CHAPTER FIVE

STUDY DISCUSSION

5.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the research findings in relation to the study

objectives and research questions. The discussion also relates the study findings

to other parallel studies on adolescent sexual behaviour. The study discussion is

patterned on the following major research themes:

1) The prevailing sexual behaviour of the Akamba adolescents vis-à-vis the

traditional.

2) The attitudes Akamba adolescents of Machakos District and the

community have about sexual behaviour.

3) Knowledge and practices about STDs/ HIV/ AIDS as well as

contraceptives among Akamba adolescents.

4) The role of the parents and the family to adolescent sexual behaviour.

5) The function of the peers and the mass media to adolescent sexual

behaviour.

6) The Akamba Community and community leaders (Church, School and civil

society) role in adolescent sexual behaviour.

behaviour.

8) Consequences of adolescent sexual behaviour among the Akamba

adolescents of Machakos District.

9) Emergence of a new adolescent culture among Akamba people of

machakos District.

5.1 PREVAILING SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG AKAMBA

ADOLESCENTS OF MACHAKOS DISTRICT

The study findings in this research indicated that 51.2 percent of the Akamba
adolescents (boys and girls) in the age category 12-19 were sexually
experienced at the time the study was carried out. This figure of sexual
experimentation among the adolescents of Machakos District is more or less the
same as the findings of other previous studies on adolescent sexuality among
other cultures. Indeed, the studies on adolescent sexuality in the United States,
Canada, Latin America, India, China, Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe
demonstrate that over half of the adolescents experiment on sex before the age
of 19 (BBC radio, 2006; CDC, 2000; TOI, 6th Januaray,2007; Warren et al.,
1998).
For example, several surveys in Latin America found out that by age 19, more
than 90 percent of males have had sexual intercourse compared to 45 – 60
percent of females. Walf and Singh, 1990. In other developing countries namely
the sub Saharan Africa, Gage-Brandon and Meekers (1993) in their analysis of
data from seven countries found out that over 50 percent of women aged 15-19
years were sexually active. The CDC (2005) states that 80 percent of men and
75 percent of women in the United States are sexually experienced before age
19. In China, the percentage of boys and girls involved in pre-marital sex was

2
between 60 – 70 percent in 2004, while in India, 42 percent of girls and over 60%
of males in the age 15-19 years have had sex before age 19 (Dutex, 2005).
These findings can be extrapolated to other developing and developed societies
except the Arab world and other Islamic societies, where according to IPPF
(1994), data is minuscule on adolescent sexuality. Certainly, Demographic and
Health Surveys (DHS) so far undertaken in these countries interview only
married women. Sex discussions are strictly outlawed, especially amongst or
targeting the young people, women and the unmarried (IPPF, 1994).

(Data has also been difficult to be availed from Muslim Societies simply because
of the stringent rules and regulations, Prohibiting reporting rape and abuse cases
of women. For instance in Pakistan, the rule has for a long time been that for
any rape case being reported four male witnesses have to be availed (Murunga,
2006). To Murunga (2006), Pakistan has had arguably the most hostile justice
system for victims of rape and other offence against morality. The country’s such
law is called Hudood Ordinances automatically deburres one from
reporting a rape case since it is difficult to get strictly four male witness unless
they are accomplices to that act. According to Murunga (2006)under the Hudood
Ordinances, any woman who claims to have been raped must produce the four
witnesses and all must be males, and Muslims by Faith. If the required number
and composition of witnesses is not met, the woman must face the charge of
fornication if unmarried or adultery when married, punishable by death. A
captivating case demonstrating the difficulties placed in the female gender to
report a sexual defilement case was captured in the TOI, 23rd Nov, 2006 when in
Saudi Arabia, a teenager girl went to report to the Police that she had been gang
raped by seven men. According to the report, She never imagined the judge
would punish her and that she would be sentenced to more lashes that any one
of her alleged rapists received. In this case, the girl was sentenced to 90(ninety)
lashes for, “being alone with men whom none she was married to”.

3
 Similar to other cultures, Akamba adolescents of Machakos District were

found to be initiating sex at very tender age. In this present study, boys initiated

sex at 6 years while for girls it was 7 years, with 6.6 percent being sexually

experienced before age 10.

. In a parallel study in Nairobi by CSA (1993), 4 percent of boys and girls

engaged in sex before age 10. In related study by chege (1999) 6 percent of

sexually active school girls have had sex by the age of 10 in Kisumu District,

Kenya, while another 36% have had sex before the age 14.The scenario of

young people initiating sex at a very tender age in Kenya was corroborated by

Peter, a proprietor of a school that upholds high moral standards and says he

was shocked to learn that some standard two pupils (6-8 years) in this school

were experimenting on sexual relations (Daily Nation, June 21, 2006). The

children seemed to know more than expected of their age and sexual play had

become their preoccupation, in and outside their school. Moreover Waithaka

(2006) ,Observes that children have more exposure to sexual activities and

today’s children seem to have an increased interest in undesirable sexual

behaviour like kissing, “simple sex play” and exploration of each others’ bodies to

satisfy their curiosity.

In a parallel manner, a case of early childhood sex experimentation was

narrated by a high school teacher in Machakos town about a young boy of

around 8 years living in the same estate (compound) who is known to be

notorious with “raping” girls of his age or younger during child play times. The

mother to the boy (single mother) had been told and heard about it but had

4
brushed it aside arguing it as a fabricated and mere slander to malaign and ruin

her son. As a consequence, most parents within that compound had warned as

well as withdrawn their children (boys and girls) from playing with the said boy!

.Unless they are accomplies to that act. According to Muruuga (2000)

under the Hudood ordinances, a woman who claims to have been raped must

produce at least four witnesses, and all must be males and Muslims by faith. If

the required number and composition of witnesses is not met, the woman must

face a change of fornication if unmarried or adultery when married, punishable by

death. A captivating case demonstrating the difficulties placed in the female

gender to report a sexual defilment case was captured in the TOI, 23rd Nov, 2006

when in Sandi-Arabia, a teenager girl went to report to the police that she had

been gang raped by seven men. According to the report, she never imagined the

judge would punish her-and that she would be sentenced to more lashes than

any one of her alleged rapists received. In this case, the girl was sentenced to

go lashes for “being alone with men whom none she was married to”.

Masters et al. (1988), reinforces above early childhood sex observation by

pointing out that nursery school children (4-6 years) have vague and somewhat

magical notions about sex. They are apt to confront many situations with sexual

overtones. To elaborate and illustrate their assertions, Masters et al. (1988),

provide a practical example from their research, of a case in a nursery school

where two children named Billy and Peter, each four years old, have to be told

repeatedly that it is not appropriate to kiss each other while they are playing. In

5
the same nursery school, Gerry amuses himself by sneaking up behind a girl and

pulling up her skirt (“So I can see her underpants,” he explains with a lot of

giggling ( Masters et al. 1988: 127). The authors further observe that at this age,

children begin to form ideas about sex based on their observations of physical

interactions between parents as well as “others”. For instance seeing Mommy

and Daddy hugging and kissing, and obviously enjoying it, is a pretty good

advertisement for the pleasures of physical and emotional intimacy. On the other

hand, seeing parents constantly fighting or hearing one tell the other “don’t touch

me” can have just the opposite effect on the child’s view of intimacy (Masters et

al., 1988).

A CDC study in the US in 2001, indicated that 6.6 percent of students

initiated sexual intercourse before age 13, while in Britain, according to BBC

radio (2006), nearly a third of the adolescents (30%) lose their virginity before the

age of consent with 4 percent having lost Virginity before 14 years. Evidence

from a variety of other countries suggest that the age at which young people

become sexually active may be falling (Fee and Yousef, 1993). Certainly, young

men than girls become sexually active at an early age in many cultures. In

Uganda for example, almost 50 percent of young men and nearly 40 per cent of

young women surveyed reported having had sex by age of fifteen years (Konde

– Lule et al. 1997). In Dares Salaam, Tanzania, 60 per cent of 14 years old

boys and 35 percent of girls reported that they were sexually active (Fuglesang,

1997). In a study carried out in Brazillian schools, 36 percent of females

reported having had intercourse by the age of 13 (Weiss, Whelan and Gupta,

6
1996). In other parts of the world such as some Asian countries and middle east

where there is sparse evidence about sexual activity among young people and it

is widely assumed that sexual initiation takes place within the context of

marriage, recent studies show that approximately one in four adolescent boys

report to be are sexually experienced Jejeebhoy, 1998). In some cities like

Cairo, Egypt, it has in the past been reported that girls who are sexually

experienced before marriage visit gynaecologists to be “Stitched” to dupe their

husbands of their purity while others are provided with a pill to insert and use in

their “first sex” with their husbands which when pressed produces blood like

Liquid (Associated Press 2007). This process of restoving virgining through

stitching is known as gymenoplasty and according to the Associated Press

(2007) it is increasingly popular among Muslim women in North Africa and those

in diaspora in Europe. .According to a Doctor in France, a surgeon, says he

performs three Gymenoplasties each week, and most of his clients are between

18 and 45 years old, Muslims born both in France and North Africa. According to

him, “Many of the patients are caught between two worlds”. They have had sex

already but are expected to be virgins at marriage. This is a strong indicator of

low young people are found in a dilemma to choose between the orthodoxy and

the modern in some culture – what anthropologists world refer to as culture lag.

The reasons for boys initiating sex at early age in many cultures can be

attributed to the society they grow in. In most cultures, boys are socialized to be

adventurous and to be explore while according to Masters et al. (1988), girls are

7
often strongly cautioned against sexual play, especially with boys in most global

cultures. Boys on the other hand, tend to get mixed messages from their parents;

they may be warned or even punished for such activity, but there is a hint of

resignation or even pride in the attitude that “boys will be boys”. One father

described the sexual escapades of his seven year old son and his female

classmate by saying, “Good for him, he is getting an early start.” (Masters et al.

