"remain in limbo before American society comes to terms with their meaning and a

past marred by violence and tragedy."^^ The decayed states of the three sites examined

in this study may serve as symbols of deliberate gaps in public memory. However,

visitors' interpretations of the decay as symbolic or allegorical is shaped at each site by

the degree of curatorial intervention, the type of narrative presented, and the

acknowledgment of the decay as either a central or marginal component of the site and

its history.

Even when not presented as a part of the site's interpretive program, images of

decay and ruin at historic sites evoke varying and complex responses fi-om visitors.

Ruins as "allegories of transient times"^^ may provoke contemplation of the passage of

time, distancing the viewer from the history of the site, or may encourage visitors to

link the abandonment of the site to the marginalization of its former occupants.

^^
Kenneth E. Foote, Shadowed Ground: America 's Landscapes of Violence and Tragedy (Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1997), 35.
^'
Walter Benjamin, quoted in Svetlana Boym, The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books, 2001),
208.

19
Changing cultural and aesthetic perceptions of decay and individual sensibilities all

influence visitors' reactions to ruined sites. This chapter will attempt a brief overview

of the changing perceptions of ruins in Europe and the United States, and assess how

this history shapes the current cultural interpretation of the three decayed sites that are

the focus of this study.

Ruins have during different periods served as icons of romance, melancholy,

nostalgia, and admonition. Visitors to ruins today may still experience "sensations of

regret, of veneration, or compassion," emotions Thomas Whately suggested in 1770

were excited by the viewing of ruins. Ruins may also symbolize memory and

forgetting to those seeking lessons from the past. Florence Hetzler suggested that the

experience of ruins offers the possibility of a sublime unity: the intersection of the

ruined structure and landscape, the active forces of nature, and the viewer's

perception. Another element in an aesthetic of ruins is the absence inherent in the

structure; the fragmentation that evokes the abandonment that necessarily anteceded

nature's encroachment. At the end of the twentieth century, ruins of destruction like

the battlefields, memorials, and bombed buildings of two world wars have left an

imprint on the American imagination that inevitably conflicts with the romantic

melancholy of the Picturesque tradition of ruins. More pervasive, the urban decay

resulting from the abandonment of urban cores or the creation of industrial wastelands

^^
Thomas Whately, Observations on Modern Gardening (1770). quoted m W.E. Krumbein et al.,

Durability and Change, 230.

Florence Hetzler, "The Aesthetics of Ruins: A New Category of Being," The Journal of Aesthetic
Education 16, no. 2 (summer 1982): 105-108.

20
similarly tempers the view of nature reclaiming the built environment. Ruins of sites

of uncomfortable history may provoke contemplation, sorrow, or melancholy, rather

than nostalgia. They bespeak the transience of memory as well as the transience of

human endeavor and conflict.

The ruins of war have provoked reflection for centuries; as early as the second

century B.C. poets elegized the ruins of defeated Corinth."*' hi contrast, the

appreciation of ruins that evolved after the Renaissance in Europe was linked less to

concepts of war and defeat than to attitudes toward the historic past. In the eighteenth

and nineteenth centuries, at the apogee of their popularity, ruins were considered

through both historical and aesthetic lenses: as documents of the classical architectural

forms of the past and as evocative of an emotional or romantic mood. In the

eighteenth century, ruins took on moral significance as well, representing the

transience of life and the vanity of human endeavors. Decay as a metaphor for death

and despair gained sway over the more romantic melancholia popularly evoked earlier.

The changing attitudes toward ruins and decay were evident in art, landscape design,

and literature. Despite the shifting symbolism of ruins, their power to inspire reflection

remained an integral element of their meaning. Thomas Whately suggested, "At the

sight of a ruin, reflections on the change, the decay, and the desolation before us.

^*
Rose Macaulay, Pleasure of Ruins (London; Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1953), 5.
Paul Zucker, "Ruins —
An Aesthetic Hybrid," The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 20, no. 2
(1961): 120.
Stephen Copley and Peter Garside, eds., The Politics of the Picturesque: Literature, Landscape and
Aesthetics Since 1770 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994), 196.

21
naturally occur. .."^^ The popularity of Picturesque and Romantic conceptions of decay

coincided with the advance of industrialism. Wojciech Lesnikowski theorized that the

English appreciation of ruins stemmed from an escapist reaction to the increasing

complexity and dissonance of a society shaped by the hidustrial Revolution. Artists,

travelers, and landscape designers used ruins as vehicles for philosophical and aesthetic

ruminations that carried them beyond the swiftly changing and contradictory modem

world.^°

The societal transformation affecting urban and rural society also influenced

changing conceptions of man's relationship with nature, and the opposing powers of

the manmade and the natural world, hi Europe, popular interest in historic ruins during

this period was accompanied by an interest in landscaped gardens with artificial ruins,

which allowed aristocrats to meditate upon the transience of human endeavor and the

triumph of nature in carefully cultivated gardens. Yet, artificial ruins also reflected a

triumph over nature, since the landscapes "included a controlled expression of nature's

"^'
reclamation of the constructions of man.

Contemporaries in nineteenth-century America also placed ruins within the

context of the triumph of and triumph over nature. Whereas the American sensibility

at the time allowed for an appreciation of natural wonders, which served as evidence of

the passage of geological time and the scope and greatness of the continent, the ruins of

Whately, Observations on Modern Gardening, quoted in Macaulay, Pleasure of Ruins, 29.

'"
Wojciech Lesnikowski, "On Symbolism of Memories and Ruins," Reflections 6 (spring 1989): 68-79.
Michael S. Roth, Claire Lyons, and Charles Merewether, Irresistible Decay Ruins Reclaimed (Los
Angeles: The Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities, 1997), 5.

22
earlier civilizations contributed little to the growing nation's ideals of discovery and

progress. Americans focusing on progress and westward expansion associated decay

with the deterioration of things past. David Lowenthal suggested that nineteenth-

century America's "devotion to recency" allowed little space for the representation of

the past. He quoted a canal builder who expressed the American idyll of progress in

1825:

Did we live amidst ruins and... decay, we might be as little inclined as

others to look forward. But we delight in the promised sunshine of the
future, and leave to those who... have passed their grand climacteric to
'
console themselves with the splendors of the past.

Entranced by the myth of the frontier, Americans at the time were less likely to see

ruins as romantic than as symbolic of decline and Old World moral decay.

By the mid-nineteenth century, debates over the treatment of ancient buildings

escalated in Europe, and theories on the appeal of decay became intertwined with the

issue of restoring buildings and monuments to an earlier state. As monuments of the

classical and medieval past continued to decay, some believed restoring the buildings

to their original condition was possible and necessary, while others considered the

deterioration of buildings to be inevitable and natural. The debate crystallized into two

opposing camps: the restorationists and the anti-restorationists. The most famous

nineteenth-century restorationist was Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet le-Duc, who defined

restoration as follows: "To restore an edifice means neither to maintain it, nor to repair

it, nor to rebuild it; it means to reestablish it in a finished state, which may in fact never

" Lowenthal, Possessed by the Past, 189.

23
have actually existed at any given time."^^ Viollet-le-Duc sought to prescribe and

proscribe which evidence of the past should remain visible, either through

reconstruction or the removal of later additions or alterations. He sought to bridge the

gap between the artists and builders of the past and the present, by denying the

intervening passage of time.

Viollet le-Duc's contemporary, John Ruskin, was vehemently opposed to the

reconstruction of buildings. He believed that decay was the visible manifestation of

the progression of time and nature, and that imposing a contemporary sensibility on

icons of the past destroyed their integrity. He wrote in The Seven Lamps of

Architecture:

Neither by the public, nor by those who have the care of public
monuments, is the meaning of the word restoration understood. It
true
means the most destruction which buildings can suffer: a
total

destruction out of which no remnants can be gathered: a destruction

accompanied with fake description of the thing destroyed. Do not let us
deceive ourselves in this important matter; it is impossible, as
impossible to raise the dead, to restore anything that has ever been great
'^

or beautiful in architecture.

During a period of vociferous debate between restorationists and anti-

restorationists, Ruskin and William Morris led an Anti-Restoration movement.

William Morris's "Principles of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Building"

encouraged the preservation, rather than reconstruction, of ancient monuments:

'^
Nicholas Stanley Price, M. Kirby Talley, Jr., and Alessandra Melucco Vaccaro, Historical and
Philosoplncal Issues in the Conservation of Cultural Heritage (Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation
Institute, 1996), 314.
^''
John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849; reprint, London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1956), 199.

24
 It is for these buildings, therefore, of all times and styles, that we plead,
and call upon those who have to deal with them to put Protection in the
place of Restoration, to stave off decay by daily care, to prop a perilous
wall or mend by such means as are obviously meant for
a leaky roof
support or covering, and show no pretence of other art, and otherwise to
resist all tampering with either the fabric or ornament of the building as
it stands; if it has become inconvenient for its present use, to raise
another building rather than alter or enlarge the old one; in fine to treat
our ancient buildings as monuments of bygone art, created by bygone
manners, that modem art cannot meddle with without destroying."

Although debates over reconstruction and restoration continue today, by the end of the

nineteenth century, the word "restoration" was generally regarded in England as

connoting destruction and falsification.^^

At the beginning of the twentieth century, modernism brought with it an anti-

romantic view of decay and ruins. Alois Riegl, in his 1903 essay "The Modem Cult of

Monuments," acknowledged the viewer's sensory reaction as an integral part of their

experience of aging monuments. However, he posited that as the commemorative

value of monuments gained cultural power in the twentieth century, mins no longer

evoked the "Baroque pathos" of the seventeenth century. Rather, they represented to

the viewer the inevitability of natural law. Physically deteriorated stmctures, which

render visible the passage of time, serve as "catalysts which trigger in the beholder a

sense of the life cycle, of the emergence of the particular from the general and its

gradual but inevitable dissolution back into the general." According to Riegl's theory

of "age-value":

'*
Price, Talley, and Vaccaro, Historical and Philosophical Issues in the Conserx'ation of Cultural
Heritage, 319.
^*
Stephan Tschudi Madsen, Restoration and Anti-Restoration (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1976), 16-17.

25
 Just as monuments pass away according to the workings of natural
law —and it is precisely for this reason that they provide aesthetic
satisfaction to the modem viewer —so preservation should not aim at

stasis but ought to permit the monuments to submit to incessant

transfonnation and steady decay... The cult of age-value condemns not
only every willful destruction of monuments as a desecration of all-
consuming nature but in principle also every effort at conservation, as
restoration is an equally unjustified interference with nature."

Riegl contrasts the commemorative importance of age-value with that of

historical value, which emphasizes the monument's status as an artifact that should be

preserved. Historical value "singles out one moment in the developmental continuum

of the past and places it before our eyes as if it belonged to the present." A third value

defined by Riegl, intentional commemorative value, seeks to preserve the monument

for future generations through restoration.

Riegl' s theory of age-value and the work of nineteenth-century theorists who

also rejected the restoration of monuments as an action incompatible with the natural

evolution of the built environment were significant in the development of conservation

theory in the twentieth century. In 1931, at the International Conference on

Restoration in Athens, the first international conservation protocol emphasized the

importance of acknowledging the passage of time and opposed the concealment of

interventions and restorations. By 1957, Guglielmo De AngeHs d'Ossat concluded:

Today, because of a complex mixture of cultural and spiritual

influences, we approach monuments of every form and of any state of
conservation, with respect, almost with humility; our generation avoids
imposing itsupon these monuments, and more than anything,
ideas
making additions or modifications which could lessen their essence.

^'
Alois Riegl, "The Modem Cult of Monuments," Oppositions 25 (1980): 32.

26
 because we know this would constitute a pretentious act of pride and
^^
ignorance.

Cesare Brandi formulated a theory of restoration that emphasized the

complexity of restoring structures: "Restoration is the methodological moment in

which the work of art is appreciated in its material form and in its historical and

aesthetic duality, with a view to transmitting it to the future." His theory of the

preservation of ruins emphasized simply preserving the status quo, since any other

intervention would return the "ruin" to a unified building, thus undermining its status

as a ruin.^^ The preservation of ruins today is primarily preoccupied with conserving

the fragments as physical evidence of the historical past, however, conservators still

debate varying approaches to preserving or restoring ruins. Caroline Stanford

questioned whether modem-day preservationists are ultimately motivated to preserve

ruins because of their value as cultural artifacts, or by an interest in freezing the

passage of time. She argued that allowing the passage of time to continue to affect the

ruins, which effects the sublime transformation of the viewer described by ruins

watchers for centuries, is being replaced by a preoccupation with preserving the

physical vestiges of the past.'*^ The approach to preserving ruins influences the

viewers' interpretations of the ruins, whether they are presented as historical artifacts

or as evocative mementos of a bygone era, or something in between.

'* The Journal of

Brigitte Desrochers, "Ruins Revisited; Modernist Conceptions of Heritage,"
Architecture 5, no. 1 (spring 2000); 42.
^'
Cesare Brandi, Teoria del restauro, quoted in Price, Talley, and Vaccaro, Historical and Philosophical
Issues in the Conservation of Cultural Heritage, 230, 233.
^°
Caroline Stanford, "On Preserving Our Ruins," Journal of Architectural Conservation 6, no. 3

(November 2000); 28-29.