(1988: 130).

It is important to note that in ordinary typical life, young men have

tendency to experiment sex with women older than them. This was

demonstrated in this research where adolescent boys indicated they have sex

with prostitutes in main town centres of Machakos District. In a similar study in

the United States (US), before and about 1950, a typical finding in Sex Surveys

was that most young men were sexually active before marriage while most

women were not (Kinsey, Pomorey, & Martin, 1948; Kinsey et al. 1953). This

gender difference was possible because young men had sex with women who

were sexually active (possibly who were socio-sexually unrestricted) or with

prostitutes.

Additionally study unearthed information that adolescents in Machakos

District engage in aberrant sexual behaviours. This is an area less researched in

Kenya and is thus difficult to relate these findings to other Kenyan cultures. But,

research in some western cultures namely Britain, Canada and USA indicate the

experience of sexual perversions among the adolescents is quite pervasive

8
(Baron and Burne, 2001; CDC, 2001 and The Kaiser Family Foundation Report,

2003; SIECUS, 2005).

In the same version, Mckenna (1996) contend that male to male and

female to female sex exists in majority of global cultures but the activities

concerned are rarely understood as “homosexual” still less as “gay” or “Lesbian”.

More likely than not, they will not be widely talked about, or named only within

local vernaculars often inaccessible to outsiders (Aggleton,Khan and Parker,

1998). It is also reported that in many countries of the world, a not insubstantial

number of young men have their sexual experience with other men, and for some

this may be the beginning of a longer lasting bisexual, repertoire. For example,

50 percent of male University students interviewed in Srilanka reported that their

first sexual experience had been with another man (Silva at al. 1997). There are

other well documented or media reported eases of bisexuality unions in countries

as diverse as Canada whose parliament upheld a law in 2005 allowing same sex

marriages (Toi, 12th June 2006), Britain, with emblematic examples of the popular

marriage of Rock Musician Sir Elton John to his male partners in 2005 among

others ( TOI, 9th Dec. 2006), while in India (Khan, 1998, Brazil (Pancer, 1996),

and the South Africa (TOI, 16.9.07), among other nations, report that cases of

bisexual unions are quite prevalent – even among the young. Homosexuality

Unions in Kenya remain outlawed.

Most of the aberrant sexual experiences in this study among Akamba

adolescents included incest, homosexuality, rape, oral sex, orgies (group sex)

9
and prostitution. Reports of sexual abuse including forced sex and rape were in

this study also reported to be abetted to the young people.

Homosexuality between boys was reported to happen during child play (in

childhood) and some sporadic cases were said to occur while in school but all go

unnoticed in the Akamba culture. Oral sex was reported to occur, mostly in urban

schools between urban boys and girls anxious about the consequences of

penetrative sex, while orgies occur during games, drama festivals and music:

This was further reinforced by reports of group sex after attending disco and

when inebriated. This study corroborates findings by Rickel and Hendren,

(1993), who point out that deviant sexual behaviour among the adolescents are

prevalent but unreported by victims, actors and caretakers due to certain legal,

socio-cultural, personal and biological inhibitions.

Homosexuality in the Kenyan schools had surfaced and reported in the

press with the most daunting case of a 17 year old boy in a Nairobi secondary

school who was sodomised by a group of boys in one night that he had to be

hospitalised (Daily Nation, may 16, 2006). The fellow students meted out the

assault after drugging him. This experience is reinforced by statistics from

several institutions as well as several case studies from Kenya. The Drum issue

(23rd April 2007) reports that statistics obtained from the Nairobi women and

children’s hospital show that 74 boys aged between 9 and 14 years received

medical treatment and psychological support at the hospitals Gender Violence

Recovery Centre in 2006 due to sodomy. Most victims had suffered physical

injuries such as bruises in the anal region and other parts of the body as well as

10
STDS including HIV/AIDS. A self confession by a retired school head teacher

in a Kenyan high school further confirms the intensity of the malady in boarding

schools. Sam Odendo according to the Drum (April, 2007) confesses that,

despite denials, “I came across it in two schools where, I worked before my

retirement. I suspended two students who were sexually molesting others”, To

him, the vice thrives because of the conspiracy of silence between teachers,

parents and education officials. The malady is confounded further by the

involvement of teachers in sexually molesting their male pupils. A report by

cradle Kenya (an NGO) recently indicated that teachers make up 6% of those

who defile pupils in Kenya(Drum, April 2007). A recent case in point was

reported in the E.A standard, (24th July 2007) when the Principal of a high school

in Nakuru District ,Kenya, was arraigned in court for sodomising oneof his

students.

Several other cases of sodomy in Kenyan society have been

highlighted in the Kenyan press, with a chronology of reported sodomy cases in

2006 and 2007:

February, 2006: Aman in Chogoria, Meru District, Kenya jailed for 28

years for sodomising

Two boys aged 13 years .(Drum, 23rd April, 2007)

April, 2006: A man is beaten to death by a mob after he was found

sodomising a 13 year old school boy in a bush(Drum, 23rd April 2007)

11
 May, 2006: A 17 year old boy is sexually brutalised by five men in

Bungoma town, Kenya(Drum,23rd July, 2007).

July, 2006: A man is charged in Kwale District, court Kenyafor

sodomissing a 10 years boy (Drum 25th April, 2007).

May 2007: A 13 year old boy undergoing treatment at the Nairobi

Womens’ hospital after a sodomy ordeal in Ngong forest, Nairobi, (Daily nation,*8

May. 2007).

June 2007: A casual labourer in Kerugoya District Kenya, jailed for 21

years for abducting and defiling a 13 year old boy (DN, 6th June 2007).

The above cases of sodomy and many other which go unreported due to

embarassment are porgnant pointers to the extent of the malaise in the Kenyan

society. Lesbianism was also equally reported to be taking place in Kenyan

schools and society at large, but quite incognito. A classic case of lesbianism in

Kenyan schools was well highlighted by the self confession of a 20 year old

University of Nairobi law student during the World Social Forum held in Nairobi,

2007. The student blatantly indicated she realised she was a lesbian at age 10

and in standard three. She says “I had a crash on a girl. I liked girls and not

boys”. I did not just sit and decide that I am a lesbian, some people think one

12
just decides to be a lesbian. It is how we are born, either heterosexual or

bisexual. “(Daily Nation, January 2007) She said she had her first “girlfriend”

when she was 16 years old and in form two. She now had a 28 year old girl

friend and has had four relationships in total.

Related episodes of sodomy in schools were lightly mentioned by

adolescent boys during the FGDs in this study though it happens under high

secretive circumstances and thus goes unreported. Indeed, most boys reported

that sodomy as well as sexual molestation of boys had become a means of

bullying, especially to the new comers. An Hiv and Aids educator with PATH

Kenya (NGO), Obyobyerodyambo concurs with the above insights by pointing

out that boys and girls boarding schools have been the hotbeds of gay behaviour

for a while in Kenya though the issue has all along been pushed under the social

carpet.

The above aberrant sexual behaviour experiences sufficed to indicate that

deviant sexual behaviours were getting entrenched into the Akamba peoples way

of life as well as other Kenyan cultures in total variance with traditional

perspectives. According to Kimilu (1962), and Penwill (1951), the

OrthodoxAkamba people abhorred all forms of sexual perversions including

incest, prostitution, homosexuality, bestiality, name it. Indeed, both authors

contend that any form of these behaviours consequently would lead to ostracism

and total alienation from participating in any form of social activity. As an

illustration, Penwill (1951),observes that Akamba people regarded unnatural to

have coition with a woman from behind. If a man did this, even with his wife, it

13
was a must to slaughter a goat for purification. By this act, he had lowered and

levelled him/herself with the animals (Penwill, 1951: 76).

Moreover,In spite of the fact that the Akamba people sanctioned

premarital sex (Kyalo 1990), it occurred within the ambit of strict societal rules,

guidelines and regulations. This was unlike the modern periods.

By Implications then, Akamba adolescents have been caught in the global

web of early and indiscriminate sexual experimentation. Certainly, early and

indiscriminate adolescent sexual experimentation is becoming entrenched and

permeates global cultures due to cultural interconnectivity, acculturation and

western cultural assimilation and sooner or later will become part of what Ortner

(1974), and Haffner (1999), referred to as a cultural universal.

5.2 SEXUAL ATTITUDES AMONG THE ADOLESCENTS AND AKAMBA

COMMUNITY

The study sought to establish the adolescents as well as the community’s

position and attitudes about adolescent sexual behaviour. A large proportion of

adolescents (66 percent) disapproved of sex before marriage but this was not the

case on the ground. On the other hand, more boys than girls approved of sex

before marriage, comprising 64 % and 36 % respectively. The traditional Akamba

culture condoned sex before marriage, but the young peoples sex activity,

preferences and desires outside the society organized social institutions were

14
highly inhibited. Sex before marriage was a socio-cultural affair. Sex occurred

during the community social dances (Ndeti, 1972), and only among those

initiated into the second circumcision and mature as well as ready for marriage.

This view has changed over time and so has the way sex is perceived among the

modern Akamba adolescents. Early sexual relations are generally free and much

value is not set on society control nor perspective. Thus, attitudes on premarital

sex and actual practices are more permissive than in traditional period.

In the endeavour to understand the sexual attitudes of the modern

adolescents, it was important to put in perspective the sexual behaviour of the

adult community around them. According to Coleman and Hendry (1990: 141),

in the adult world today ,extra – martial sex has become widely accepted ,

divorce and separation have become common place, there is much greater

tolerance of different types of sexual behaviour, homosexuality no longer needs

to be invisible, films advertisements,, and television bombard the environment

with sexual information. Further, as part and parcel of all this, widely available

contraception has had the effect of making possible a distinction between sex

and procreation. The authors contend that, these shifts in attitudes which are in

some respects almost revolutionary, cannot fail to have had an effect on young

people. Children growing up in a society cannot be, insulated from what is

happening to those of their parents generation and while it may be regretted by

some, it is of course inevitable that such fundamental changes in adult behaviour

will affect those just beginning their sexual lives.

15
 Baron and Burne (2001), argue that although nature of sexual attitude

among adolescents vary from culture to culture, it is evident that sexual attitude

among the youth in the United States, Western Europe, Australia and Canada,

experienced a steady and consistent shift toward more permissive sexual

expression earlier (sexual revolution of 1950’s and 60’s) than India, China, and

Africa. In China for instance, changes in sexual expression similar to the west

did not occur until 1988 (Huang and Uba, 1992). The authors point out that

earlier on, the nation’s response had been to ban all written, audio, and visual

material describing sexual behaviour, to arrest those who produce it; and to

execute those who sell it. In India, accelerated reforms and open society initiated

in the 1990’s have had also observed a concomitant shift in sexual behaviour

and attitudes especially for the young people (BBC Radio 2006). In Africa, shifts

in sexual behaviour attitude among the youth can be traced to growth in urban

centres and rural urban migration including entrenchment of western formal

education and values mid 20th century,in the 1970’s and 1080’s gaining

momentum in the new millennium (21st century).

The Akamba community key informants (parents, teachers, church

leaders and social workers) participating in the study berated and valiantly

detested early adolescent sex experimentation, yet all the evidence pointed into

the opposite direction in a typically brazen manner. Some of the key informants

(parents, teachers, shopkeepers, drivers, etcetera) as reported by the

adolescents were culprits and accomplices to adolescent debauchery and

immoral behaviour .Coleman and Hendry (1990) avers that research evidence

16
available from societies in the globe, indicates that contemporary young people

are changing in their attitudes to sexual behaviour in ways which are similar to

adults. This was in total contrast to the traditional Akamba culturewhere the adult

community was to be viewed as a symbol of authority, direction and occupied a

very revered position (Kimilu, 1962). Sex between the young and the adults was

anathema and occurred only in socially sanctioned arrangements, especially

when a girl was to be married as a subsequent wife while the sexual behaviour of

the adult community was beyond reapproach. (Akong’a, 1988).

5.3 ADOLESCENT KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE ABOUT STD/HIV AIDS

AND CONTRACEPTIVES

Knowledge amongst the Akamba adolescents about HIV/AIDS and the

predominant mode of transmission was almost universal, 97 percent. This study

concurs with studies done in other societies which demonstrate a near universal

knowledge awareness about HIV/AIDS in the globe among the adolescents

(Alexander and Hickner, 1997; CDC, 2001; KDHS, 2003; and Mulama, 2006). In

spite of the near universal knowledge about HIV/AIDS transmission and its

debilitating effects, adolescents throughout the globe engage in indiscriminate

sexual activity (DUREX, 2005).

The knowledge about other STDs among the Akamba adolescents apart

from Gonorrhea 70.8 percent and Syphillis 70.4 percent, was abysmally low and

to others quite obscure. This study concurs with Leukefeld and Haverkos (1993),

17
that STDs present a formidable challenge to global society among the youth

since a majority are ignorant of the of the many STD’s in existence. Although the

number of actual cases of STD patients was difficult to avail in Machakos District

due to the anonymity and confidentiality in which medical practitioners handled

such cases, several medical doctors intimated that the incidence and prevalence

of STDs specifically for the adolescents could not be underestimated. In an

equivalent study by The Kaiser family Foundation (2003), in USA, adolescents

exhibited naivety, ignorance and total lack of knowledge about STDs. Indeed,

this kind of scenario predisposes them to being classified amongst high risk

category of population as pertains to STDs/ HIV/AIDs and they are also likely to

miss out on access to prevention, treatment and care.

In relation to contraceptive use, the condom was reported as the most

dominant contraceptive utilized by the adolescents in Machakos district. Among

those who reported to be sexually experienced, almost half (52 %) had used the

condom with 48 percent absconding. This finding was in tandem with studies

among the adolescents in other societies (AGI, 1994; Elizabeth, et al. 1999;

KDHS, 2003; Moore et al. 1998). As reported by the adolescents in this study,

the reasons for non usage of condoms among the sexually experienced

adolescents included embarrassment, reduction of pleasure, belief systems,

cost, fear and timidity as well as ignorance and naivety. According to this study,

although a majority of the Akamba adolescents were aware of the FP methods

(73.4%) condom use during intercourse amongst them was very low (48 percent

of sexually experienced had not used condom during intercourse) as well as

18
other forms of contraceptives. A small number of adolescents girls near the

urban centres of Machakos district knew about the Depopropellor and the

morning after pill- (4.9 %) but the use of these family planning methods was quite

insignificant during and after the intercourse.

In a related study carried out by the Federation of Obsterics and

Gynaecological, Societies of India (FOGSI) among 22,000 college going students

in New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Chennai, revealed

that among sexually active girls, the first intercourse of some 58% was

unplanned and hence unprotected. More than a third of the remaining 42% who

had their first sexual encounter did not use contraceptives, exposing themselves

to unwanted pregnancy and a range of sexually transmitted diseases (STDS)

(FOGSI, 2007). Similarly, CDC study (2000), in a study carried out in

1999 only 58 % of sexually active high school students in the United States,

reported that they or their partner used a condom during their most recent sexual

intercourse, and 16.2 % reported that they or their partner had used birth control

pills before their most recent sexual intercourse.

A World Bank report (2005), about youth in Kenya indicated that

contraceptive use among the adolescents was 39%, indicating that more than

half of them do not use any method of family planning. This in essence inclines

the adolescents to high level vulnerability to the contraction of STDs/HIV/AIDS,

pregnancies and other indiscriminate sex complications.

19
 The adolescent girl is in a more precarious condition in relation to

STD/HIV infection and the use of any form of contraception due to certain

prevailing socio-cultural, physical and economic conditions. In this study, out of

the total number of adolescents (15-19) who had visited voluntary Testing

Centres’ (VCTs) in Machakos District, 2.2 percent and 3.8 percent of adolescent

boys and girls had tested positive, respectively. In Kenya, KDHS, (2003) points

out that HIV prevalence in women ages 15-24 was nearly 9%, while for men of

the same age bracket it was under 5percent, while the same report indicates in

the age category 20-24 years, HIV prevalence among women is over three times

that of men in the same age group (9% and 2% respectively). In a recent

information released by National Aids Control Council (2007) in Kenya, girls in

age between 15 and 24 years are at high risk of HIV infection compared to boys

in their age category. AIDS prevalence in this age category according to NACC

(2007) was 3.5% for males and 6.7% for females.

The above HIV infection disparity between boys and girls can be

extrapolated to other developing countries in Asia, Africa and Southern and

Central America where young girls living in them share a number of experiences

which render them particularly vulnerable to HIV infection. Access to sex

education and information is often limited, levels of literacy are lower and due to

poverty, girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation through the need to

trade or forced into sex inorder to survive (WHO, 1998). Other reasons adduced

in my study during FGD’s and personal communication with adolescents and

20
opinion leaders included the fact that young girls have become prey for sex by

elderly men paranoid and anxious about HIV infection. Sex with young girls was

seen as safe from HIV infection. In a related study in Zimbabwe by Makoni

(2007), found out that the rapes of young, virgin girls is quite common due to the

myth that the blood of virgins cures AIDS. Zimbabwe in Africa has one of the

highest HIV infections in the world with one in five adults having AIDS.

Makoni(2007) observes that inb some aregions of the country, particularly near

Mozambique border, the myth remains strong. Men either collect the blood after

breaking girl’s hymens or after cutting their breasts-wounds that end up. Killing

the victim-and use it themselves or sell it for men who have AIDS (Makoni,2007)

The other factor is attributed to the rape and sexual abuse (molestation) of young

girls by adult members of the community who could be HIV positive. Moreover,

the biological anatomy of the female gender, especially the very young may

predispose them to greater risk of HIV infection if they engage in sex early

compared to boys. Girls during sex may experience tear and raptures in their

private parts which consequently gives room to the HIV inlet to the body. Lastly,

gender relations appertaining sexual relations in the society was a plausible

factor. Girls were indeed viewed as being in a weaker position to negotiate safer

sex through use of protection, especially condom, putting in mind that the female

condom is non available in the market, and even if available , there would

certainly be certain socio-cultural and economic inhibitions to its acquisition by

young girls. Moreover,Just like in many other patrilinear societies, the female

21
gender is in the receiving end on sex issues in Machakos District, aswell as in

other Kenyan societies.

5.4 PARENTS’ AND FAMILY MEMBERS’ ROLE IN ADOLESCENT SEXUAL

BEHAVIOUR

The parents and family members’ behavioural characteristics and

processes are widely regarded as having particularly important influences on the

sexual behaviour of the adolescents (Blum, 2002; Miller and Jorgensen, 1988;

Njau, 1993). Indeed, parental and family members’ values, supervision,

communication and modelling are associated with the sexual behaviour of their

children. The findings of this study portrayed very minimal interaction between

parents/ family members and their children on sexuality matters. A paltry 18.2

percent of the adolescents participating in the study indicated to have received

information on sexuality matters from parents as well as other family members.

This was emblematic of the fact that contemporary Akamba parents and family

members seemed to have abdicated on the role of guiding and enriching the

young people with knowledge about sexuality.

Further, Akamba parents according to the study were reported to be too

busy in the money market to afford quality time to be with their children and

supervise their activities. The sibilings, aunts, uncles and grandparents were

totally inaccessible due to locational disparities, language as well as age gap

incompatibilities and obsolescence. This was unlike the traditional Akamba

22
periods when these categories of family members used to be available to

supervise and instruct the youth on sexual matters. For instance, according to

Kayongo-male and Onyango (1984), grandparents played a very pivotal role as

agents of socializing the young in a majority of traditional African cultures. They

were instrumental in introducing young people to more sensitive topics such as

husband wife relationships and sexual behaviour, as well as the larger societal

roles, values and traditions. They relied largely on stroy telling,. Proverbs and

songs as techniques of socialization. After the age of ten or so, grandmothers

were more closely involved with female grandchildren and grandfathers with

male grandchildren.