27
 In the twenty-first century, ruins are less likely to have the romantic

connotations common in earlier eras. Rather, they may serve as reminders of despair,

death, and the transience of human life. Yet ruins and decay still have the power to

provoke reflection and effect the transformation of the viewer. Ruins created through

abandonment and the subsequent invasion of nature are likely interpreted in a different

way from those ruins created by destructive acts of war or natural disaster that leave a

lingering historical memory.

The ruins created by the Second World War have exerted a tremendous

influence on modem conceptions of the link between ruins of war and the preservation

of collective memory. In London, as in some other European cities, ruins created

during foreign bombing campaigns during the war have been allowed to remain

standing because of their symbolic power for the collective memory of those events.

Near the end of the war, the Dean of St. Paul's in London advocated that some of

Britain's bombed churches remain in ruins, to be "regarded as permanent places of

open-air worship, meditation and recreation, as national war memorials of this war and

focal points of picturesque delight in the planned surroundings of the post-war

world.""' The incorporation of ruins as war memorials into an urban planning and

landscaping scheme may seem to de-emphasize the ruined churches' power as lieiix de

memoires, but the proposal's commitment of the ruined churches to multiple civic

purposes may reflect the radical nature of recommending that this non-traditional war

memorial serve as a place of reflection rather than as a celebration of heroes and

"'
W.R. Matthews, "Save Us Our Ruins," Architectural Review 95 (January 1944): 13.

28
battles. Similarly, in Japan in the post-war period, some modem architects

incorporated the concept of ruins into their designs in order to acknowledge the

devastation caused by atomic warfare.

Some of the most dramatic commemorations of the Second World War are the

decayed sites throughout Europe that are now Holocaust memorials. At concentration

camps and train stations, sites of horrific atrocities deteriorated over time. At those

sites that have not opened visitors centers with interpretive guides and programming,

visitors walk unguided through sites whose decay evokes absence and loss. Author

Svetlana Boym described the effect of such a site's decay in a passage worth quoting at

length:

If you come to the Grunewald station and walk all the way to the last
platform, you find the track covered with gravel and weeds and a few
sickly birch trees growing through the rails. There are no trains here,
only iron memorial plaques on the platform with dates and numbers.
They tell you the number of Jews transported to the camps and the exact
dates. The past is stored here in its unredeemable emptiness. It is, in the
words of John Ashbery, a 'return to the point of no return.' This most
striking kind of commemoration is not about building monuments but
about leaving unfunctional spaces, beyond repair and renewal. The
history here is not housed in a museum but open to the elements. In the

Grunewald station the past is not present as a symbol but as another

dimension of existence, as another landscape that haunts our everyday
errands through the city. The gravel and weeds in the abandoned train
tracks provide an antidote to restorative nostalgia. For me, this was the
most powerful memorial to the Holocaust.

The "unredeemable emptiness" of Holocaust sites such as this does not need narrative

interpretation; it is the decayed landscape that evokes the irrevocability of the past.

"^
Riichi Miyake, "The Afterimage of Ruins," Japan Architect 359 (March 1987): 6-9.
*^
Boym, The Future of Nostalgia, 194.

29
 —

The power of this site derives in part from the visitor's impHcit knowledge of the

events being commemorated. Yet it is possible that at historic sites that use decay to

represent the unredeemable events of the past, decay may lose its narrative power as a

symbol of admonition if visitors lack an implicit knowledge of the events

commemorated. For those visitors, the ruins may represent picturesque melancholy

more than an evocation of absence and collective memory and forgetting. At

Auschwitz II-Birkenau, only the bombed ruins of the gas chambers, the gatehouse, and

railway tracks remain at the isolated, marshy site. John Lennon and Malcolm Foley, in

their study of "dark tourism," noted that at the site "the opportunity to reflect without

prescription or direction is offered. Clearly, there is an assumption or expectation from

those who manage the site that visitors' conclusions can move in only one direction

but this is seldom, if ever, stated at the Auschwitz sites."

Assumptions about the narrative power of decay are perhaps most strongly held

at sites of atrocities and horror. But all sites of conscience that have decay as an

element of the site must consider the effect of decay on visitors, and consider visitor

expectations when planning the interpretive narratives of the site. Historians Michael

H. Frisch and Dwight Pitcaithley assessed the visitor reaction to Ellis Island through

this lens of implied narrative, and their assessment is relevant to the three historic sites

discussed in this study. Ellis Island, which processed immigrants and deportees from

1892 until 1954, was abandoned for decades before the National Park Service reopened

John Lennon and Malcolm Foley, Dark Tourism: The Attraction of Death and Disaster (London:
''''

Continuum, 2000), 25.

30
the former immigration center as a historic site in 1976. The intervening years were a

period of neglect and deterioration. Frisch and Pitcaithley visited the site before the

restoration of the immigration building, assessing the degree to which a group touring

the site brought to the famous landmark a pre-existing framework of understanding.

The historians analyzed the tension between an audience invested in one particular

narrative of the site and the interpreter's mandate to present an inclusive history.

Visitors were led on guided tours of some of the derelict buildings on the island,

described by the authors as ruins:

Essentially, Ellis in this 1976-84 period was an unrestored ruin,

encountered in a virtually abandoned state, with rubble on all sides,

weeds growing through the floors, sunlight or rain pouring in the roof in
places, abandoned equipment and random pieces of furniture strewn
about. Little has changed. There are no exhibits, labels, text, or other
indications of the history-viewing present; the sense is that one is

looking at a site that has not much been touched since occupants
departed and operations ceased many years ago, leaving a sort of
institutional ghost town through which visitors are permitted to wander
in silence.

Because there was no interpretive programming on the site during this period,

the visitors were guided only by the interpretive dialogue of the tour guide, who led the

group through a story of immigrants being processed at the immigration center. The

interpretive tools evident during the historic tour were "the narrator's description of

anecdotal experience, the ghostly image of the now-empty spaces, and the audience's

imagination." Some visitors found this formulation of the tour so evocative that they

*'
Michael H. Frisch and Dwight Pitcaithley, "Audience Expectations as Resource and Challenge: Ellis
Island as Case Study," in Past Meets Present: Essays About Historic Interpretation and Public
Audiences, ed. Jo Blatti (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987), 161.

31
regretted that the restoration of the buildings would preclude future opportunities to

tour the site as a ruin. Frisch and Pitcaithley noted that the simplification of Ellis

Island's complex history eliminated mention of those elements that did not fit

comfortably within most visitors' preconceived ideas of the story of the site. The guide

focused on the immigrant experience, and did not mention the site's subsequent use as

a detention center for deportees during the Red Scare. The guide's interpretation relied

upon the assumption that the audience possessed a certain body of knowledge, and

^
expanded imaginatively upon, but did not challenge, this pre-existing fi-amework.

Visitors to Ellis Island during its period of ruin, like visitors to all decayed sites

of complicated and contentious history, bring with them their own knowledge of the

past. Their visceral or intellectual reaction to the decay of the site is shaped by this

pre-existing conception of the place as well as by the narrative power of the silent

ruins. At the three sites that are the subject of this study, the state of ruin may help or

hinder the visitors' ability to imagine the events that took place and the people who

inhabited the sites. Some of the sites have been partially restored in order to more

effecfively communicate the historical narrative. Each site's negofiafion of the balance

between allowing the decay to serve as an element of theatre in the interpretation of the

site and the programmatic need to facilitate visitor understanding through the re-

creation of certain aspects of the past will be discussed in the chapters that follow.

The three sites examined in this study were neglected through absence; they

were not built as memorials, and were never intended to serve as reminders of the past.

Ibid., 153-165.

32
Recent interventions, including the selective absence of intervention, have created their

commemorative power as part of a shared cultural heritage. The transformative power

of ruins, so important to the romantic sensibility of the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries, has been translated in these sites into a different kind of transformation.

These sites may encourage reflection on the transience of life and human effort, just as

ruins inspired in the past. But these ruins may also invite the visitor to reflect further

on the gap between the past and the present, and on the period of abandonment during

which the sites and the people who inhabited them were not commemorated. Edward

Linenthal's ideal of the "civic transformation" of visitors to memorial sites could be

effected by the powerful intersection of the reflection sparked by ruins and the

collective memories and implied narratives visitors bring to the sites. Whether the

ruins become vehicles for bringing the past into the present, or ultimately disengage the

visitor from the history presented at the sites, and how the visitors' perceptions of the

authenticity of the sites is influenced by the state of decay are questions that will be

addressed in the next three chapters, which focus on the commemorative value of

decay at Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site, the Lower East Side Tenement

Museum, and Manzanar National Historic Site.

33
Chapter Four: Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site

The fortress-like walls of Philadelphia's Eastern State Penitentiary, once a

nineteenth-century symbol of authority, now contain the crumbling

remains of a complex of nineteenth- and twentieth-century buildings in the process of

ruin. The prison was built in 1829 to isolate criminals; today, it is open to the public,

and the alienation, solitude, and confinement experienced by prisoners at Eastern State

Penitentiary from 1829 to 1971 are interpreted through multiple media. The managers

of the historic site encourage visitors to link the past to present-day issues, and examine

prison reform through a historical lens, through historical exhibits and site-specific art

installations that bring contemporary issues into the prison. The Board of Directors of

Eastern State Penitentiary stated the site's mission as follows:

Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site, Inc. works to preserve and

restore the architecture of Eastern State Penitentiary; to make the
Penitentiary accessible to the public; to explain and interpret its

complex history; to place current issues of corrections and justice in an

historical fi-amework; and to provide a public forum where these issues
are discussed. While the interpretive program advocates no specific
position on the state of the American justice system, the program is built
on the belief that the problems facing Eastern State Penitentiary's
architects have not yet been solved, and that the issues these early prison
reformers addressed remain of central importance to our nation.

Making the site a locus of reform is in keeping with the site's historic origins.

Built in 1 829, Eastern State Penitentiary was a radical experiment in the reformation of

eighteenth-century penal systems. In 1787, Quakers created the Philadelphia Society

for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons (now called the Pennsylvania Prison

Society —which initially collaborated with the historic site managers on programming).

34
These philanthropists sought to replace the prison system in use at the Walnut Street

Prison, which housed criminals together regardless of the nature of their crime, with a

system of solitary confinement accompanied by labor and moral and secular

instruction. After several years of debate, authorizing legislation for the creation of

Eastern State Penitentiary passed on March 20, 1821.

Architect John Haviland (1792-1852) was commissioned to create an

innovative interior design suitable for the Quakers' reformist ideals. Eastern State

Penitentiary's Building Commissioners stated the desired effect of the prison design:

Good design is to produce, by means of sufferings principally acting on

the mind and accompanied with moral and religious instruction, a

disposition to virtuous conduct, the only sure preventive of crime; and

where this beneficial effect does not follow, to impress so great a dread
and terror, as to deter the offender from the commission of crime in the
•
48
State where the system of solitary confinement exists.

Haviland's plan of seven cellblock wings radiating from a central rotunda and

observation tower allowed for the surveillance of guards as well as prisoners (see

Figure 1). His design of individual cells with adjacent enclosed exercise yards ensured

that prisoners made no visual or auditory contact with each other. The first three

cellblocks constructed had no doors connecting the cells to the corridors; instead a

small opening was made in the wall, through which guards passed food and work

supplies. Prisoners entered their cells through the doors that led to the exercise yards.

"'
This chapter's discussion of the early history of Eastern State Penitentiary draws extensively on
Norman Johnston, Kenneth Finkel and Jeffrey A. Cohen's excellent and exhaustive history of Eastern
State Penitentiary; Crucible of Good Intentions (Philadelphia; Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1994).
"*
Report and Documents, on the Penal Code, from the President and Commissioners Appointed
Letter.
to Superintend the Erection of the Eastern Penitentiary. Adapted and Modeled to the System of
Solitary

Confinement (Hamsburg, PA: S.C. Stambaugh, 1828), 13, quoted in: Johnston, Finkel, and Cohen,
Crucible of Good Intentions, 32.

35
Although this awkward system was later altered to allow for entry from the corridor,

and subsequent cellblocks were built with doors to the corridor as well as the exercise

yard, the original design conveys the stark isolation the prison was designed to enforce.

Skylights, called the "eyes of God" by some guards, lit the cells from above, while an

innovative plumbing and heating system was connected to each cell. \n subsequent

years, as the prison population grew, several cellblocks and outbuildings were added to

the prison complex.

While the radical Quaker reform agenda was reflected in Haviland's innovative

interior design, the castellated Gothic exterior of Eastern State Penitentiary was typical

of contemporary British prisons, employing fortress-like towers and thick, thirty-foot

high walls to create an imposing fa9ade that conveyed authority to citizens outside its

walls as well as to the prisoners within. The Building Commissioners of Eastern State

Penitentiary noted:

The exterior of a solitary prison should exhibit as much as possible great

strength and convey to themind a cheerless blank indicative of the

misery which awaits the unhappy being who enters within its walls.

Within the prison, the inmates were required to follow strictly enforced rules,

which included cleanliness, silence, industriousness, and the mandatory observation of

the Sabbath.^' The prisoners were encouraged to look within themselves; their

isolation was not intended to be a passive confinement, but rather a deprivation that led

" Johnston, Finkel, and Cohen, Crucible of Good Intentions, 43.