,The role of siblings in socializing each other on pertinent issues including

sexuality matters was also reported to be very minimal in this study. This also is

unlike the traditional Akamba periods when older sibilings were very heavily

involved in the socialization process of their younger sibilings. Elder siblings

sometimes had authority equivalent to the authority of their parents over the

young children (Kayongo – Male and Onyango, 1984). Further, the authors

contend that the elder siblings were highly respected by their younger brothers

and sisters, and were expected to sacrifice for the younger ones as if they were

their own children. All that kind of expectation has dissipated over time and the

role of siblings in socialization among the Akamba society very circumscribed just

as for other categories of family members. This apparent vacuum may propel the

Akamba adolescents to indulge in sexual experimentation at the face of

ignorance and liberty. Moore et al. (1986), observes that daughters of traditional

23
parents who had communicated about sex were found to be less likely to have

had sex than daughters of more liberal parents or conservative parents who had

not communicated about sex. Moreover, lack of parentaland family members

supervisionon the young ones is cited as a key factor associated with early onset

of sexual activity (AGI, 1994; Kirby and Miller, 2002)

Compounded with the supervision and communication dilemma, it was

observed that when contemporary Akamba parents communicate on sexuality

matters they use euphemistic and metaphonic language, synonyms and

analogies totally incomprehensible to the contemporary adolescents. As reported

by one adolescent, “our parents do not want to face issues to do with sex head

on”. This concurs with report by Kithaka (2006), about an adolescent girl who

narrated how one of her parents proceeded to paint the male gender in a very

grim picture. “She told us that a man is like a snake and when he raises his head,

we should run for cover lest he spits on us”. The girl who owned up to having

interacted with boys sexually was left wondering whether this parent was

speculating literally or figuratively, but was too afraid to ask. Another adolescent

girl who was late coming home from school one evening narrated having been

confronted by the mother scornfully in her mother tongue, “so you have come

from being licked in the mouth?!” The mother could not literally mention the word

kissing or any other physical act!

The modern day reluctance to talk to young people about sex is reported

to be widespread and in many different contexts. Research in countries as

24
varied as Nigeria, the Philippines, Egypt and Mexico has shown that fear of

encouraging sexual activity mothers withhold vital information about sexuality

and reproduction form their daughters – imparting instead messages of danger,

fear and shame (Petchesky and Judd, 1998: 305). It is evident that for young

women, discussions about sex has often been limited to warnings about dangers

and the importance of preserving their honour and that of the family, and this

concurs with the situation among the modern Akamba of Machakos District. As

reported in this research, Akamba parents, more so the Mothers’ just warn about

sex and preach abstiuence but do not after alternatives. In other circumstances

as reported in research report among a variety of groups of young people in

Costa Rica, Chile, Cameroun, Zimbabwe, Cambodia, the Philippines and Papua

New Guinea it shows that while young women may expect to receive some sex

education within the family, albeit limited and centering on the technicalities of

reproduction and menstruation, young men report a virtual absence of parental

information or guidance about the physiological changes associated with puberty

or sex, and the responsibilities of a sexually active adult life. Information is

almost solely acquired from the media and from peers and siblings, many of

whom have themselves been similarly deprived of reliable adult guidance

(Dowsett and Aggleton, 1997).

In the traditional Akamba culture, parents complimented the community

pundits in guiding and socializing the young people on sexuality including social

responsibilities (Akong’a, 1988). Though use of songs, folklores and narratives

were commonly utilized in the traditional periods, the community ensured the

25
young people comprehended the gist of the learning processes through role

plays and being an active participant to the whole process of socialization. This

is in total contrast to the modern Akamba parent who appears to lack the

language to communicate on topical sexuality issues while the support

community has virtually dissipated due to migration and change of attitude in

socialization .Moreover, The modern, child is no longer the asset of the Akamba

community but the conjugal family. Attitudes have totally changed and punishing

another persons child for wrong doing could lead to severe conflict and curiosity

between families. The “i” attitude appears to be the norm rather than “we” in

socialization and by extension this sis what the children seem to subscribe to.

Moreover, where some communication between the young and adult community

occur, it was reported to be inconsisitent,substandard (poor quality) and carried

out by adults who seemingly appear not to know their expectations in

socialization in the contemporary Akamba community.

During the fieldwork in Machakos district, I literally observed a fascinating

emerging culture between parents and their children, especially during the

weekends. The weekend being the only available time to be with their children,

the parents created outings with their young offsprings to places where alcoholic

drinks, dancing and merry making were being perpetuated. Children ventured

further to get into the dancing floors to imitate adult patrons and to synchronize

into the art of gyration. Parents respond by cheering, never mind that some of

the songs they are dancing to are laden with suggestive lyrics, some glorifying

sex, hard drinking and violence. Interestingly too, the children would be dancing

26
and singing along oblivious to the fact that the Lyrics are raunchy and obscene.

This kind of behaviour would consequently, make children to start assimilating

adult behaviours and other hedonistic behavioural patterns at early age which

may later translate into sleaze, including sexual liaisons. This observation

concurs with Haffner (1999), whose findings indicated that the adolescents are

not the problem; adults are including bonafide parents. Adults do not model

sexual health and behaviour well for the young people, and teenagers will

behave similarly to adults when it comes to their sexuality.

Parallel observations concerning parents and family members in

Machakos district were cited in relation to the sexual abuse of children especially

girls under their care. This was confirmed by key informants as well as law

enforcers. This finding was reinforced by the media reports in the Kenyan press,

which occasionally is replete with reports of girl child sexual defilement by

primary family members, some as young as 3 years (Daily Nation, 16, may,2006;

E.A Standard, 14,Dec, 2006). Such headlines as “man arrested for impregnating

daughter” (E.A. Standard, 21.12. 2006) and, “father defiles five year old

daughter” (E.A. Standard 30th Dec. 2006) are quite common. Amazingly, most of

the sexual abuse cases of the young people by the family members indict the

male relatives, with the bonafide fathers’ being major culprits. In a report by the

UN (2007) carried out in Kenya, 75 percent of incest in Kenya’s urban areas are

by the father, while uncles and other relative account for 23 %. The report said

83% of abuse occurred in the child’s home, and the girl child bears the brunt of

the social malady. The following cases have been highlighted in the Kenyan

27
press and they augment the findings of this research about incest and child

abuse among Akamba peopleof Machakos district, Kenya:

Case 1: Girls HIV infection blamed on father (E.A. standard , 14th sep

2006). In this case, a girl who was allegedly infected with HIV by her father is

living at the Nyeri provincial general hospital Kenya, for fear of punishment. The

eight year old girl from Naromoru District, Kenya refused to go home after she

was discharged, saying her father who already had been arrested, had

threatened her with death if she exposed her ordeal

Case II. 70 year old man commits suicide to escape wrath of mob for

incest(Dn, may 17th 2007). The report in the Nation said that a 70 year old man

committed suicide to escape the wrath of a mob that was baying for his blood for

impregnating his granddaughter. That he had also fathered the mother of the

child through an incestuous relationship with his own daughter, is to say the

least, most bizarre.

Case III. Father rapes daughter, 9, burns her (E.A. standard, 9th June

2007). A school girl had been hospitalised after her father allegedly raped her.

And in a move aimed at erasing evidence , the suspect burnt the standard two

pupil all over her body-including her private parts-using a hot iron rod.

28
 Case IV. Father denies raping his teenage daughter (Sunday Nation, 10th

June 2007). This case involves a man who had been charged in an Eldoret

district court, Kenya, with raping his teenage daughter. According to the paper,

the court heard that on may 13th 2007, the man raped his daughter, 17, at their

home, and that he further had caused her grievous harm.

Case V. Unbelievable Act (E.A. standard, 13th March 2007). Officials of

Naivasha Disadvantaged Support Group are pictured counselling a 13 year old

girl who had allegedly been defiled and impregnated by her father.

Case VI “I saw father in bed with my sister” says woman (E.,A. standard,

30th January, 2007). In this particular case, a father at the centre of incest trial

tried to bribe hisr daughter with ksh.500 after she caught him in bed with her

elder sister, a court was told in Naivasha District, Kenya.

It is important to note that incest appears to be a Universal phenomenon,

that is entrenched in a majority of global cultures, but amajority of victims and

cultures hardly report of its existence. This is because incest has been a taboo

to most global cultures and the perception of what is incest in one culture may

not be viewed as incest in the other. Further, there are existing socio-cultural

and psychological impediments which may inhibit an incestusly abused person

from reporting such a case. More over, the stigma and embarrassment in most

29
cultures associated with incest may act as a deterrent to bring the issue in the

public domain.

Several sociologists and anthropologists state that the universal

prohibition on incest was very effective in the past (traditional) simply because

sex between close family members was viewed to jeopardise the existence of

cultures. According to Talcot Parsons, the effective prohibition of incest was

linked with the functioning of society. Whilethe abolition of incest was

accomplished at the beginning of human cultures,(Demause,1991). Leslie while

further observes that without it (incest taboo), “Social evolution could have gone

no further on the human level than among the athropoids” (Demause, 1991).

Other explanations offered for the renounciation of incest in most global

culturesinclude the biological impairments attendant upon inbreeding. This view

is predicated on the biological explanations that sex and conception between

people of similar genes may lead to gene degeneration which subsequently

would result to production ofvery weak human beings (with very weak

immunity) ,albinism (as a result of mutation) as well as producing morons. This

consequence has in the past been witnessed within the royal kingdom in Europe,

resorting to urgent need for exogamy inorder to sustain the kingdoms. Other

factors according to Demause (1991), would include the utility of social alliances,

the collapse of the family if sexual rivalry is allowed and even boredom with

family members.

30
 Demause (1991) identifies two types of incest: direct incest, that is, overt

sexual activity between family members other than spouses; and indirect incest,

the providing of children by their parents to others in order for them to be sexually

molested. Demause avers that arranging for children to have sex with other

household members or neighbours is usually motivated by the incestuous wishes

of the parent; and in any case, it is usually perceived by the child to be similar to

direct incest. My study concurs with Demause(1991), who demonstrates that

contemporary incest and abuse among the young abuse usually involves a

guardian or parent, who, if not the direct perpetrator ( as was mostly the case in

Machakos district and Kenya by extension), covertly or indirectly brings about the

incident with “others” in order to satisfy their own incestuous wishes.

A stupefying case of indirect incest was reported in the United States of

America, in cincinnati of parents jailed for “raping “ their kids (TOI, 1 st August

2006). According to the report the mother (26 years) was jailed to 40 years for

molesting , atleast, one of her five children and prompting the other four to have

sex with each other. The lady and her husband,32, had,sexually abused their

four sons and one daughter, ages 1 to 6, in 2004. In march (2006), the husband

received five life sentences on five rape charges and 96 additional years on 12

charges. The man (husband) had encountered an undercover secret service

agent in March 2006 in an internet chat room called “Baby and Pre-teen Sex”.

He had offered to rape his 3- year old daughter live on the internet if another

person would do the same.

31
Studies indicate that young people who have been sexually abused tend to

exhibit abnormal sexual tendencies early, have more sexual partners than other

adolescents, and a disproportionate number of teenage mothers, STDs and

HIV/AIDS victims have been victims of sexual abuse some by very close family

members (Luster and Small, 1997; Males, 1996). This study also unearthed

information about cousin to cousin sexual liaisons and endogamous relations

(clan based) among the contemporary Akamba adolescents, as well as sibling to

sibling especially early child play and by extension when in certain circumstances

siblings shared a bed or bedroom.

Incestuous sexual episodes were literally proscribed in traditional Akamba

culture (Gehman, 1989;; Kimilu, 1962). The range of physical contact between

children and their parents was very well defined as well as sexual relations

between family members. According to Kayongo-male and Onyango (1984),

most African cultures forbid endogamous sexual relations as well as all forms of

luscious relations especially amongst cognatic relatives.

Penwill (1951), points out that, among the Akamba people,

“if a man had intercourse with his sister or daughter or mother, he would in

former times have been beaten or tortured by his clan. He would also be

required to pay a goat and bull for purification ceremonies. In these traditional

periods, intercourse with a sister she could not be married until after purification;

and if with a daughter, he must leave his wife until purification had taken place.

32
There was no legal penalty for the woman in these cases, save the reproach of

the clan and social stigma” (Penwill 1951: 76-77).

It is worth noting that the Akamba family (Musyi) that traditionally formed a

closely knit community has totally collapsed. By extension too, the clan system

which for a long time provided codes and means of social control among its

members (appertaing incest and sexual impropriety) are not as strong as they

were in the traditional periods. As observed in this research, young people are

no longer conscious nor aware of the existence of the clan groups and their

cultural proscriptions as well as prescriptions. Equally, marrying, romancing or

cohabiting with a member of one’s clan, a traditional abhorrent practice is un

known in the contemporary Akamba youth.

Lastly, the entry of the house workers, helpers or maids in the modern family

as a result of certain macro-economic changes in the society which require the

parents to be wholesomely involved in the money market has seriously

confounded the whole process of socialization- of the young ones in their family.

Housemaids are a post-modern attribute among the Akamba people very

common with the educated, urban and employed (money market) parents to act

as proxies in the absence of the parents in care taking and nurturance of the

young ones. Through observation and personal communication, it was very clear

that children of urban Akamba parents as well as the educated in rural areas

spent more time with the housemaids than the parents, and may at sometimes

33
view especially the mother as a disciplinarian. According to Kayongo-Male and

Onyango (1984), the child may systematically start confiding his/her secrets to

the house maid than the mother, eventually the mother getting fully alienated

from the child’s social life. Further, most house workers have such a lower

educational background, others are school dropouts especially due to poverty

and early pregnancies, while their home background is quite different that she

inadvertently presents an alternative moral and value system to that of the

parents. Adolescent boys in Machakos district intimated that housemaids

literally introduce boys to premarital sex( mind you most house girls are at the

age of the children they are meant to nurse) while young girls learn about some

nitty-gritties of sex and contraceptives from the house girls. This nexus of house

girl-children orientation is confirmed by Akonga(1988) and Kioli(1997) who

observe that housemaids are key intiators, and influence the sex life of the

young people under their care while in turn, their employers especially men have

been found out to be sex predators’ to the house helpers. Finally, Kayongo-male

and Onyango(1984) point out that parents or employers have less control over

such servants in sense that the househelps are often strangers with no moral

obligation to the parents. If they are poorly paid they may revenge themselves

by taking a deeper hold on the children.

5.5 THE FUNCTION OF THE MASS MEDIA AND PEERS IN EXPLAINING

ADOLESCENT SEXAUL BEHAVIOUR

34
5.5.1 THE MASS MEDIA

The mass media (electronics and print) was reported as predominant

sources of sexual behaviour information, by the adolescents as well as key

informants in this research. Studies indicate that modern mass media is beset

with sexual contents and connotations targeting the youth, and this affects the

young peoples sexual activity and beliefs about sex (FOCUSAS, 2005; Kabatesi,

1995; NCPTG, 2000; SIECUS, 2005). According to a study by FOCUSAS (2005),

children are bombarded with sexual content and messages in the media in that;

• In 2003, 83 percent of the episodes of the top 20 shows among teen

viewers contained some sexual content, including 20% with sexual

intercourse.

• 43% of the secular music in 1999 contained sexual content- 19% included

direct descriptions of sexual intercourse.

• On average, music videos contain 93 sexual situations per hour, including

even “hard core” scenes depicting behaviours such as intercourse and

oral sex.

• Boys and girls who listen to lots of music with sexual tones were almost

twice as likely to start sexual activities and with multiple partners within the

following two years compared to those who listen to little or no sexually

explicit music (FOCUSAS, 2005: 1-9).

35
 The Akamba adolescents with the access to mass media messages

demonstrated a penchant for soap operas, music and movies in the television

while a similar pattern was observed for cinema movies. A closer observation to

the soap opera’s or serial programmes running in the Kenya television networks

revealed that a majority of their episodes and main themes are pegged on sex,

drugs or violence. The most classic example was the ‘Bold and Beautiful”,

apparently running in the Kenyan media (KBC) for the past almost 20 years, and

happened to be the most popular. Incidentally this ‘Soap Opera rotates on

romantic and incestuous affairs between family members whereby a leading lady

character, Brooke Logan, is first married by the patriach of the family (Eric

forester), after some time they break off, then she gets married by his first son,

(Ridge forrester), whom they also break off, then, overtime she is seen in a

ceremony wedding Thorn, Ridge’s younger Brother”. The serial programme is

outrageously incestuous and fascinatingly, it is rated as the most watched

programme in Kenya as well as in other parts of the world. According to the

Soap Opera Digest Magazine(2007), the Bold and Beautiful accounts for over

450 million daily viewers around the world and its influence on the sexual

behaviours of the fanatics cannot be gainsaid. Moreover, the soap’s small cast

apart from leading to incestuous love triangles among family members and in-

laws, it is morally wrong, in some cultures, especially traditional African cultures,

where incest is abominable

.In relation to music, Reggae and Hip hop were amongst the most

appealing to the Akamba adolescents. According to one key informant

36
(secondary teacher) participating in this study, whether its hip-hop, reggae, rap,

pop or rock, much of popular music aimed at teens contains sexual overtones. Its

influence on their behaviour appears to depend on how the sex is portrayed.

Some songs depict men as “sex driven studs”, women as “sex objects” and with

explicit references to sex acts, they are more likely to trigger early and

irresponsible sexual behaviour than those where sexual references are more

veiled and relationships appear more committed. Further, exposure to sexually

degrading music gives them a specific message about sex. Boys learn that they

should be relentless in their pursuit of women and girls learn to view themselves

as sex givers (Kabatesi; 1995).

A case in point which exemplified the sexist view in modern music was in

the year 2004. when two famous American Pop Musicians Justin Timberlake

and Jane Jackson engaged in an incident presently popularly dubbed the

“Nipplegate”. In this incident, Timberlake pulled down Janet Jackson’s top to

flash her breast at the 2004 music concert and the incident has topped a poll of

the 25 Biggest Celebrity Scandals since 1982 (Soap Opera Digest Magazine,

2007). According to the magazine, the incident was an indicator to how

Hollywood was “Polluting Kids Minds”. There were over 90 million people

believed to have watched this episode, many of them children and adolescents

and thus, the incident became a flash point for family-value activists and

campaigners to indict popular music and Hollywood to the uncharacteristic

sexual behaviour in the modern times. Indeed, it it clear that the modern young

people (both urban and rural)base their identities on musicians and movie

37
celebrities, thus, what they see, hear and conceptualise, will ultimately be

ingrained and consequently put into practice.

Moreover, a closer observation to the marketing of goods and services in

the Kenyan market, especially goods of aesthetics, telecommunication, clothes,

vehicles and even food stuffs, the aspect of “sex” has to feature somewhere,

even if very subtle. Indeed, on television advertisements of most goods and

services can only be described as indecent , vulgar and sexually suggestive. This

is symbolically expedited through presenting the very gorgeous girls and boys

adjacent to the products, skimpily and scantily dressed with a raunchy or racy

pose. The mass media marketing strategy is targeting the youth who happen to

be the majority and main consumers. Apparently, a sales executive with a

leading alcoholic firm, Kenya, in a personal communication (pc) pointed out that

sex overtones have to be ejected into marketing and advertisements for it

captures consumers’ moods, emotions and values, which trigger purchasing and

consumption capacity.