'"
Norman Johnston, Forms of Constraint: A History of Prison Architecture (Urbana: University of
lOinois Press, 2000), 85; Johnston, Finkel, and Cohen, Crucible of Good Intentions, 36.
*'
Richard Vaux, Brief Sketch of the Origin and History of the State Penitentiary for the Eastern District
of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia (Philadelphia: McLaughlin Brothers, Printers, 1872), 100.

36
to religious and civic transformation and transcendence. Whenever led to or from their

cells, prisoners wore hoods to ensure they made no visual contact with either captors or

other captives and did not gain any familiarity with the layout of the prison. In order

to maintain complete silence in the wards and detect any efforts at communication

between the prisoners, guards wore socks over their shoes and muffled the wheels of

^^
the food carts.

Labor was mandatory at Eastern State; prisoners worked at shoemaking and

other crafts within the solitude of their cells. Any inmate who refused to work faced

punishment or the deprivation of privileges. Although Eastern State did not use

corporal punishment, the use of restraint was accepted as part of the exertion of control

over prisoners who violated the prison rules. The iron gag, a device that restrained a

prisoner's hands and legs by an iron chain connected to an iron bar placed in the

mouth, killed one inmate at Eastern State in the early nineteenth century. The

restraining chair and straightjacket operated on the same principles: by confining

movement and using restrictive and uncomfortable coercion, the irmiate would avoid

future punishment by not repeating the infraction. Although these restraints were not

considered by prison administrators to be corporal punishment, their use ended after an

^^
1834 investigation publicized the abuse.

The prison's imposing design and controversial system of confinement drew

thousands of tourists, emissaries from foreign countries, and scholars who visited

" Johnston, Finkel, and Cohen, Crucible of Good Intentions, 49.

" Ibid., 60-64.

37
Eastern State Penitentiary to compare the Pennsylvania system of solitary confinement

with its philosophical competitor: the Auburn system, which differed from the former

in allowing communal meals and labor and the use of corporal punishment. To some

visitors, Eastern State represented a radical reform effort; to others it was a cruel

experiment. Despite Eastern State Penitentiary's promise as a system of rehabilitation

and redemption, the institution was criticized for the punitive nature of its complete

isolation of prisoners. Although Eastern State Penitentiary's system was controversial

fi-om its inception, its design was adopted by prison planners in the United States and

abroad, making Eastern State Penitentiary the "most widely copied prison in history."

Built in response to a movement to reform the existing incarceration system in

Philadelphia, Eastern State Penitentiary became obsolete when those conceptions

changed again. By 1900, the increased population of prison inmates made separate

confinement in Eastern State a logistical impossibility, undermining the mission of the

prison's Quaker founders. By the 1930s, the penitentiary "was no longer a monument

to the promise of rehabilitation. It had become a fatalistic part of the correctional

bureaucracy, a warehouse for the state's toughest convicts. Little of the founders'

optimism about human nature or the philanthropic tenor of its original governance

survived."^^

Considered by many to be a failed experiment, the prison closed in 1971 .

With

no systematic maintenance, the site deteriorated rapidly. Decaying and collapsed roofs

'*
Norman Johnston, "John Haviland, Jailor to the World," Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians 23, no. 2 (May 1964): 101.
" Johnston, Finkel, and Cohen, Crucible of Good Intentions, 81-82.

38
contributed to the collapse of some exterior cell walls. Trees grew into some cells and

the former exercise yards, and interior plaster walls crumbled (see Figure 2). The

thirty-foot high walls protected the buildings from trespassers, but not from the

encroachment of nature.

Although the site was not maintained during this period of abandonment, the

historic significance of the site was not in question. As early as 1942, three prominent

criminologists asserted:

hi penological history, the Eastern Penitentiary is as important as

Independence Hall in our political history. But it is high time to
recognize that value and virtues are, today, exclusively historic...
its

Part of the present Eastern Penitentiary, especially a couple of the best

preserved of the original wings or cell blocks, could well be retained as
a national penological museum.

The site was designated a historic site by the City of Philadelphia in 1958, was

added to the Register of National Historic Landmarks in 1965, and was placed on the

State Register of Historic Places in 1970.

Despite the local, state, and federal recognition of the site's significance, the

feasibility of its preservation was uncertain. In 1977, the City of Philadelphia took title

to the prison, and by 1984 transferred the property to the Redevelopment Authority to

solicit adaptive use proposals for residential and commercial use. All the

redevelopment plans submitted proposed demolishing most of the site, or making

'*
Harry Elmer Barnes, Negley K. Teeters, and A.G. Eraser, Report on Penal and Correctional
Institutions and Correctional Policy in the State of Pennsylvania (State College: Pennsylvania State
College, 1944), 10, quoted in Johnston, Finkel, and Cohen, Crucible of Good Intentions, 94.
" Julie Courtney and Todd Gilens, Prison Sentences: The Prison as Site/ The Prison as Subject
(Philadelphia: Moore College of Art and Design, 1995), 19.

39
radical alterations to the buildings to accommodate new construction. However, the

prison's historic status and its advanced decay contributed to the perception that a

commercial adaptive use would not be feasible. In response to the threatened

demolition of some of the site, local residents, planners, and historians created the

Eastern State Penitentiary Task Force, which advocated an approach sensitive to the

preservation of the site, and sought to open the site to the public.'*^ Today, despite the

absence of heat, running water, or electricity, the site is open to visitors who explore

the decayed hallways, take historic tours, view historical exhibits and art installations,

or experience "Terror Behind the Walls," an annual haunted prison tour that has

become the prison's primary source of operating revenue.

The contemporary use of Eastern State Penitentiary for historic tours, art

exhibits, and the annual Halloween tour has transformed the prison into a stage for

various spectacles. Because the site has been irrevocably altered by decay, the twenty-

first century audience perceives the architectural spaces in a different way from the

nineteenth-century tourists or prison administrators who once stood in their place.

Nineteenth-century visitors may have sought to satisfy their curiosity by crossing the

boundaries of the site's high walls, knowing they were free to leave at will. Today,

visitors' perceptions of the echoing, unoccupied radial wings and cells are mediated by

the incorporation of art, theatre, and historical analysis into those spaces.

^*
Milton Marks, "Eastern State Penitentiary: Community vs. Preservation," Historic Presen'ation
Forum 7, no. 5 (1992): 50-52.

40
 The decayed site blurs together the different eras of incarceration, and in an

unmediated visit to the prison, the decay itself becomes the primary point of interest.

Executive Director Sally Elk noted that the decay is relevant to the interpretation of the

site in that the decay "points to the notion that ideas once embraced as noble can then

be abandoned."^'' However, the prison's decay can evoke the abandonment of ideals,

the failure of reforms, and the marginalization of the people who were the subject of

this "holy experiment" only through interpretation, since most visitors do not bring

with them an awareness of this implied narrative. Before gaining an understanding of

the prison's historical context, most tourists are drawn to the site because of its

deteriorating state and its image as abandoned and haunted. The romantic decay of the

prison is encapsulated in the language of the historic site's promotional brochure:

"Behind the massive, castle-like walls of an abandoned prison in Philadelphia, stands a

lost world of crumbling cellblocks and empty guard towers." The characterization of

the prison as a lost world reinforces visitors' conceptions of the site as a romantic ruin,

as does the evocation of the site as "castle-like." Perceptions of the prison as a

forbidding landscape of authority are tempered by its abandoned state, although the

effect of the architecture on passers-by may have changed little since George W.

Smith's 1833 observation:

The design and execution impart a grave, severe, and awful character to
the external aspect of this building. The effect which it produces on the
imagination of every passing spectator, is peculiarly impressive, solemn,
and instructive.... This Penitentiary is the only edifice in this country

''
Sally Elk, Executive Director, Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site, interview by author, 29 January

2002.

41
 which is calculated to convey to our citizens the external appearance of
those magnificent and picturesque castles of the middle ages, which
contribute so eminently to embellish the scenery of Europe.

The nineteenth-century conception of ruins posited an encounter with a ruin as

a solitary experience that prompted reflection on the transience of life and the

inevitable reclamation by nature of all things created by humans. Today, the ruins of

Eastern State Penitentiary offer to some visitors a visual experience that provokes

reflection. Contemporary artist Eileen Neff contemplates the "hard facts and strange

beauty" evoked by the ruined prison:

Ailanthus and paulownia have made their way through the

trees
weakened walls as if to reclaim what was always theirs.... We feel, in
the presence of this site, how the wild advance of nature moves us,
draws its destruction and regeneration to an aesthetic height and reveals,
as an artist would, some inexorable truth.

Just as artists in the nineteenth century were inspired by images of ruins, so

today Eastern State Penitentiary's contrasting decay and regeneration and evocation of

absence and isolation have inspired artists to create site-specific art installations that

explore the prison as a setting within which to explore the past and present of the site.

In the 1995 exhibit "Prison Sentences," artists used Eastern State Penitentiary as the

setting for diverse installations that "challenge the conventions of historical

presentation and analysis" and ask how objects and places are imbued with history.

The contemporary mission of the historic site was reflected in many of the exhibits.

''"
George Washington Smith, A Defense of the System of Solitary Confinement of Prisoners
(Philadelphia, 1833), 21, quoted in Negley Teeters, They Were in Prison: A History of the Pennsylvania
Prison Society, /757-7Pi7 (Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company, 1937), 179.
*'
Courtney and Gilens, Prison Sentences, 22.

42
which explored concepts of aUenation, soHtude, and confinement. Art critic Lucy

Lippard noted that art in the context of the prison "can reflect on the social meaning of

constriction, freedom, violence, and claustrophobia."^" The crumbling cells, some with

bed frames and benches still in place, bespeak a terrible isolation and sensory

deprivation.

Many artists have used the cell skylights as an evocative focal point. As

symbols of hope, sources of "divine light," and a reminder of the passage of time and

the constraints on an inmate's freedom, the skylights remain an evocative icon amidst

the crumbling cells. In his 2000 exhibit "Daylights," artist Richard Torchia installed

camera obscuras in the skylights of cells in Cellblock Two. Torchia's exhibit recalls

the past for the visitor, since the projections of the camera obscuras evoke the absent

prisoners evoked as both subjects and objects. While the decayed state of the cells

calls attention to the time that has passed since the cells were occupied, the reliance of

Torchia's exhibit on the cycles of sunlight passing through the camera obscuras at

different angles evokes the repetitive cycle of days passed within confinement.

Visitors view the images projected by the camera obscuras on cell walls and

floors as if viewing individual works of art framed by the cell door. The art installafion

thus places the absent prisoners on the stage, with the art-viewer as the audience. Yet

the projection of images from outside, such as the sky, passing clouds, or trees in the

prison yard, into the cell also allows visitors to imagine a prisoner's perspective.

Torchia's installation allows the visitor to gaze into the cell upon a silent, decayed

"ibid., 4, 19.

43
tableau of the present while simultaneously imagining the outward gaze of the absent

prisoner. This experience is especially felt in those cells in which the visitor is

required to step inside the cell in order to see the projection on the entry wall. Torchia

evokes the gaze of authority in the cell exhibit entitled "(Watching) The Watchtower."

In this cell, the camera obscura projects an image of the guard-tower onto the vaulted

ceiling of the cell. As the title suggests, the visitor, occupying the space of the inmate,

watches the watchtower, the image of which evokes the gaze of the watching guards,

who are no longer present. The artist described the installation as an experience that

complicates the senses:

Images of the sunlit camera obscura are characterized

world seen in the

by a paradoxical detachment and vitality. These spectral pictures

unravel the associative fabric of the senses. The sight of waving
foliage, for example, is experienced without the accompanying touch or
the sound of the wind. The projections may also elicit a sense of
innocent expectation — a hypothetical antidote to the 'hell of
anticipation' associated with incarceration. By giving the appearance
that what is being depicted has physically entered the cells, the
simplistic prison dynamic of 'inside/outside' is rendered more complex,
more subjective.^

Whereas Richard Torchia called attention to the associative disjunction that

occurs when viewing images absent any accompanying sound, the art exhibit installed

in an adjacent cellblock broke the stillness of the prison with sound recordings and

laser images. Artist Ilan Sandler, in his 2001 multi-media work "Arrest," explored the

impact of the unsolved murder of his sister upon his family. One cell was filled with

sounds recorded at the site where her body was found: the dull hum of traffic, an

" Richard Torchia, "Daylights: Camera Obscura Projections and Other Interventions at Eastern State
Penitentiary" (2001).

44
occasional bird. In the next cell, the voices of his parents talking about his sister

emerged from the dark room. Sandler's art installation brought inside the walls of the

prison the victims of crime, people who have an enduring and unseen connection to the

criminal convicts who changed their lives. In this exhibit, the prison setting evoked the

isolation and solitude of people outside the prison walls, who were represented only by

disembodied voices and the evocation of absence and loss.

Artists Ilan Sandler and Richard Torchia explored concepts of alienation,

violence, and solitude, using Eastern State Penitentiary as both a setting and as a

component of their artwork. Lucy Lippard noted: "Artists can raise historical specters,

reinstate and criticize reality, and educate through visual seduction a public that would

not sit still for a history lesson."^'^ While the visual stimulation of the art exhibits may

make history lessons more palatable, the site is also developing an auditory interpretive

tool that will be incorporated into the prison's historic tours. Beginning in 2003,

Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site will offer audio tours, based on the award-

winning audio tour in use at Alcatraz, that use the voices of former inmates and staff to

allow visitors to imagine the site as it was when fully occupied by thousands of inmates

and guards. Although the audio tours will break the quiet that evokes the enforced

silence and isolation of the prison's early years, they will likely allow visitors a better

understanding of the history of the site by collapsing the time and distance between the

listener and the former inhabitants of the site.