Oyuga Pala, a popular Kenyan Satirist succintly avers that, “Sex sells”,

and indeed, it is an advertising Mantra (Pala, 2007). Further more the notion of

using luscious advertisements is quite a global malady. In India,July 2007, the

Ministry of information and broadcasting had to ban two underwear

advertisements, felt to be inappropriate. One of the adverts was showing a

woman washing a man’s underwear at a ghat and progressively getting turned

on. Her washing actions were turning more suggestive as she pounded the

38
underwear. In the other, a washer woman calls at an apartment to pick up

laundry and a man wearing a towel answers the door. As his towel drops,

leaving him only in his undiues, she eyes him flirtatiously! (TOI, July 27, 2007:6)

Njaramba (2005), an editor with Noel Creative Media (Kenya)

encapsulates the mass media issues by stating,

“From the sitting room to the entertainment spots, messages are posted

which scream Sex! Sex! and more Sex!. Scantily dressed men and women are

all over the television screens in the form of advertisements, music programmes

and soap opera, stocking the exuberance of young boys and girls. The lyrics are

not only better, “manyake all sizes” “Leo Niko Kwa Keja”, “nataka kukushika

more”, are among the messages coming to our teenagers. Even if such music is

banned in the house, the “matatu” your kid uses to and from school is loudly

playing such music, music that you would be mortified to the bone listening to.

The FM stations and a hoard of magazines have not been left behind in this

grand conspiracy. They appear to be in a deadly competition on who presents

the most luscious and sexually appealing cabaret. The more revealing the

pictures, the hotter they are. And the messages “its your body, your life and your

pleasure”, “if it feels good why not”. One advert says, “kuwa mjanja kuwa na trust

mfukoni unapoenda missioni,” translated, “be shrewd and carry a pack of trust

condoms with you, as you go on a ladies hunting mission.” (Njaramba, 2005:1-2).

Modern youth dancing styles are equally obscene and sexually cathartic.

An observation in the night clubs and discotheques frequented by adolescents

39
and college students in Machakos urban centres vindicates above statement in

the sense that dancing styles are quite suggestive and bumper to bumper hip

hop style. Indeed, as observed by Mr. Muthiani (an educationist) in Machakos

town, “boys and girls get their thrill out of a new version of dirty dancing, which is

quite titillating, with heavy gyrations, in a purely sexual portrayal way.” This was

common for both the sexes.

This study found out that over 50 percent of the sexually experienced

adolescents participating in this study adored soap operas, pornographic movies,

listened to Hip-hop and reggae music and admired magazines articles classified

under family and sex life experiences. Another fundamental observation was that

all the four (4) students who reported in the study to have access to internet

services were apparently sexually experienced.

This information confirms what Mitchell (1971) pointed out that apart from

encouraging sexual experimentation, watching, imagining or reading about

sexual activity is itself sexually arousing. The most worrying aspect is that the

abundant sexual media messages reach the young ones before puberty and this

party confirms the pre-adolescent sexual involvement findings by this study. This

study further concurs with Coleman and Hendry (1990,) who argued that pre

adolescent sex occurs as result of the highly suggestive stimuli presented to

young people, usually through the medium of television but also in films,

literature, internet and pop music. Sex in this context is usually portrayed with a

materialistic emphasis and is often associated with theme of immediate

gratification. It is my contention that young people are thus almost bullied into

40
sexual activity by the social environment(awash with sexuality explicit messages)

long before they are mature or have reached puberty proper.

In relation to the traditional Akamba culture, both print and electronic

media were bereft due to technological obscurity. The culture of consumerism

perpetuated by Western media started finding its root after the second world war

but became more pronounced between 1960 and today with the unabated

spread of capitalism and materialism. Before contact with colonialists in the 20th

century, the Akamba people lived a simple life without the television, radio,

internet and all other forms of modern telecommunication. In a nutshell then, the

traditional Akamba society was devoid of mass media influences to their social

life.

According to Ndeti (1972) the Akamba people instead had nocturnal

dances “Mbathi sya anake”, translated to mean song and dance for the youth.

Young men and women participated under the elderly guidance and Kimilu

(1962) points out that girls tied well knit animal skin or cloth around their waists to

ensure they did not expose their bodies during the process of dancing. This

ensured decency in dancing, which is in total contrast to the modern cloth pattern

in dancing.

Lastly, Machakos town is systematically emerging as a town of night

clubs. As observed, girls and boys in their teenage or in early twenties prowl in

packs of two to four in these nightclubs, casting meaningful glances at any and

all passing young men and women. In Ngungani club, Boma club, Kyama Inn,

Ikuuni Hotel, Kisambalau Bar, among others, young women and men dance for

41
hours, sing to their music lyrics with some appearing in very exposing and

skimpy dresses. Sexual scenes are quite explicit (in dance, posture, clothing and

gesture) and in indeed, this view demonstrates how young people in Machakos

town are exponentially getting exposed to the post modern culture of seeking

pleasure. It is noteworthy that most revellers to the Machakos nightclubs

especially weekend nights are college and by extension secondary school

students from within and without Machakos town. An intriguing episode occurred

in May 2006, when over 20 school going adolescent boys were roughed up by

the police in a Machakos town bar (8th May 2006, Daily Nation). Some were

reported to be heavily inebriated.

5.5.2 THE PEERS AND ADOLESCENT SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

Studies undertaken in other societies indicate that the adolescents have a

great deal of influence over each other (Billy and Udry, 1985; Njau 1993; Miller

and Moore 1990; SIECUS, 2005; Silva et al., 1998). Indeed, the role played by

the peers in the transmission of knowledge, attitudes and practices in relation to

intimate aspects of life including love and sex is quite significant in a study by

SIECUS (2005):

• A much higher percentage of sexually active adolescents believed their

peers as well to be sexually active.

• Adolescents who believe many or all of their peer group to be sexually

active are more than twenty (20) times as likely to have their first coital

42
 experience than those who believe that none of their friends are sexually

active.

Allport (1969) points out that adolescents who have friends who strongly

encourage sex experimentation or dwell more on the “sex talk” than other issues

are the ones more apt to provide justification for their aggressive sexual activity

and vice versa. Further, a number of retrospective studies indicate that the more

frequently and the earlier an adolescent is in an intimate love relationship with

another or date, the earlier it is to feel or get obliged to indulge in sexual activity

(Bearman and Bruckner, 1999; SIECUS, 2005).

This study agrees with above mentioned study findings since 71.2% of the

sexually experienced Akamba adolescents indicated their main source of

information on sexual behaviour was from their peers. There is evidence from

elsewhere in Africa to suggest that peers have become a more important sources

of knowledge, advice and support. In Malawi, for example, 60 percent of girls

interviewed reported having learned about menstruation form friends not from

their grandmothers or advisors as traditionally occurred (Helitzer- Allen, 1997).

To demonstrate the intensity of peer influence to the behaviour of one another, a

true case study was narrated by an adolescentboy about how his friend found

himself in a severe STD medical predicament due to misadvise from a peer.

According to the story, the form two boys in one of the boarding schools in

Machakos District found that he had been infected with an STD during one of the

holidays. He discovered this while in school after holiday and the only thing that

43
came to his mind first was to inform his closest friend (classmate) and seek his

advice. Fascinatingly, the friend is said to have taken it as a simple matter,

subsequently, advising this infected boy to buy paraffin that evening, and pour

some drops to the affected area (urethra) with the belief that it will heal. The

loyal friend religiously did as he was told without giving it a second thought. That

evening, he bought a bottle of paraffin from the nearby shops locked himself in

the dormitory when others had gone for preps, and poured drops of this corrosive

substance to his urethra as earlier advised. It turned out that, it degenarated into

a big wound ,some parts of his genitalia had been burned and severed by the

corrosive substance and the boy could not walk in the third day. The school

management consequently came to know about it, but it was too late since the

boys reproductive system including critical ducts had been severed. This act put

the future reproductive health of the boy at jeopardy!!

It is important to note that the afore mentioned case of misadvise is

emblematic of the kind of lay information as well as ignorance the young people

have about sexuality matters. It also indicates the loyalty and trust the young

people bear on each other on matters to do with sexuality.

Moreover, 66.2% of adolescents in this study reported that they knew

their friends indulged in sexual activity. The study also revealed that a majority of

the adolescents, 40.4% centred their discussions on matters classified under

likely to lead to irresponsible sexual behaviour. In addition, 35.5 % of the boys

and 29.5% of adolescent girls in the study had intimate relations (heterosexual

relations) and over half of them were sexually experienced. The study thus

44
confirms that the urgency with which an adolescent is likely to indulge in coital

relations is to a considerable degree of his/her peer group association

heterosexual relationship and orientation. Further, the study concurs with

Ericsson (1971), that adolescents are likely to behave at the behest of each other

and more so, in their endeavour to establish an identing, conform to the authority

and attention of their peer group.

Miller et al. (1993) assert that the earlier the dating experience begins for

an adolescent, the more likely he or she is to become involved in one or more

steady and committed relationships which increase their likehood of sexual

experiences. This assertion corroborates the findings in Machakos District which

found out that early heterosexual relations predispose adolescents to early

sexual experimentation. Sex in such a circumstance occurs either voluntarily or

through date rape (aquintance rape). In a similar study in the United States,

among girls whose first date took place at the age 14 or younger, Thornton(1990)

found out that two thirds of girls had gone steady before age 16 and the girls who

had begun to date between the age of 16 and 18, however, one third had not

gone steady by age 18. Acquintance rape or date rape, was also confirmed to be

an increasing problem in studies done in the United States among high school

and college campus students (Christopher and Kisler,2004) – and similarly,

acquintance rape was reported to be quite common among adolescent boys and

girls in Machokas District. It is mostly perpetuated by tahe boys especially when

girls accompany or visit boys in their cubes, in the bush or classroom.