^ Courtney and Gilens, Prison Sentences, 17.

45
 The extensive interpretive program currently in place at the site seeks to close

the distance between the past and the present by placing current issues within the

context of historic events. The prison museum exhibits a collection of found and

donated objects, including photographs, weapons fashioned by prisoners, and personal

items. Curators display the artifacts in order to "bridge the gap between the empty

prison and the social history that led to its construction and guided its operation."

Recent historic exhibits include "ALONE: Use of Solitary Confinement in American

Prisons, 1790 to Present," an exhibit that explored the similarities between nineteenth-

century isolation prisons and modem "Super-max" prisons. An exhibit entitled

"Strangers in Our Midst: Race, Ethnicity and hicarceration" examined attitudes toward

different ethnic groups as immigration trends changed the composition of Eastern State

Penitentiary, and analyzed the diverse ethnic and racial populations in prisons in the

1990s.

Whereas contemplative and provocative art and historical exhibits play a

significant role in fulfilling the site's mission, the site also offers ahistorical

interpretive programs that take advantage of the abandoned prison's imposing Gothic

fa9ade and decay. The annual haunted prison tour, "Terror Behind the Walls," takes

advantage of the eeriness of the site's image as a nineteenth-century Gothic ruin, but

unlike the historic tours and art installations, the theatrical staging of a "haunted

prison" is motivated primarily by financial considerations. Begun on a small scale in

1995, the tour grew when its financial potential became obvious. It is now the site's

*'
Elk, interview.

46
largest fundraiser, and revenues allowed the site to increase its staff from one to three

full-time employees.

The terrors experienced by visitors to "Terror Behind the Walls" are not evoked

by the imagined lives of former inmates, rather the spectacle exploits the sense of

transgression visitors feel when entering the walls of the prison. The tour exploits the

decay and an exaggerated version of the prison's history in order to elicit fear. Its

organizers turn the prison into a dark stage set, taking advantage of the spookiness of

the darkness and decay of the massive spaces. The Halloween tour is not intended to

present a picture of historical reality; rather it uses spectacle and staged theatre to

increase attendance at the site.

The haunted prison involves costumed actors portraying gory ghosts of dead

inmates and guards. The introduction to the "haunted" prison mimics a prisoner's

orientation, which is followed by the visitors being pushed through narrow hallways,

sometimes simply walking through cellblocks, at other times walking through spaces

constructed within the prison. One such space is the "Insane Asylum," a dark gallery

in which temporary walls make navigation through the hall difficult. Interpretive staff

dressed as ghosts of prisoners act "insane" and accost and threaten visitors. Although

the presence of mentally ill prisoners is a part of the history of Eastern State

Penitentiary, the Halloween tour fabricates a myth of insane criminals that has more to

do with contemporary horror films than the history of the prison that serves as the

spectacle's setting. In the nineteenth century, before overpopulation led to the sharing

^ Ibid.

47
of cells, critics accused that the prison's system of solitary confinement caused mental

instability in some prisoners. Disputing the idea that isolation led to insanity, prison

administrators usually claimed that any prisoners who exhibited symptoms of insanity

had already been suffering from mental illness before admission.

After walking through the "Insane Asylum," visitors encounter a platform

holding a legless, armless, eviscerated man who engages the crowd waiting for

admission to the next gallery. This "medical experiment" gone awry is an exaggeration

for dramatic effect of the fact that prisoners at Eastern State Penitentiary were paid

small sums of money to voluntarily participate in medical experiments. The prisoners

were often oblivious to the nature and consequences of the experiments, and were

sometimes enlisted to help administer the experiments as well. However, the

gruesome victim of experimentation that greets visitors at this stage of the Halloween

tour is more a standard haunted house character than a symbol of the abuse of

prisoners.

The organizers of the Halloween tour take measures to ensure that this use of

the prison site for entertainment and fundraising does not affect the integrity of the

site's physical fabric. Executive Director Sally Elk stated:

Neither the high flow of traffic nor the theatric installation affects the
historic fabric of the building. The Halloween installations are not

attached to the building. As far as the route, people walk on the stone

* Were
Teeters, They in Prison, 246.
*^
See generally, Alan Homblum, Acres of Skin: Human Experiments at Holmesburg Prison: A Story of
Abuse and Exploitation in the Name of Medical Science (New York: Routledge, 1998).

48
 floors of the prison cellblocks, or on plywood floors build for the

tours.""

Thus, the tour does not conflict with the Code of Ethics of the American

Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, which focuses on the

preservation of physical fabric rather than attempting to codify historic integrity or

authenticity.™ Although the use of Eastern State Penitentiary for this type of spectacle

does not cause significant damage to historic fabric, it does undermine the public's

understanding of the history of the prison, and may encourage visitors to the

Halloween tour to focus on exaggerated myths of the criminally insane predator,

shocking medical experiments, and sadistic guards, that have some basis in truth but

are grossly exaggerated.

Similarly, there is no assertion of authenticity in the annual Bastille Day event

sponsored by Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site. The Bastille Day street festival

features French food and people dressed as French revolutionaries who storm the fi-ont

gate of the prison carrying muskets and singing "La Marseillaise," while a woman

dressed as Marie Antoinette throws packaged cakes to the crowd. Recently, however,

the site has begun to scale back on the Bastille Day celebrations since the Halloween

tour consumes significant resources and staff time.

Elk, interview.
™ See The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, Directoiy: The American
Consen-ation of Historic and Artistic iVorks 1997 (Washington, DC: 1997), 24-31.
Institute for
" Judith H. Dobrzynski, "For a Summer Getaway, a Model Prison," New York Times, 1 1 July 1997.
'^
Elk, interview.

49
 Visitors to Terror Behind the Walls and the Bastille Day event seek neither an

authentic experience nor a history lesson; they seek to be entertained. The museum's

administrators do not claim that the purpose of these tours is to provoke thoughtful

reflection on the role of prisons in society; rather, the Halloween tour raises funds that

are used toward overhead and the creation of the historical exhibits and art

installations.

The question of how to achieve a balance between education and entertairmient

is being negotiated at sites similar to Eastern State Penitentiary as prison sites become

increasingly popular tourist attractions. Infamous nineteenth-century penal colonies

and prisons like Alcatraz, Devil's Island in French Guiana, and Robben Island near

Cape Town, all abandoned, are now open to the public. Historians Tunbridge and

Ashworth note that the interpretation of these prisons as historic sites is only possible

because they are no longer viewed as part of the present, or through the lens of human

suffering:

...the passing of time may remove much of the horror, leaving only a
compelling story from a distant past to be related as entertainment....
The elapse of time may not only soften the events themselves but aher
the responses of visitors who are no longer personally involved in the

events being viewed. ...

Linking the past to the present at sites such is these is particularly challenging.

Although prisoners were still housed at Eastern State Penitentiary as recently as 1971,

the crumbling nineteenth-century architecture of the buildings evokes an earlier era and

perhaps distances the viewer from a sense of connection to recent history.

Tunbridge and Ashworth, Dissonant Heritage, 114-115.

50
Nonetheless, the use of historic exhibits and art installations do much to link the history

of the prison to contemporary issues, fulfilling the historic site's mission to provide a

public forum for civic dialogue on issues of corrections and justice. While the decay of

the echoing cellblocks contributes to the theatrical interpretation of the space, the

solitude and silence of the abandoned prison also create a contemplative space that

likely evokes for visitors some insight into imprisonment past and present.

51
Chapter Five: The Lower East Side Tenement Museum

Historian Carl Becker said, "The actual past is gone; and the world of

history is an intangible world, recreated imaginatively... The event

itself, the facts, do not say anything, do not impose any meaning. It is the historian

who speaks, who imposes a meaning."^'* At the Lower East Side Tenement Museum in

New York City, historians, curators, and tour guides imaginatively recreate the daily

life of nineteenth- and twentieth-century tenement dwellers. Although the recreation is

largely fictitious, it is based on historical sources and serves the purpose of bringing the

past to life in order to help visitors connect the past to the present.

Focusing on social and economic issues that continue to affect immigrants

today, the Lower East Side Tenement Museum is one of the few historic sites in the

United States where the concept for the museum predated the determination of the built

site where that concept would be implemented. The museum's founder and president,

Ruth Abram, sought to establish a museum that would tell the untold stories of

nineteenth- and twentieth-century immigrants, "urban pioneers," in a Lower East Side

tenement house that represented the "urban log cabin." Abram 's efforts reflected a

desire to implement both a historic and a contemporary mission by bringing museum

visitors into contact with an important part of their nation's past and present:

I hoped that through this confrontation with revered ancestors,

Americans could be moved to participate in a national conversation on
similarly situated contemporary immigrants. I further hoped that
Americans might realize that those strangers have more in common than
not with the forebears they admire. For those newly arrived, I hoped to

'"
Carl Becker, quoted in Michael A. Tomlan, ed., Preservation of What, For Whom? A Critical Look at
Historical Significance (Ithaca: The National Council for Preservation Education, 1997), 89.

52
 offer the comfort which comes from the knowledge that as immigrants
"

they are part of a vital American tradition.

Ruth Abram intended the new museum to stand as a "vibrant beacon for

tolerance."^^ hi 1985, Abram and curator Anita Jacobson began to search for a suitable

tenement to house the museum. Their hunt ended in 1988, when the storefront at 97

Orchard Street on Manhattan's Lower East Side became available for rent. The

tenement building had twenty apartments, all vacated in 1935 when stricter housing

codes prompted the landlord to evict tenants and close the residential portion of the

building. The Lower East Side Tenement Museum moved into the building's

storefront in March 1988, and opened a few months later to begin serving its mission

of "honoring the trials and triumphs of poor and unheralded families." In 1992, 97

Orchard Street was added to the National Register of Historic Places, hi 1998, the

museum was designated an "affiliated area" of the National Park Service, linking it to

other local sites commemorating immigration, including Ellis Island and the Statue of

Liberty.^^ Today, the building is a National Historic Landmark, visited by more than

90,000 visitors each year.

At the time of its founding, the museum intended to use fictional narratives and

object-based exhibits to illustrate the tenement experience. However, the museum

ultimately decided to present the stories of the former inhabitants of 97 Orchard Street

''
Abram, "Planting Cut Flowers," 6.
'*
Lower East Side Tenement Museum, A Tenement Stoiy: The History of 97 Orchard Street and the
Lower East Side Tenement Museum (New York: Lower East Side Tenement Museum, 1999), 9.
"ibid,, 5, 12.

'^Ibid., 18.

53
rather than a composite of tenement dwellers. Museum researchers used census

material, court and voter records, oral histories, and archaeological research to learn

about the lives of former residents. Research revealed that nearly 7,000 people from

more than twenty countries lived at 97 Orchard Street between 1863 and 1935. In

order to give a broad overview of the historical patterns of the neighborhood, the

museum chose to tell stories through period room installations that illustrated the lives

of tenants with diverse religions and national origins who had lived in the building

during different periods of its history. ^° Curator Steve Long noted the importance of

the museum's diachronic presentation of the building's history:

When we were first getting started there was a lot of concern about not
restoring the building all to a particular moment. Because what's so
amazing about this as a preservation project is the building is all about
change. The family groups who lived in the building changed, and the
law changed, leading to forced alterations in the structure of the
building and how it was used. If we had just picked 1863 and restored
the building to the date when its doors opened, we would have missed
out on all that change.^'

The building's physical structure reflects the evolution of the New York City housing

code. The Tenement House Act of 1901 mandated increased ventilation, light, and

plumbing facilities in hallways and apartments. Alterations in 97 Orchard Street

included the opening of an airshaft, the addition of two toilets in the halls on each

floor, and interior windows to allow light into back rooms in each apartment. The

1929 Multiple Dwellings Law required additional upgrades in tenement buildings.

Lower East Side Tenement Museum, A Tenement Story, 9, 15.

'°
Abram, "Planting Cut Flowers," 6.
^'
Steve Long, Curator, Lower East Side Tenement Museum, interview by author, 27 February 2002.

54
 L

including improved ventilation, fire-proofing, and additional toilets, that were too

costly for many landlords, who evicted their tenants and closed their buildings. As a

consequence of the landlord's inability or unwillingness to comply with the new law,

97 Orchard Street was closed in 1935.

In 1993, in preparation for the re-creation of nineteenth- and early twentieth-

century tenement apartments in the building, site managers stabilized the first floor; the

second floor was stabilized in 1997. The site managers planned to leave two

apartments in a state of ruin, and restore two apartments on each floor. They decided

to leave the entry hall and the hallways on each floor largely as found, since there was

insufficient physical evidence of the original fabric and no clear period of significance

to direct the restoration.^^ Although the halls were not restored, one of the two

decorative wall paintings in the entry hall was cleaned, while the other was left

obscured by layers of soot and dust. The contrast between the two paintings allows

visitors to glimpse the transformation over time of decorative detail added to the

building after the installation of gas lighting at the turn of the century.

Currently, the first floor features the recreated apartment of the Gumpertz

family, immigrants fi-om Germany, as it may have appeared in 1878. Other apartments

include the Rogarshevsky family. Eastern European Jews who moved into the building

in 1910; the Confinos, Sephardic Jews fi-om Turkey who lived in the building between

1913 and 1916; and the Baldizzi family from Sicily, who lived in the tenement from

*^
Lower East Side Tenement Museum, A Tenement Story, 36-37, 28.
" Steve Long, Curator, Lower East Side Tenement Museum, conversation with author, 28 June 200

55
the late 1920s until 1935 when the building closed. The most recently recreated

apartment represents the home of the Levine family, who lived in the building at the

turn of the twentieth century and operated a garment factory in their home.

The curators of the museum set aside one apartment, which they labeled the

"ruins apartment," as a self-consciously uninterpreted space (see Figure 3). Because

the building fell into a neglected state while it was still inhabited, some parts of 97

Orchard Street began the process of ruin even while the building was still occupied.

However, the "ruins apartment" does not represent conditions as tenants experienced

them. Rather, the apartment serves as a negative space, an empty stage that allows

docents to show visitors what the apartments in the building looked like before they

were restored by the museum. In the ruins apartment, visitors encounter the building in

the same way it was initially experienced by curator Anita Jacobson in 1988.

Describing her first walk through the empty building, Jacobson recalled, "It was as

though people had just picked up and left. It was like a little time capsule." In order

to preserve the decay that has occurred since the building's abandonment in 1935,

curators pin peeling wallpaper to the wall to prevent it from falling off This visible

intervention is evidence of the present-day use of the room, and reminds the visitor that

the ruins apartment is neither exactly as it was in 1935, when it was abandoned, nor as

it was in 1988, when it was re-opened by the museum. Rather, the apartment is an

amalgam of its past and present uses, and plays a part in telling the story of the creation

of the museum as well as the story of the history of 97 Orchard Street. One museum

Lower East Side Tenement Museum, A Tenement Story, 12.

56
docent noted that the niin "serves as a reminder of the condition we found this place

in... the blank canvas we had to work with. Here, you can see the various layers of

human history."

The museum's decision to leave the ruins apartment vacant was based in part

on an interest in showing the physical layers of change in the building as reflective of

the changing inhabitants and uses. Curator Steve Long recalled the concern of some

historians that by restoring the building to specific periods the museum would erase the

evidence that the building had been closed due to housing reforms, and eliminate the

period of abandonment from the building's history. Long stated:

We wanted do both, on the one hand, to leave some rooms in a state

to

of ruin, but on the other hand, to give visitors a sense of what these
homes may have looked like, or at least our best guess of what they
looked like based on our research. Leaving part of the building in a
state of ruin lets the visitors understand there is change over time; and
that these spaces are monuments.

The image of the ruin can evoke for some the image of what once was, before

the destructive effects of time altered the structure. M.W. Thompson stated that ruins

appeal to us because they "stimulate our imagination and reconstruct in our mind's eye

the structure in its original state."^^ Guides in the Tenement Museum offer visitors a

glimpse of the ruin, stimulating their imaginations, and then complete the image of the

past hinted at in the ruin by leading visitors to rooms in which the ruined dwelling has

been restored to an "original" state. The ruins apartment serves as negative space.

*^
Joel Ferree, Docent, Lower East Side Tenement Museum, conversation with author, 8 February 2002.
*^
Long, interview.
*^
M.W. Thompson, Ruins: Their Preservation and Display (London: Colonnade Books, 1981 ), 17.

57
where visitors are allowed to picture for themselves what life was like in a tenement

apartment. This empty stage, upon which visitors impose their own vision, precedes

the theatrical displays visitors subsequently view in the recreated spaces of the

museum.

The ruins apartment and the other interpreted apartments are presented as "time

capsules," frozen moments in the former tenants' lives. As visitors move from room to

room, they pass from one era to another, and glimpse tableaux of lives of immigrants

of diverse ethnicities (see Figure 4). The concept of restoring rooms to an "original

state" is a complex one at the Tenement Museum, since the interpretive rooms use

representative examples of decorative arts rather than artifacts original to the site. The

exception is the Baldizzi apartment, which benefited from the memory of Josephine

Baldizzi Esposito, who lived in the apartment as a child and recalled for the museum

curators the layout and fiimishings of her family's home, and contributed several

family artifacts for use in the recreation of her childhood home.^^

Whereas many historic house museums prize authenticity, at the Tenement

Museum, the period rooms are used more as a mechanism to encourage visitors to

think about contemporary issues than as a study in decorative arts. The fiction of the

narratives is downplayed, though not denied. Curator Steve Long stated:

If we can get people to realize there is artifice to it then we've

accomplished an enormous task. It's difficult making people realize it is

kind of make-believe.... Some visitors have pointed out, 'You don't

really know it looks this way,' and we encourage our tour guides to be
very up front [about the artifice]. Unfortunately, the urban working

Lower East Side Tenement Museum, A Tenement Sto/y, 7.

58
 class material culture has not
on
been preserved in the way that it has for
more wealthy families.

However, a frank acknowledgement of the artifice of the reconstructions may

ultimately distract visitors from the narrative of the site, and during three site visits by

the author the docents did not discuss the distinction between original and non-original

elements in each apartment, or the fact that the apartments chosen for re-creations are

not necessarily the apartments the families lived in.

The museum's diachronic storytelling may serve to underscore the absence of a

knowable past by frankly presenting period rooms as stage sets. Critic Paul Philippot

stated:

It is an illusion to believe that an object can be brought back to its

original state by stripping it of all later additions. The original state is a

mythical, unhistorical idea, apt to sacrifice works of art to an abstract
concept and present them in a state that never existed.'*"

Yet the interpretation of the Tenement Museum does not frankly acknowledge

whether the presentation of a theatrical substitute for a presumed reality is in fact a

self-conscious rejection of the myth of an original state. Traditional house museums

typically de-emphasize the fact that all interpretation of the past is ultimately a product

of the present. However, at the Tenement Museum, the presentation of the ruins

apartment as a "blank canvas" in some ways does frankly acknowledge the role of the

museum staff as creative interpreters who impose their vision upon the site. The

subsequent museum tour of diachronic room interpretations reinforces the diorama-like

*'
Long, interview.
Price, Talley, and Vaccaro, Historical and Philosophical Issues in the Conservation of Cultural
Heritage. 273.

59
experience of walking through the museum. Each apartment presents a historical

snapshot rather than a cohesive illumination of one family during one period, as is the

case in most historic house museums. Allowing visitors to walk into and through the

rooms in each apartment, rather than cordoning the rooms off and only allowing them

to be seen through the doorway, reinforces the visitors' involvement in the displays,

ultimately emphasizing that the visitors' responses to the site are as important to its

interpretation as the artifacts on display.

The interpretation of each apartment is defined as the reconstruction of a

specific month and year; in some rooms the docents even cited a specific day that is

being interpreted. Rather than suggesting that the inhabitants' lives are so well

documented that this level of specificity is possible in the historic interpretation of the

apartments, the use of specific dates to create portraits of tenement families' lives may

serve to emphasize the role each apartment plays as a stage set. Steve Long stated,

"Focusing on a really specific story that took place on a particular day helps us in the

recreation. We're guessing this is what happened on that particular day. Mainly we're

interested in telling a story, not creating a carbon copy of what the home looked like."

The primacy of the story is evident in the museum's newest tour of the recently

constructed Levine apartment. The tour, called "Piecing It Together," focuses on the

garment industry in New York. Although the Levine family, who lived in 97 Orchard

Street at the turn of the century, is the subject of the tour, during a February 2002 tour

by the author the docent focused on the garment industry's present as well as its past.

" Long, interview.

60
The tour began on the street outside 97 Orchard Street, where the docent pointed out

sweatshops operating a few doors down from the tenement building. Compared to

tours of the Tenement Museum taken by the author in 2000 and 2001, this tour placed a

greater emphasis on contemporary issues. This is in keeping with what Steve Long

characterized as the recent "redoubling" of the museum's efforts to make connections

between the past and the present. At the beginning of "Piecing It Together," the docent

noted:

One hundred years ago this area was the center of New York's garment
industry. Today, there are still more than one hundred garment factories
in the area... today, we will address the questions: Where do consumers
"
fit into the garment industry? And how do we approach the problems?

These questions were addressed most directly in the first apartment visited by the tour:

the ruins apartment, where the docent played pre-recorded voices of individuals

involved in the garment industry today. This empty room served the purpose of setting

the stage for the discussions about the garment industry to follow. Visitors were

subsequently led to the Levine apartment, which was restored to November 1897,

when Julia Levine was about to give birth to her third son. In the three-room apartment

the rear bedroom is furnished as if used for garment work and in preparation for

childbirth. Visitors were led through the kitchen and living area, where piece work and

cut garments fill the rooms, while the docent described the long hours and

uncomfortable conditions of working and living in an apartment also used as a

sweatshop. The tour ended with a visit to the Rogarshevsky apartment, which is

Ferree, conversation with author.

61
decorated according to Jewish mourning rituals, with the mirror covered and a

mourning meal laid out on a table. The head of the family, Abraham Rogarshevsky,

died of tuberculosis and was buried on July 14, 1918, the date to which the apartment

is restored. The docent described the assistance the Rogarshevskys likely received

from a mutual aid society, and concluded the tour by discussing the relevance of

problems in the garment industry one hundred years ago to problems today: "Today,

conditions in the garment industry are going backwards... as unions are losing their

grip on the industry."^''

The Tenement Museum is currently researching the creation of a new

installation featuring frish immigrants who lived in 97 Orchard Street. In creating a

new period apartment, the museum first considers a contemporary issue they are

interested in exploring, and then researches that issue in the historical context of former

inhabitants of 97 Orchard Street. In the case of Irish immigrants, the museum is

interested in finding an Irish immigrant who was involved in the American Civil War,

either as a soldier or as a war resister. Curator Steve Long noted:

1"^
Since September 1 it has become a cliche, but people are questioning
what it means to be a patriot, and what it means to be loyal to your
country. Many of the same kinds of issues were being raised 150 years
''

ago when Irish immigrants were here in the largest numbers.

By encouraging each visitor to connect the past to the present, and to consider

the lives of the tenement dwellers through the lens of his or her own experience, the

Lower East Side Tenement Museum may serve to challenge the implied narratives that

"'
Ibid.
Long, interview.

62
visitors carry into 97 Orchard Street. In addition to creating a better understanding of

the Uves of immigrants today, the museum seeks to correct the myths of nineteenth-

century and early twentieth-century tenement dwelhng. Steve Long commented:

One of the things that shocked me about walking into 97 Orchard Street
was thathad read about the seamy underbelly of the city, and that the
I

tenement was in effect the holding tank of this lowlife part of New
York, and I came to find out that it's a much more interesting story. I
was astounded by the paintings, use of wallpaper, the design we
discovered on the ceiling, and all the decorative elements in the

building.... For me that's one of the really terrific things about 97

Orchard — it complicates the idea that these are immigrants who are
'huddled masses.' They really do have a dignity and real ability to make

a world for themselves.

One of the Tenement Museum's primary missions is to promote tolerance.

Their programs include teaching English to students who graduate by giving a tour of

the museum in English, and include their own immigration experience as part of the

tour.''*' When the Tenement Museum opened in 1988 the site managers created a fifty-

seat storefi-ont theatre for interpretive programming. The ancillary programs of the site

include theatrical presentations, readings, and art exhibits, which all serve the

Tenement Museum's mission. Community-centered programs include "Inspect This,"

which brings people into tenements with a checklist of legal obligations and laws to see

if the buildings are up to code. The project seeks to foster awareness that tenements of

varying condition are still inhabited today, and are not simply a part of America's

immigrant past.

''
Ibid.
'^
Liz Sevcenko, Vice-President of Programs, Lower East Side Tenement Museum, conversation with
author, 28 June 2001.

63
 Although much of the Tenement Museum's programming focuses on involving

the community in the history of immigration in the neighborhood and the relevance of

the past to the present, the museum also has an international focus. Ruth Abram,

interested in exchanging ideas and support with other historic sites addressing similar

issues, formed a coalition in 1999 that includes the Tenement Museum and eight other

members: the Gulag Museum in Russia, the District Six Museum in South Africa, the

Terezin Memorial in the Czech Republic, the Slave House in Senegal, the Workhouse

in England, Project to Remember in Argentina, the Liberation War Museum in

Bangladesh, and the National Park Service in the United States. Abram explained her

interest in forming a coalition:

We want to wake people up. The reason we've come together is to

really change the role of historic sites from one of passive history-telling
to places of engagement for citizenship. So many museums are
frightened that they're going to be the objects of great criticism if they
take on any contemporary issues. One of the roles of the coalition is to
create enough of a buzz to say to all those shrinking-violet curators:
'Don't worry, it's not going to undermine the mission of the museum,
it's going to make it better.'

Some of the member sites emphasize national reconciliation as one mission of

their museum, while others seek greater awareness of human rights violations and

government accountability rather than reconciliation.'^* The Tenement Museum

" Julia M. Klein, "How Historic Sites Can Matter in the Here and Now," New York Times, 10 December
2000.
'*
Ibid.

64
emphasizes that the difficult conditions of the past can still be found in parts of the

world today, and advocates using the "power of place" to confi-ont these issues.

The Lower East Side Tenement Museum seeks to broaden the concept of

heritage to include the connections between immigrants of the past and those of today.