45
 The traditional Akamba society had its own institutionalized way of

socializing the youth especially on matters to do with heterosexual and peer

relations. All the young people were introduced to similar informal education and

according to Kimilu(1962) the youth were exposed to a common code of ethics,

values and beliefs from which they would derive their self control and respect for

each other in their experiences as adapted members of the society. The peers

formed part of the community agents who provided guidance and counselling to

each other and this ensured smooth transition. Kenyatta (1962) observes that the

teaching of social obligation amongst the traditional African cultures to “riika” or

age group bound them together. Further, men and women circumcised at the

same time stood in the very closest relationship to each other. They were like

siblings and must not do any wrong to each other otherwise it would become a

serious magico-religious offence. The peers “riika” was thus a powerful

instrument for securing conformity in the traditional societies according to

Kenyatta (1962). The traditional Akamba youth peers buttressed the community

efforts in helping each other adjust to life properly. They were thus well informed

in sexuality issues as well as in other social responsibility concerns. There was

no misadvice or naivety as appertained to sexuality matters. This places them in

total contrast to the “riika” (age matters) of today whom this study indicate are ill

informed, they are endowed with lay knowledge and misadvise each other on

sexuality issues

46
 5.6 THE AKAMBA COMMUNITY AND COMMUNITY LEADERS ROLE IN

ADOLESCENT SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR.

5.6 : 1 ROLE OF AKAMBA COMMUNITY

The findings of this study were quite revealing in many respects on the

role of the community around the adolescents and its leaders in terms of

accounting for adolescent sexual behaviour. The social and cultural context

under which the adolescent is placed determines his or her eventual behaviour

(Njau, 1993; Smolicz, 2004). The dichotomy between traditional (rural) and

modernity (urban) placement of the young ones explains variations in the sexual

behaviour manifestations. According to Munywoki (2000), adolescents brought

up in a rural setup are likely to be inhibited by cultural norms to delay sex

indulgence compared to those in an urban ambience. Cultural norms in a rural

environment are stringent to certain sexual behaviours, subservience to authority

is the norm while proximity and observation of young ones activities and their

behaviours is abitelaborate and enhanced in a rural setup. This is unlike an

urban (modern) environment where according to Smolicz (2004), there is

breakdown of traditional value systems governing interaction, life is quite

impersonal and encapsulated with considerable cultural stagnation and

distortion. Life becomes permissive and may eventually lead to an anomic

situation. Subsequently, inhibitions to certain forms of sexual behaviour

indulgences are quite obsolete.

The above sentiments echoes this study to some degree in the sense that

Akamba adolescents in urban or closer to urban life in Machakos district reported

47
to indulge in coital relations at an earlier age compared to the rural placed

Akamba adolescents. A fascinating observation in the study was that Akamba

adolescents in rural areas begin sex relatively at a later age but demonstrated a

greater degree or pattern of indulgence in later life of adolescence than the urban

based adolescents. This study further concurs with a similar study in Kenya by

Njau (1993), who reported that adolescents in Kiambu District (urban and

cosmopolitan) started coital relations preferably at an early age than their

counterparts in Narok District (rural and homogeneous).

Other supplementary explanations have been adduced to this regional

disparity. Across cities and towns, girls and boys are reaching puberty faster than

before. For instance, the age of attaining the sexual maturity for girls in urban

centres has dropped to below 11 years from the global average of thirteen years

(AGI, 1994; Rees, 1993). This will imply that girls may experiment on sex earlier

than before. In Nairobi, Kenya for instance,according to Youri (1994), a girl

delivered at age ten years and three months implying she must have conceived

at age 9.5 years and most likely engaged in sexual intercourse even earlier.

Similarly, in Bomet District, Kenya, a 10 year old standard three pupil dropped

out of school due to pregnancy in 2005, (Daily Nation, November, 2 nd 2005).

Other factors, explaining this drop in sexual maturity could be better nutrition,

change in hormonal patterns, new food habits, genetic factors, environmental

changes and upbringing. Furthermore, it has been documented that the stress of

family breakdowns and conflicts could be causing children to reach puberty

earlier (Bellis, 2006). The author believes that prolonged stress may speed up

48
puberty by altering the balance of growth hormones and other chemicals in the

body-and one of the causes could be the trauma of watching parents spilt-up. In

his article in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Bellis (2006)

says ”stress is a puberty accelerator with familial disruptions, including father

absenteesm, being one of the most effective stressors and levels of divorce as

well as single parent families which apparently have rapidly escalated in many

cultures”.

The impact of the adult community to the sex life of the adolescents has

alsobeen documented in a number of retrospective studies (Dusek, 1991;

Haffner, 1999; Laumann, 1996). The history of adolescent sexuality has largely

been a history of rape or sexual molestation by the adult community, forced

childhood marriage, manipulation for sex or simply inappropriate touching

(Males, 1996). The younger the age of the first sexual intercourse, the more likely

it is coercive and, has severe future implications into the sex life of the

adolescent. Further, women and men who recall childhood genital contact with

adults are nearly three times as likely to report having had their first sexual

intercourse before age 15 compared to those who did not have such an

experience (Laumann, 1996). A UN annual report (2006) indicates that one in

every four women aged between twelve and twenty four in Kenya lose their

virginity through force with men predators being the mal adult community. In a

similar study almost one in four children in Kenya aged thirteen years report

having been sexually propositioned, mostly by an adult (Johnston,2002) Media

reports are evidence enough into the magnitude of the sexual malaise to the

49
young, especially girls in Kenya. Girls are sexually molested as young as 3

years with the peak being 8 to 16 years, while, 16,482 rape cases were reported

in Kenya in 2005 (Odhiambo, 2006). Males (1996), observes that sixty percent or

more of all teen births in the globe are fathered by an adult male and nearly all

STDs and HIV/AIDS among teens – male and female – are contracted from adult

males and females.

The phenomenon of childhood and adolescence sexual abuse is reported to

be common in both developed and developing countries. A UN report(2007)

says 150 million girls and 73 million boys in the globe experienced forced sexual

intercourse or other forms of sexual violence in 2002. Further, according to AGI

(1994), seventy four percent of young women in America who had intercourse

before age 14, and 60 percent of young women who had sex before 15 reported

having had sex involuntarily (coerced or raped). Additionally, Nearly 200,000

rapes are reported each year in the United States (Santrock, 2005). In India, the

media is invariably awash with reports and court cases of elderly (adults) defiling

minors, same as sad as involving rape and then murder inorder to conceal

evidence (TOI 28th July 07, TOI 6th August 2007). Statistics released from

Ministry of Women and Child development (MWCS) (2007)in New Delhi indicate

54.6% boys and 22.5% girls have faced severe for ms of abuse namely rape,

sodomy,and touching, fondling and being forced to exhibit private parts and

photographed in nude (MWCD,2007). In a related manner, although many cases

go unreported in Kenya as well as other Sub-Saharan Africa, the KOHS (2003)

50
report that 30% of adolescents aged 15 – 19 years have either experienced

physical or sexual abuse in Kenya, with one in every four girls and one in every

ten boys being sexually abused. The following rape and child molestation cases

suffice to the gravity of the situation in Kenya :

Case: I : Man gets seven years for rape of minor (D.N. 14.2.06). In this case a

man was jailed for seven years by a Kenyan court for defiling a seven year old

girl.

Case: II : Girl, 6, in gang rape ordeal (D.N. 27.3.07). In this case, an outing by a

family ended on a sad note after a six-year-old daughter was defiled by a gang

and dumped near a road.

Case: III : Varsity student raped and killed near campus (S.N. 17.6.07). In this

case, a third year student at the University of Nairobi was raped, killed and the

body dumped near the Campus.

Case: IV : Watchman, 55, in court over rape of pupils (D.N. 3.5.07). This case

involved a night watchman accused of raping three primary school girls in

Kurinyanga District, Kenya and all girls were aged between seven and nine

years.

Case: V : Girl 11, defiled, abandoned in town (Citizen 30.4.07). This episode

involved an 11 year old orphaned girl, defiled overnight and dumped by the road

side in Vihiga District, Kenya.

Case: VI : Two cases, first case, a child rapist gets 20 years Jail term in

Bungoma District, Kenya while in the second case, a man gets 32 years for

51
raping a girl 12 years in Laikipia, Kenya and infecting her with an STD (DN, 5th

July 2007).

These afore mentioned cases and many more which may pass unreported

are quite appalling and demonstrate a socio-pathic society. It is a strong

indicator of breakdown in standards governing morality in modern society and

total travesty to the expected integrity and dignity of African culture. Interestingly,

inspite modernity and culture change and, another form of child abuse in

continuously being reported among several Kenya ethnic groups in the form of

Child marriage. The phenomenon of child marriage or betrothal has dissipated

within the Akamba culture as reported during research bbut it is being practised

amongst other cultural groups in Kenya and outside. In a classic case, a

standard three pupil was married off to a 45 year old man in West Pokot District.

The man had paid a bride price of 14 cows to the father to marry the 12 year old

girl (D.N, 10th Nov 2006). Intriguingly, the paper reported that about 10 men

whisked her to the groom who was waiting at a” manyatta”. Similarly, more than

300 pupils from a girls school in Kapenguria District, Kenya had staged a

demonstration protesting against the early marriage of five (5) girls from their

school who had been married off by their parents (D.N. 10th Nov 2006). Early

marriage is also reported among the Somali people of republic of Somaliland and

Garrisa, Kenya, where, a program officer with UNICEF avers,“ In one community,

I was told that huts for newly weds are situated 200 meters from the main house

because the grooms parents did not want to hear under age (already married)

52
girls screams at night when her husband had sex with her. This is torture. I

know even the men here would not enjoy sex in such circumstances”. (D.N. 9th

May 2007:7). Further, in other parts of Africa, for instance parts of Zambia, girls

marry at the age of 10 years and it is not uncommon to find a girl aged 13 years

having a baby aged 3 years. (Akong’a 1988:11).