To achieve this contemporary mission, the museum has created a conceptualization of

history in which the story is paramount, acknowledging what historians Tunbridge and

Ashworth characterized as the cultural construction of heritage: "...the nature of the

heritage product is determined, as in all such market-driven models, by the

."'
requirements of the consumer not the existence of the resources. . The museum's

diachronic interpretation of spaces acknowledges the artifice of the reconstruction of

the past, while the decayed ruins apartment serves both as the blank canvas upon which

stories are imposed and as testimony to the passage of time, making clear that the

period of abandonment was significant in the history of the building. Historian Kevin

Walsh noted of many museums:

Often the heritage display, with its denial of process, and its emphasis
on the synchronous spectacle, removes any idea of change through time.
The spectacle represents the isolated event; we are removed fi-om
history.

By frankly acknowledging change over time, the Lower East Side Tenement Museum

encourages visitors to recognize the links between the past and the present. Ultimately,

the museum's focus is on the present and the future, rather than the past. The

''
Sevcenko, conversation with author.
'°°
Tunbridge and Ashworth, Dissonant Heritage, 9.
'°'
Walsh, The Representation of the Past, 137.

65
apartment reconstructions and theatrical presentations are a means to an end; they

accomplish what Ruth Abram described as "putting history to work" by using history

to engage the public in a dialogue about the present.

Abram, "Planting Cut Flowers," 8-9.

66
Chapter Six: Manzanar National Historic Site

etween the creation of Manzanar War Relocation Center in 1942 and the

creation of Manzanar National Historic Site in 1992 exists a gap in

memory that is symbolized by the scattered vestiges of a complex of buildings that

housed thousands of Japanese- Americans for four years during the Second World War.

The almost complete erasure of the camp was followed by a similar erasure from

public memory, as post-war Americans did little to acknowledge the displacement and

internment of Japanese- Americans during the war.

hi the current interpretation of Manzanar War Relocation Center as a historic

site, the emotive power of the decay of the built environment is compromised by the

fact that the history of the Japanese-American internment during World War II has

been repressed in public consciousness to such a degree that some visitors fail to bring

with them an implicit knowledge of the site's history. The site managers are currently

planning some restoration and limited reconstruction of structures in the camp in order

to fulfill their interpretive mission, which states:

Manzanar National Historic Site preserves the stories and resources of

Manzanar for this and future generations. We will facilitate a park
experience that weaves the stories of the various occupations of
Manzanar faithfiilly, completely, and accurately. Manzanar National
Historic Site will provide leadership for the protection and interpretation
of associated sites. From this foundation, the park will stimulate and
provoke a greater understanding of and dialogue on civil rights,
democracy, and freedom.'*'"

103
Frank Hays, Superintendent, Manzanar National Historic Site, interview by author, 2 April 2002.

67
 .

In 1935, the chief historian for the National Park Service described the

organization's interpretive mission as "to recreate for the average citizen something of

the color, the pageantry, and the dignity of our national past.""^'* The National Park

Service's perception of its role has changed considerably during its eighty-six-year

history. Today, National Park Service historic sites, monuments, and parks such as the

Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, the Central High School National Historic Site in

Little Rock, Arkansas, and the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail seek to

commemorate darker periods in the American past. A member of the International

Coalition of Site Museums of Conscience, the National Park Service's incorporation of

difficult history into the national heritage is most obvious at Manzanar National

Historic Site, where the National Park Service oversees the controversial interpretation

of what is seen by many as one of the darkest hours in American history, with the

complete suspension of the civil liberties of U.S. citizens who were singled out by their

race. Addressing the question of the National Park Service's commemoration of sites

of shame. Professor Robin Winks of Yale University commented:

With the recent addition of Manzanar National Historic Site to the

National Park System, the public has been introduced more dramatically
than ever before to a fundamental debate. Should the national parks
commemorate and protect only places and events in which we take
pride, or should the parks strive to mark events and places that many
agree represent shameful episodes in our national experience?...

Each of the 367 units of the National Park System... has a unique
mission, and each be interpreted so that visitors may comprehend
is to

the mission and attain a better understanding of American heritage. .

104
Kamrnen, Mystic Chords ofMemoty, 465.

68
 Education is best done with examples. These examples must include
that which we regret, that which is to be avoided, as well as that for
which we strive... If this premise is correct, we cannot omit the negative
'°"^
lessons of history.

The events that led to the imprisonment of thousands of Japanese-American

men, women, and children, most of whom were U.S. citizens, did not begin with the

bombing of Pearl Harbor. Racial disharmony on the west coast was widespread well

before the Japanese attack on December 7, 1941. Anti-immigrant sentiment coalesced

in California's 1913 Alien Land Laws, which banned Japanese aliens from purchasing

land, and the 1924 Immigration Act, which barred immigration from Japan into

America. "^^ After the United States declared war on Japan following the attack on

Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. The

Febmary 19, 1942, act authorized the Secretary of War to "exclude citizens and aliens

from designated areas along the Pacific Coast in order to provide security against

sabotage and espionage."'°^ The head of the Western Defense Command, Lt. General

John L. DeWitt, organized the evacuation of Japanese-Americans from the coast

beginning in March of that year. DeWitt wrote in February 1942:

The Japanese race is an enemy race and while many second and third
generation Japanese bom on U.S. soil, possessed of U.S. citizenship,
have become 'Americanized,' the racial strains are undiluted.

'"^
Robin Winks, "Sites of Shame," National Parks 68 (March/April 1994): 22.
John Hersey, "A Mistake of Terrifically Horrible Proportions," in Manzanar. John Armor and Peter
Wright (New York: Times Books, 1988), 28. For a comprehensive history of Manzanar from 1942 to
1996, see Harlan D. Unrau, The Evacuation and Relocation of Persons of Japanese Ancestry during
World War 11: A Historical Study of the Manzanar War Relocation Center, 2 vols (Denver: U.S. Dept. of
the Interior, National Park Service, 1996).
'"'
Unrau, Evacuation and Relocation, l:xxv.
'"*
Linda M. Rancourt, "Remembering Manzanar," National Parks 67, no. 5-6 (May/June 1993): 31.

69
In May 1942, the government forced Japanese- Americans to gather in cities before

relocating them to concentration camps under the authority of the War Relocation

'°^
Authority, a newly created civilian agency. Not charged with any crime, Japanese-

Americans were forced to pack and dispose of all their belongings and property with

only a few days notice. Japanese-Americans lost hundreds of millions of dollars in

property and lost income as a result of the relocations. They were sent on trains, some

with blacked-out windows and patrolled by armed guards, to interim assembly camps,

which were located at racetracks and fairgrounds. After living in makeshift quarters or

horse stalls, the prisoners were evacuated to permanent relocation camps.

Approximately 1 10,000 people were exiled from their homes from 1942 to 1946. The

"Trail of Tears," President Andrew Jackson's forced removal of more than 15,000

Cherokees from the eastern United States, offers the only precedent in U.S. history for

such mass evacuation.

Manzanar, one of ten camps created by Roosevelt's order, was located 212

miles northeast of Los Angeles, at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in

California's Owens Valley. The area was once home to Paiute and Shoshone Indians,

who were driven off by white settlers in 1863. Named Manzanar by early Spanish

settlers because of the apple orchards that once dotted the area, the land lost its value

for settlers and ranchers when the area's water supply was drained by the City of Los

"" Janice L. Dubel, "Remembering a Japanese-American Concentration Camp at Manzanar National

Historic Site," in Myth. Memory, and the Making of the American Landscape, ed. Paul A. Shackel
(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 88-89.
"° Arthur G. Neal, National Trauma and Collective Memory: Major Events in the American Century

(Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1998), 68; Winks, "Sites of Shame," 22.

70
Angeles in the late 1920s.'" The Manzanar Relocation Center was established as the

Owens Valley Reception Center, and was supervised by the U.S. Army's Wartime

Civilian Control Administration (WCCA) before coming under the control of the War

Relocation Authority (WRA). By mid- April 1942, 1,000 Japanese Americans were

arriving at Manzanar each day; by July nearly 10,000 people inhabited the camp (see

Figures)."^

Living conditions in the 576 one-story pine barracks were cramped, and the

region's climate offered harsh extremes of heat and cold. Prisoners were required to

grow their own food, and cultivated the fields surrounding the camp and nurtured the

fruit trees that still remain today.

Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston's memoir of her childhood years spent at Manzanar,

Farewell to Manzanar, described the difficult living conditions that families

encountered when they first arrived at the camp:

The simple truth is the camp was no more ready for us when we got

there than we were ready for it. We had only the dimmest ideas of what
to expect. Most of the families, like us, had moved out from southern
California with as as each person could carry. Some old
much luggage
men left Los Angeles wearing Hawaiian shirts and Panama hats and

stepped off the bus at an altitude of 4,000 feet, with nothing available
but sagebrush and tarpaper to stop the April winds pouring down off the
back side of the Sierras... the enfire situation there, especially in the
—
beginning the packed sleeping quarters, the communal mess halls, the

'"
Todd S. Purdum, "U.S. Starts to Dust Off a Dark Spot in History for All to See," New York Times, 20

June 1998.
"-
Jeffery F. Burton, Mary M. Farrell, Florence B. Lord, and Richard W. Lord, Confinement and
Ethnicity: An Ch'en'iew of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites (National Park Service,

U.S. Department of the Interior, 1999), chapter 8.

"^ Armor and Wright, Manzanar, xiii.

71
 open —
toilets all this was an open insult to that
'"*
other, private self, a slap
in the face you were powerless to challenge. '

Photographer Ansel Adams visited the camp in 1943 and took photos of the site

that reveal the everyday life of the camp's inhabitants and the beauty in the harsh

landscape they inhabited (see Figure 7). In the introduction to his published book of

photographs, Born Free and Equal, Adams wrote:

I believe that the arid splendor of the desert, ringed with towering
mountains, has strengthened the spirit of the people of Manzanar. ...

From the harsh soil they have extracted fine crops; they have made
gardens glow in the firebreaks and between the barracks. Out of the
jostling, dusty confusion of the first bleak days in raw barracks they
have modulated to a democratic internal society and a praiseworthy
personal adjustment to condifions beyond their control.'

Adams' pictures showed the towering mountains, but he was forbidden by

camp authorities from photographing the guard towers that also ringed the camp. Born

Free and Equal found a limited audience, as numerous public book burnings greeted

its publicafion in 1944."^

By the end of the war, many prisoners had already left the camp to enlist in the

U.S. military or on professional work leaves. After the camp closed in November 1945

the barracks were disassembled and auctioned off to local veterans. The U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers bulldozed much of the complex in 1 946. Camp director Ralph

Merritt commented, "Manzanar is not being demolished — it is merely being

Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and James D. Houston, Farewell to Manzanar (Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1973), 25,29.
Armor and Wright, Manzanar. xvii,
"" Ibid., xviii.

72
distributed.""' However, the "distribution" of Manzanar effectively effaced the site of

a moment in American history that many of those involved wished to forget. The

dismantling itself is a part of the site's history; a period that is represented by the

empty spaces of the site and ruined remains of the structures left in place (see Figures 6

and 8). Today, all that remains of the original site are the traces of rock gardens built

by the prisoners, a sentry post, a guard post, and the camp auditorium.

In 1989, in an attempt to limit what they saw as an erasure of history, some

historic preservationists advocated that portions of the Berlin Wall be spared the

widespread dismantling and dispersion, so that vestiges of the Wall would remain as

testimony to the Cold War-era in German history. However, one historian's

assessment that "in the future, the interest in this monument will be as much for its

demolition by the people, as for its limited physical presence""^ could be applied to

Manzanar as well. The site's dismantling and subsequent descent into ruins accurately

reflects American attitudes toward the site as temporary and the events that took place

there as outside the boundaries of national history. For those visitors who arrive to

Manzanar National Historic Site with an understanding of the site's past, the scattered

vestiges speak volumes about the lack of national attention to the temporary, forgotten

city in the desert. However, for those visitors who lack an implicit knowledge of the

events, the ruins and gardens in their natural setting, framed by mountains, may

'" Dubel, "Remembering a Japanese-American Concentration Camp," 95; Christopher Ross, "Return to

Manzanar," Americana Magazine 19, no. 1 (March-April 1991): 56.

Gill Chitty and David Baker. Managing Historic Sites and Buildings: Reconciling Presentation and
"*

Presen'ation (London: Routledge, 1999), 177.

73
become picturesque, barely evoking the former presence of built structures. Michael

Roth suggested that in the wake of the Second World War, the contemplative gaze

prompted by ruins may be a thing of the past:

The sentimental attachment to the ruin, the contemplative gaze that

finds some sign of renewal in nature's growth on a broken stone, has
been shaken, diverted. The promise of understanding the past and of the
renewal or even redemption that understanding might provide
this

seems empty or a lie in the wake of the extremities (and the threat of

nuclear annihilation) that turned a world into (potential) ruins.

Although the ruins of Manzanar may or may not sufficiently convey an idea of

the site's history, most conservators today are wary of the excessive reconstruction of

buildings.'^" The fi-agments of the former internment camp cover several acres. The

National Park Service report Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II

Japanese American Relocation Sites cataloged what remains at Manzanar:

Only three of the over 800 buildings originally at the relocation center
remain. However, there is abundant evidence of relocation center
features, including walls, foundations, sidewalks, steps, manholes,
sewer and water lines, landscaping features, ditches, and trash

concentrations. of the relocation center road grid remains, but

Much
many of the roads in the western third are buried by alluvium or
overgrown with vegetation. Other roads are cut by gullies and major
portions of two roads (1st and 7th Streets) have been destroyed by gully
erosion. By far the most prevalent artifact types at the site are window
and bottle glass fragments and wire nails. However, a tremendous
variety of artifacts dating to the relocation center use are scattered
across the central area.

119
Roth, Lyons, and Merewether, Irresistible Decay, 20.
Price, Talley, and Vaccaro, Historical and Philosophical Issues in the Conservation of Cultural
'^°

Heritage, 204.
'^'
Burton, et al., Confinement and Ethnicity, chapter 8.

74
 Also remaining on the site is the monument to the dead in Manzanar's

cemetery. The monument is a large, white obelisk with Japanese inscriptions on both

sides. The translation of the east side reads: "Monument to console the souls of the

dead." The other side reads: "Erected by the Manzanar Japanese August 1943."

This memorial is now the site of an annual pilgrimage that began in 1969, when

hundreds of Japanese-American students and former prisoners visited the site.

The annual pilgrimage contributed to the coalescence of interest in

commemorating the events that took place on the site during the Second World War.

Manzanar first received official recognition of its historic value in 1 972, when the site

was nominated to become a California Registered Historic Landmark. At that time,

controversy arose over the use of the term "concentration camp" on the historic plaque

at the site. The Historical Landmarks Advisory Committee preferred to substitute the

term "relocation center." Two Japanese-American advocacy groups presented

evidence of the fianction of the camp that convinced the Committee of the accuracy of

the term "concentration camp," and the text ultimately approved for the historic plaque

included both phrases:

In the early part of World War10.000 persons of Japanese ancestry

IL 1

were interned in relocation centers by Executive Order No. 9066, issued

on February 19, 1942. Manzanar, the first often such concentration
camps, was bounded by barbed wire and guard towers, confining 1 0,000
persons, the majority being American citizens. May the injustices and
humiliation suffered here as a result of hysteria, racism and economic
exploitation never emerge again.

122
Ibid.
'" Nadine Ishitani Hata, The Historic Preservation Movement in California 1940-1976 (California
Department of Parks and Recreation, 1992), 169-172.

75
 The controversy over language persists; as recently as 1998 an exhibit mounted

at the Ellis Island Immigration Museum called "America's Concentration Camps:

Remembering the Japanese-American Experience" provoked debate among curators,

Ellis Island officials, and some Jewish groups who argued that the use of the term

'^^
"concentration camp" diluted its meaning. After meetings between curators at the

Japanese American National Museum, which organized the exhibition, and

representatives of the American Jewish Committee, both sides agreed upon language to

be inserted in the exhibit program and displays explaining to the public the complex

associations of the term "concentration camp." The text pointed out the differences

between Nazi concentration camps and American concentration camps, and concluded,

"All had one thing in common: the people in power decided to remove a minority

"'^^
group from the general population, and the rest of society let it happen.

Manzanar was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985 amidst

increasing recognition of the site's importance in American history. "Manzanar is a

symbolic reminder that a nation of laws needs constantly to honor the concept of

freedom and the rights of its citizens," said David Simon, natural resources program

manager for the National Parks and Conservation Association.'^^ However, the former

prisoners at Manzanar did not receive an official apology from the U.S. government

until 1988, when President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Civil Rights Act, which

'"'
Somini Sengupta, "What Is a Concentration Camp? Ellis Island Exhibit Prompts a Debate," A'evv York
Times, S March 1998.
'"^
Somini Sengupta, "Accord on Term 'Concentration Camp,'" New York Times, 10 March 1998.
"''
Rancourt, "Remembering Manzanar," 30.

76
authorized a $1.25 billion settlement to surviving internees or their heirs.
' In 1992,

President George Bush signed into law an act of Congress creating Manzanar National

Historic Site, which was authorized to "provide for the protection and interpretation of

the historical, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese-

Americans during World War II."''* The law also established the Manzanar National

Historic Site Advisory Commission in order to involve local community members in

the interpretation of the site. The Advisory Commission is composed of local

residents, the general public. Native Americans and Japanese-American former

internees.

The question of how much of the internment camp to reconstruct in order to

fully dramatize the historical lessons of the site has been a contentious issue for the

National Park Service and for the Advisory Commission. Some members of the

Japanese-American community involved in commemoration at Manzanar would like

the reconstruction of certain camp elements, particulariy a guard fence, to make

explicit the structures of authority in place at the camp.'^° Superintendent Frank Hays

commented on the interpretive challenges created by the site's state of ruin:

There is little but sagebrush and dust remaining of the internment camp.
Without these physical reminders it is difficult to explain to visitors that
this was indeed an internment camp.... When you visit Manzanar today,
you can be so inspired by the location's beauty that you miss the
important story told there. In fact, some visitors have mentioned that
because of the location near such beautiful mountains that the camp

Dubel, "Remembering a Japanese-American Concentration Camp," 98.

'^'

'*
Unrau, Evacuation and Relocation, 1 :xxv.
'^''
Ibid., 2:828.
'^°
National Park Service, "The National Park Service and Civic Dialogue.'

77
 . I

experience couldn't have been so bad. The camp has been Ukened to a

summer camp in the mountains rather than an internment camp that has
an important story of civil rights to tell.

However, many advocates of the passage of the 1992 bill establishing

Manzanar as a historic site recommended a cautious approach to reconstruction. Jerry

Rogers, the National Park Service Associate Director for Cultural Resources, testified

in support of the creation of the historic site:

I personally found when I was at the site that the most evocative feature
of the site is the extensive remains of landscaping work, stone

walkways, planting beds, walls, and modified landforms that had been
done by the internees in an effort to beautify and make more
comfortable their harsh desert environment. I also believe that the

almost transient nature of the remaining resources, that is to say, of the

camp itself, the buildings gone, the remnants blown over by sand —
find in that a metaphor for this whole point of this being a lesson, but
not something we want to be prominent in American society — a lesson
that we can learn from. .

...we also would like to emphasize... that we would intend only

minimum development at the National Historic Site were if it

authorized, and we would instruct our planners that there would be no

reconstruction, in whole or in part, of the fencing, the guard tower or
barracks and no attempt to recreate the scene that has disappeared. In
our opinion, the authenticity of the site speaks far more powerfully than
anything we could create by building imitations of the historic buildings
that were there or by moving in some buildings that have been taken
away.'^^

Despite Rogers' recommendations, the General Management Plan for the site,

approved by the National Park Service in 1997, proposed the reconstruction of some

elements of the internment camp in order to interpret the site's use as a relocation

'"
Frank Hays, "The Role of Civic Dialogue in Management of Manzanar National Historic Site" (paper
presented at the workshop "National Park Service and Civic Dialogue," New York, NY, December
2001).
'^'
Unrau, Evacuation and Relocation, 1:829-830.

78
center during World War II. The National Park Service is currently attempting to

balance the demands of fulfilling the site's interpretive mission and the demands of

authenticity. Superintendent Frank Hays noted that the National Park Service does

allow reconstruction in some circumstances:

Reconstruction... is one of four treatment options for historic sites

including preservation, rehabilitation, restoration and reconstruction.

Reconstruction represents the alternative with the least historic
authenticity and is defined as 'the depiction of one period in history
using new materials based on archaeology and other research findings.'
The National Park Service discourages reconstructions for many
excellent reasons.... The National Park Service will not reconstruct a
missing structure unless there is no alternative that would accomplish
the park's interpretive mission, there is sufficient data to enable an
accurate reconstruction, the reconstruction occurs on the original
location, and the reconstruction is approved by the NPS director. This
is the case that the Japanese American community and others used to
guide the direction of the park's General Management Plan.'^^

The Japanese-American community strongly advocated the reconstruction of

certain icons of authority such as the perimeter fence and a guard tower, and the

General Management Plan was influenced by the input of the Manzanar Advisory

Commission and Japanese-American groups. Although the General Management Plan

initially presented a no-action alternative and a minimum requirements alternative that

proposed no reconstruction, these alternatives were rejected in favor of the

reconstruction proposals.'"'* The site auditorium is to be converted to an interpretive

center, and the camp road system and some rock gardens and ponds will also be

rehabilitated. A Save America's Treasures grant, with matching funds from the State of

Hays, "Role of Civic Dialogue."

Unrau, Evacuation and Relocation, 1:833.

79
California, was allocated to the restoration of the perimeter fence and entry sign, and

the creation of an interpretive auto tour road adjacent to fence. Superintendent Hays

commented on the restoration of buildings to the site:

We areworking with kiyo County to bring back a former mess hall to

the site. We will then see what other buildings we can bring back. We
will reconstruct buildings as a last resort —
we do know we will have to
reconstruct a guard tower — since no original guard towers remain.

Restoration efforts are ongoing, and in 2001 the National Park Service budget

allocated more than $5 million to the establishment of an hiterpretive Center and

Headquarters at Manzanar, to be housed within the former auditorium. After the

prison camp closed, Inyo County purchased the auditorium and leased it to the

Independence Veterans of Foreign Wars, who used it as a meeting hall and community

theater until 1951. The camp auditorium continued to be used for municipal purposes

until 1996, when the National Park Service purchased the building.'" Although the

primary period of significance to be interpreted at the site is the period of Japanese-

American internment, the Visitors Center exhibits to be displayed in the restored

auditorium will also acknowledge the longer history of the area. The Secretary of the

Interior's Report to the President identified interpretive themes for the Visitors Center

that included the history of the internment period and its connection to racism in the

United States; the challenge of balancing constitutional rights with national security;

the history of water use in the western United States; and the history of the successive

'^'
Hays, interview.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Report to the President: Japanese-American Internment Sites
'^^

Preservation (U.S. Department of the Interior, January 2001).

'^'
Burton, et al.. Confinement and Ethnicity, chapter 8.

80
displacements of Native Americans, white settlers, and Japanese-Americans by more

powerful groups.
'^^
The site managers also plan to dedicate a portion of the exhibits to

139
contemporary issues.

The Visitors Center's inclusive programmatic agenda responded to the

community's perception of Manzanar as a contested space. The increased regional and

national recognition of the site led to protests by some groups and individuals who

disputed that Japanese-Americans were held against their will at the camp. These

proponents of a revisionist history of the site claimed that the guard towers were

actually used as fire watchtowers, and that fences around the compound were only used

to keep cattle out, not to confine people within. National Park Service senior historian

Gordon Chappell noted that the revisionists cited as evidence historic photographs that

fail to show barbed wire, sentry posts, or armed guards. "The War Relocation

Authority made a strenuous effort to limit what could be photographed, because it

wanted to present the camp experience as more benign than was in fact the case,"

Chappell said. "It prohibited any photographs of the sentries or the sentry towers or

the military guards."'"*' One revisionist claimed, "The Park Service is heading in the

wrong un-American direction that will wind up in several resignations along with

another Enola Gay incident."''*' Whereas the Smithsonian Institution cancelled their

1995 exhibit "The Last Act: The Atomic Bomb and the End of Worid War II," which

"*
U.S. Department of the Interior, Report to the President.
'^^
Hays, interview.
Martin Forstenzer, "Bitter Feelings Still Run Deep at Camp," Los Angeles Times. 4 April 1996.
""^

''"
Robert A. Jones, "Whitewashing Manzanar," Los Angeles Times. 10 April 1996.

81
featured the Enola Gay, after protests by veterans groups, the site managers at

Manzanar National Historic Site have not allowed their interpretation to be influenced

by these revisionists' threats. Superintendent Frank Hays stated in April 2002 that

local opposition to the historic site seemed to be waning, while "many community

members have embraced the park and are excited to see development finally

,,142
occumng.

The commemoration of the internment of Japanese-Americans during the

Second World War raises strong emotions for both those who were imprisoned and

those who deny the validity of the National Park Service's historic interpretations. The

town of Independence, several miles from Manzanar, has witnessed the conflicts

between different factions, and after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New

York City and Washington, D.C., demonstrated an awareness of the lessons of local

and national history when the Independence Town Council passed a resolution

affirming tolerance of Arab-Americans. At that time, the United States Justice

Department had proposed restrictions on the rights of immigrants suspected of terrorist

activity. Many civil libertarians became alarmed at the potential for violations of

immigrants' constitutional rights, hi a September 24, 2001, New York Times article,

Jeanne A. Butterfield, executive director of the American Immigration Lawyers

Association, claimed, "Under these provisions there is a much bigger danger than we

have ever seen in our history of innocent people being rounded up and held on

'''"
Hays, interview.

82
 ,143
suspicion that they did something and never having their day in court." Legal

scholars looked to a Supreme Court decision that still stands upholding the internments

of Japanese- Americans during the Second World War. In 1944, Fred Korematsu was

convicted for refusing to report to an assembly center. In Fred Korematsu v. United

States, the U.S. Supreme Court approved the relocations as a wartime hardship.

University of California at Los Angeles law professor Jerry Kang said: "Some people

say we've learned the lesson from Korematsu and we would never do that again. I'm

much more skeptical, 1 think there is a chance we would do that again."

The lesson of Korematsu and the commemoration of this period of shame are

not limited to the prison camp sites themselves. To commemorate this era in

America's national heritage, Japanese- Americans have funded a memorial to be built in

Washington, D.C. The National Japanese American Memorial will be represented by

two sculpted cranes, one trapped in barbed wire symbolic of the fences of the

internment camps, and the other aloft in flight. The director of the memorial, Cherry

Tsutsumida, stated, "This memorial celebrates the fact that our great democracy did

finally admit that it did a great wrong."'

The National Japanese American Memorial, sited at the seat of power of the

United States government, uses the symbolism of the prison camp to convey the

lessons of the past. At Manzanar, site managers continue to seek a balance between

'"
William Glaberson, "War on Terrorism Stirs Memory of Internment," New York Times, 24 September
2001.
'''
Ibid.
'"'
Francis X. Clines, "A Memorial Addresses a Wrong," New York Times, 24 October 1999.

83
symbol and interpretation in their curatorial decisions about the level of reconstruction

of the site. Some visitors are able to witness the ruins of the former prison camp and

reconstruct in their own imagination the shameful episodes of the past. For others, the

scattered remains of the site may not be evocative of the past. One National Park

Service Superintendent remarked upon the effect the unreconstructed ruins of the

former camp may have on visitors. Ed Rothfuss, then Superintendent of Death Valley

National Monument, noted in 1993:

Manzanar has a subtle interpretive character about it. I think it is

important to be able to walk through and think about the people living
there. You can watch the sagebrush and the sand drifting and let your
mind creep and think about what happened.

Whether the subtlety of this interpretation will remain once certain elements of

the camp are reconstructed is still undetermined. Yet, it is likely that many visitors will

still see the meaning amidst the ruins and reconstructions that Jeanne Wakatsuki

Houston noted in her return to the camp years after her incarceration there as a child.

In Farewell to Manzanar she wrote:

The old road was disintegrating, split, weed-sprung. We poked through

the remains of hospital foundations, undermined by erosion channels.
We found concrete slabs where the latrines and shower rooms stood,
and irrigation ditches, and here and there, the small rock arrangements
that once decorated many of the entranceways....ft is so
characteristically Japanese, the were made more tolerable by
way lives

gathering loose desert stones and forming with them something

enduringly human. These rock gardens had outlived the barracks and
the towers and would surely outlive the asphalt road and rusted pipes
and shattered slabs of concrete. Each stone was a mouth, speaking for a
I 47
family, for some man who had beautified his doorstep.

'**
Rancourt, "Remembering Manzanar," 46.
'*'
Houston and Houston, Farewell to Manzanar, 166.

84
Chapter Seven: Conclusion

"f "every historic site tells two different stories about two different eras in

i;-the past,"'"^ both the moment of the events being commemorated and the

moment of commemoration, then the sites studied here tell an additional story, that of

the gap in between history and historicizing, during which neglect led to decay,

abandonment to ruin. As an increasing number of American historic sites acknowledge

that the dark moments of the past define national heritage just as celebratory moments

do, and have resonance in the present and the future, that gap begins to close.

Historian Arthur Neal noted:

Traumatic events of the recent past are important ingredients of our

social heritage and continue to convey implications for the prospects
and limits of the world in which we live.

Just as the interpretation of the events commemorated is influenced by the moment of

commemoration, ruins tell stories about two different moments: the imagined original

state of the building, as seen in the viewer's mind's eye, and the present state of decay.

The ruin itself is not simply a deteriorated building, but takes on a new identity through

its interpretation by the viewer. Georg Simmel stated:

What has led the building upward is human what gives it its
will;

present appearance is the brute, downward-dragging, corroding,

crumbling power of nature. Still, so long as we can speak of a ruin at all
and not a mere heap of stones, this power does not sink the work of man
into the formlessness of mere matter. There rises a new form which,
from the standpoint of nature, is entirely meaningful, comprehensible.

'*'
Loewen, Lies Across America, 36.
Neal, National Trauma and Collective Memory,
''*'
x.

85
 differentiated. Nature has transformed the work of art into material for
her own expression, as she had previously served as material for art.

The three sites discussed in this study acknowledge that the expression of the

passage of time in the built environment allows for a more complex understanding of

the history of the sites. In contrast, historian Paul Philippot criticized hidependence

Hall in Philadelphia for its meticulous reconstruction, in which "past and present

are... brought together on the same level with no depth of field whatsoever." He

argued that the fundamental problem of restoration is this lack of distance between past

and present:

An authentic relationship with the past must not only recognize the
unbridgeable gap that has formed, after historicism, between us and the
past; must also integrate this distance
it into the actualization of the
work produced by the intervention.'^'

Allowing decay to remain a fundamental part of the site, and including the decay

within the sites' interpretations, acknowledges this unbridgeable gap. At sites of

uncomfortable history, acknowledging this distance may allow visitors to correlate that

gap with the abandonment of the site, and its temporary exclusion from public

memory.

Sites of memory typically face multiple demands: pressure from tourists to

make the sites engaging, pressure from those who share in a collective memory of the

site to make the site authentic, and pressure from visitors to the site who seek to have

Kurt H. Wolff, ed. Essays on Sociology, Philosophy, and Aesthetics (New York: Harper, 1965), 261-
262, quoted iii Roth, Lyons, and Merewether, Irresistible Decay, 44.
Price, Talley, and Vaccaro, Historical and Philosophical Issues in the Conservation of Cultural
Heritage, 225.

86
their group identity commemorated within the site. By negotiating a balance between

the theatrical and symbolic uses of decay, the reconstruction of ruined buildings,
and

contemporary interpretation, the three sites studied here communicate historical

narratives that encourage visitors to view the present through the lens of the past.

Ultimately, the power of decay lies in the eye of the beholder. Site managers at

each of the three sites studied here effectively use decay in different ways to stage their

interpretive programs at the site. At Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site, the Lower

East Side Tenement Museum, and Manzanar National Historic Site, the sites' decay

allows for the recognition of absence and the passage of time. It is this open

acknowledgment of the unbridgeable gap between us and the past that allows these

ruins of our shared history to speak to the present.

87
Illustrations

Eastern State Penitentiary

. Z' -^"^ --•*-' »--''^ •** ' 1

Figure 1: Samuel Cowperthwaite, convict number 2954, Tiie State Penitentiary, for the Eastern
District of Pennsylvania, 1855. Lithograph by P.S. Duval and Co. The Library Company of
Philadelphia.

88
Figure 2: Interior cell block. Eastern State Penitentiary, 2001. Photograph by Kate Daly.

89
Lower East Side Tenement Museum

Figure 3: The ruins apartment, 1999. Collection of the Lower East Side Tenement Museum.

90
Figure 4: The front room of the Gumpertz apartment recreated to circa 1878, photographed in
1999. Collection of the Lower East Side Tenement Museum.

91
Manzanar National Historic Site

Figure5: Entry sign, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center. Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints
and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

92
Figure 6: Entry sign, 1999. Photograph in Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War
IlJapanese American Relocation Sites, by Jeffery F. Burton, Mary M. Farrell, Florence B. Lord,
and Richard W. Lord.

93
Figure 7: High School Recess Period, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center. Ansel Adams
Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

94
 '*««^3«^-^-dh?^4,-Jsf;

Figure 8: Manzanar barracks foundations, 1999. Photograph in Confinement and Ethnicity: An

Overview of World War IlJapanese American Relocation Sites, by Jeffery F. Burton, Mary M.
Farrell, Florence B. Lord, and Richard W. Lord.

95
 . .

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102
Index

abandonment, 2-3, 19-20, 28, 39, 41, Devil's Island, 50

56-57, 65, 86 DeWitt, Lt. General John L., 69
Abram, Ruth, 13, 52- 54, 64, 66 District Six Museum, 64
Adams, Ansel, 72
Advisory Commission, 77 Eastern State Penitentiary, ii, 1,4, 14,

Alcatraz, 45, 50 17,33-36,38,40-42,44-47,50

Alien Land Laws, 69 Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site,
American Immigration Lawyers See Eastern State Penitentiary
Association, 82 Elk, Sally, ii, 41,49
American Jewish Committee, 76 EUis Island, 30-32, 53, 76
Anacostia Neighborhood Museum, 10 England, 3, 6, 12,25,64
Ashworth, G.J., 5, 50, 65 English Heritage, 6
Auschwitz, 12, 15, 30 EnolaGay, 81
Auschwitz II at Birkenau, 12,2 30
authenticity, 3, 17-18, 33, 49, 58, 78-79 Farewell to Manzanar, 71-72, 98
Foley, Malcolm, 30
Baldizzi family, 55, 58 Frisch, Michael H., 30-32

BastilleDay, 49-50
Becker, Carl, 52 Goodey, B., 7
Berlin Wall, 73 Grunewald, 29
Birkenau, 12, 30 Gulag Museum, 12, 64
Born Free and Equal, 72 Gumpertz family, 55
Boym, Svetlana, 29
Brandi, Cesare, 27 Haviland, John, 35-36
Bush, George, 77 Hays, Frank, ii, 79, 82
heritage, 3, 5-9, 11-13, 15-19, 33, 65,

Central High School National Historic 68, 83, 85

Site, 68 Hetzler, Florence, 20
Chappell, Gordon, 81 Historical Landmarks Advisory
civic transformation, 1 1-12, 33, 37 Committee, CA, 75
Cold War, 73 Holocaust, 11,29
collective memory, 5, 8, 14, 28-30 Home, Donald, 12
concentration camps, 12, 14, 16, 29, 70, Houston, Jearme Wakatsuki, 71-72, 84
75-76 human rights, 13, 64
Confino family, 55
Corinth, 21 immigrants, 17, 30-31, 52, 55, 58, 62-
63, 65, 82
dark tourism, 30 Immigration Act, 69
Death Valley National Monument, 84 Independence, CA, 80, 82
decay, 1-3, 17- 21, 23- 26, 28- 30, 32- Independence Hall, 39, 86
33, 40- 42, 46-47, 51, 56, 67, 85-87

103
 7

International Coalition of Historic Site Merritt, Ralph, 72

Museums of Conscience, 3, 13 Morris, William, 24

The International Committee of MuUiple Dwellings Law, 54
Memorial Museums of
Remembrance for the Victims of National Japanese American Memorial,
Public Crimes, 13 83
National Park Service, 1, 4, 10-11, 13,

Jackson, Andrew, 70 30,53,64,68-69,71,74,77-79,81-

Jackson, John Brinckerhoff, 7 82,84
Jacobson, Anita, 53, 56 National Register of Historic Places, 53
Japan, 29, 69 National Trust for Historic
Japanese American National Museum, Preservation, 6

76 New York City, 1,52,54

Kammen, Michael, 9 Orchard Street, 53-54, 56, 60, 62-63

Kang, Jerry, 83
Koresmatsu v. United States, 83 Pearl Harbor, 69
Pennsylvania Prison Society, 34, 42
Lennon, John, 30 Philadelphia, 1, 34, 38-39, 41-42, 86

Lesnikowski, Wojciech, 22 Philippot, Paul, 59, 86

Levine family, 56, 60 pilgrimage, 15, 75
lieux de niemoire, 1, 14, 16 Pitcaithley, Dwight, 30-31
Linenthal, Edward, 11-12, 15, 33, n. 12 Principles of the Society for the
Lippard, Lucy, 43, 45 Protection of Ancient Building, 24
Loewen, James W., 9
London, 28 Reagan, Ronald, 76
Long, Steve, ii, 54-55, 57-63 restoration, 4, 23-26, 31-32, 55, 67, 80,

Los Angeles, 70-71, 83 86

Lowenthal, David, 8, 16, 23 Riegl, Alois, 25-26
Lower East Side Tenement Museum, ii, Robben Island, 50
1,3, 10-11, 13-14, 17,33,52-55,57, Rogarshevsky family, 55, 61
59- 63, 65 Rogers, Jerry, 78
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 69-70
MacCannell, Dean, 1 Roth, Michael S., 74
Manzanar National Historic Site, ii, 1, Rothfuss, Ed, 84
4,11, 14, 17,33,67-77,80-84 ruins, 3-4, 12, 14, 17, 20-23, 25, 27-28,

Manzanar National Historic Site 30, 32-33, 42, 56-59, 61, 65, 73-74,
Advisory Commission, 77 84
Manzanar War Relocation Center, 67, Ruskin, John, 24
69
marginalization, 2, 12, 19, 41 Sandler, Ilan, 44-45
memorials, 3, 10-11, 15,20,28-29,32 Save America's Treasures, 79

104
Second World War, 28-29, 67, 74-75, tourism, 3, 5-6, 8, 15-17, 30, 37, 40,
82 41,86
Selma to Montgomery National Trail of Tears, 70
Historic Trail, 68 Trail of Tears National Historic Trail,

September 11,2001,62, 82 68
The Seven Lamps of Architecture, 24 Tsutsumida, Cherry, 83
Simmel, Georg, 85 Tunbridge, J.E., 5, 50, 65
Slave House, 64
Smithsonian Institution, 11,31,81 Viollet le-Duc, Eugene-Emmanuel, 23-
Stanford, Caroline, 27 24
Statue of Liberty, 53
Walsh, Kevin, 65
Tenement House Act, 54 War Relocation Authority, 70, 81
Tenement Museum, See Lower East Whately, Thomas, 20, 21
Side Tenement Museum Winks, Robin, 68
Terezin Memorial, 64 Workhouse, 12, 64
Terror Behind the Walls, 40, 46-47, 50 World War II, 4, 11,67,69,71,74-75,
Thompson, M.W., 57 77-79,81
Torchia, Richard, 43-45

105
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