Child marriage has also been reported in some parts of Soth Asia (India

and Bangladesh). In India for instance, in the Gurjjar community, state of

Rajasthan, girls are married of f and also as young as 10 years(Sunday Express,

30th September,2007). Inspite absence of child betrothal among Akamba people,

sexual interaction between adolescent boys and girls and adult community in

Machakos district was quite explicitin this study. Over eight percent of adolescent

boys and girls reported that their first sexual experience was as a result of force

(rape), inducement or manipulation while 17.1 percent adolescent boys and girls

had indicated to have had sex with elderly people (sugar Daddies & sugar

Mummies), prostitutes, house helps (maids) and also by people they could not

identify. The main predators as enumerated by adolescents and key informants

in Machakos district were relatives, shopkeepers, neighbours, anonymous male

rapists, while other sexual predators were those under whom the adolescents

were under their custody namely teachers, drivers and family friends. Force, rape

and manipulated sex could be one of the culpable reasons to the early sex

indulgence by adolescent boys and girls, reported to be at 6.6 percent before age

ten years in Machakos district (Kenya) by the time of this study. Adolescents in

Machakos District also reported that many children both at home and school

53
were suffering sexual abuse in the hands of their adult caretakers in silence.

Factors adduced for being silent included most sexual abuse being non-violent,

especially in the beginning thus ignorant about it. There is also feeling of shame

and guilt and lack of courage to expose abusers while others may not know

sexualabusing is wrong due to ignorance. In other circumstances, abused

adolescents are discouraged or induced with favours not to expose sexual

abuse by their own relatives. Further more, most young Akamba adolescents do

not know the exact Akamba word for rape thus just keep quiet. More Over some

parents connive with the abusers and get paid to keep quiet or just withdraw a

case.

Date or acquaintance rape was reported to be very common among

adolescents in both primary and secondary schools in Machakos District.

According FGD’s held with both adolescents boys and girls, it is highly

perpetuated by boys and it mostly occurs when girls accompany or visit boys in

their cubes, in the bush or classroom. This finding is confirmed by studies done

in the United States of America which found out that acquaintance rape was an

increasing problem among high school and college campus students

(Christopher and Kisler, 2004).

The study on adolescent sexual behaviour in Machakos District also

found out that Men are the Main Culprits perpetuating rape as well as abuse

among young women. This finding is collaborated by Santrock (2005) who

contends that Men commit 95 percent of all rapes in the globe. It is thus

important to question why men are major perpetrators and why rape is so

54
pervasive in most global culture? First and foremost, the definition of what is

rape varies from culture to culture. For instance in Western cultures, forcing or

having sex with any acquaint (wife or girlfriend) against her consent can be

termed as rape while in most African Cultures, once in love or marriage, there is

nothing like rape (personal communication). The major plausible factor as to why

men are major perpetrators of rape is because of the way they are socialized.

According to Santrock (2005), in most cultures most men are socialized to be

aggressive, to regard females as inferior beings, and to view their own pleasure

as most important objective. More over, intoxication as well as mental problems

(psychosis and paedophiles) are plausible factors. Santrock (2005:20)

enumerates following characteristics common among rapists: Aggression

enhances their sense of power control or masculinity they are angry at females

generally, they want to hurt their victims or revenge as well as desire to assert

one self.

The traditional Akamba custom virulently frowned upon rape and

paedophile. According to Penwill (1951), such an act as rape would have

certainly led to fighting between the families or clans concerned, and probably

with several deaths. If the act had aroused the indignation of the community, the

culprit would be executed by “king’ole” (public gathering convened to effect

capital punishment on a habitual criminal). If a man had intercourse with a child

not yet past puberty, customary penalty was cleansing and fine payment through

goats (Penwill, 1951: 74-75). In a supplementary view, Gehman(1989:51) points

out that rape was even considered to be a more serious crime in the traditional

55
Akamba culture for it was believed that if somebody’s daughter was raped, all the

evils of the dead relatives would follow her. As a result of this belief, the

punishment for a rapist in Akamba culture was execution by public executioners,

“Kingole”.

5.6:2 ROLE OF THE SCHOOL, CHURCH AND CIVIL SOCIETY

Although comprehensive studies have not been undertaken in Kenya on

how the school and teachers engenders adolescent sexual behaviour, data

available indicates both have a stake in accounting to adolescent sexual

behaviour. For instance, the school is supposed to be the purveyor of

reproductive knowledge and health including socio-cultural and morality

knowledge as subject matters in biology, social ethics and religious studies, but

according to Nyamongo (1995), although sexuality and morality issues are

covered in the syllabus, teachers are shy teaching the subject. Some teachers

just mention only well known points about the subject superficially, discourage

students not to have sex but do not cover well the nitty-gritty’s of sexuality. These

are the most crucial in comprehending human sexuality. Consequently, the

adolescent is left incapacitated in terms of knowledge on sexuality matters.

Teachers who participated in the FGOS during research confirmed that the time

alloated for a class session(40 minitues) could not allow them to cover sexuality

matters indepth. In adition, due to sensitivity and the taboo associated with sex

talk in the modern African cultures, teachers found themselves totally inhibited or

in awkward situations to discuss sex in class, some of whom are friends children,

relative or own.

56
 Paradoxically, as young people stay in schools longer, delay in securing a

career and also delay marriage, the more they are likely to engage in pre marital

sex (UN, 1989; WHO, 1989 a). Indeed, as the age at marriage increases, the

age of sexual debut remains the same. This means that there is a longer window

where young people are not in a stable relationship or marriage, increasing the

possible exposure to sexual risks. It is also presumed that prolonged schooling

period increases sexual risk behaviours due to spontaneous relations as well as

multiple and casual sexual partners (Personal Communication). Moreover,

according to UN annual report (2006), in spite of the values of education in

society, schools are not necessarily safe havens for girls as teachers and older

boys compel them into sexual intercourse.

School going Akamba adolescents in Machakos district, ascertained that

teacher cum student intimate affairs were quite prevalent but subtle. Moreover,

girls were reported to bein a position where they are subdued by teacher’s

position (fear and favours) into sex while others were known to have consensual

relationships, with both as interested parties. Additionally, mixed schools in

Machakos District were reported to provide a for a and opportunity for

establishing and running heterosexual relations amongst adolescents themselves

as well as their mentors. . In spite the existing lacuna of research information

about teachers/students affairs, that Lacuna of information, data is abound in

Kenyan Press and as well as from personal communication with several key

stakeholders in education to the realization that teacher cum student affairs

which are quire rampant, though discreet, while others are predicated on

57
coercion, manipulation or favours, like the popular “Sex-for-Marks lecturers or

teachers”, affairs (E.A. Standard, 11th June 2007). The extent of teacher-student

sex / love relationships have succinctly been captured by the mass media in the

globe,in spite the existing paucity of such data in academic research.

Case I : US teacher charged with student sex ,surrenders(TOI,17thNov.2006). In

this particular case, a 29 year-old lady teacher at a Denver-area high school had

turned herself into authorities on a charge of having a sexual encounter with her

17-year-old student.

Case II: UK Deputy head teacher Jailed for an affair with a male student (D.N.

27th June, 2007). This case involved a male deputy heateacher in the UK who

had been jailed for a year for having an affair with a male student. The pupil was

15 years old. The boy intimated that their affair had started when he was 13

years old.

CaseIII: Four Kenyan teachers interdicted for gross misconduct (E.A. Standard,

6th July 2007). Four secondary school teachers from Taita Taveta District

Kenya,nterdicted for impregnating secondary school girls.

Case IV: Rape:13 pupils give testimonies (DN 21st March 2007). Thirteen pupils

said to have been defiled by their teachers in Nyandarua District, Kenya

appeared before Teachers Service Commission (TSC tribunal to testify.

58
Case V. Head teacher to face court over sex claim (D.N 19th Feb 2007). A

headteacher accused of having a sexual relationship with a pupil resulting in

pregnancy was to be charged in KoibatekDistrict, Kenya.

Case vI. Teachers caught sneaking pupils into lodging (E.A, Standard, 17th July,

2007). Angry parents of a primary school in Bungoma District, Kenya nabbed

two teachers who had allegedly taken their teenage pupils to a lodging in

Webuye town.

The above cases and many more not documented are embodiment of the

graving of the matter in the global society. The irony of a the sex scandals

between teachers and their students is that ideally teachers are meant to be the

role models of these young ones, guide and counsel them for a more productive

future life. Indeed such relations and illicit sex episodes between teachers and

their studentso exist naturally based on the position the teacher occupies in the

society.

On the issue of reproductive knowledge, teachers themselves revealed

that the time and syllabus did not actually allow them to cover sexuality matters

in depth. Moreover, due to the sensitivity and taboo associated with sex in

African cultures, teachers found themselves totally inhibited or in awkward

situations to discuss sex with the students some of them as young as their own

children.

59
 Moreover, extra curricular activities in schools are key events in Kenyan

school calendar, but have in many times been marred by indiscipline

andecoming behaviour. First and foremost, the way most are executed; that is,

timing, places of holding them as well as attirs involved and body postures are

quite wanting and promote sexual immorality among the adolescents.

Information gathered from FGDS wel as personal observations of these events

portrayed the sexualization of extra-curricular activities especially athletics,

ballgames and drama festivals. Indeed the attires worn during these school fetes

are quite scanty, exposing the nudity of participants. It is worse that most

National Competition as well as District and Provincial events are held during

weekends or holidays when the participants and non participants will attend the

fetes in home clothes. It is in such occasions when boys and girls meet their boy

friends/girl friends, while others engage in indecent behaviours like drinking

alcohol, smoking, taking other drugs and substances and sex. Likewise, songs

and drama episodes were reported to encourage indecent body movements as

well as utilizing suggestive languages and gyrations – which ultimately may

trigger inappropriate behaviour among the young. Indiscipline during such

festivals is also associated with teachers and other adults caught or signeders

and preying on school girls(pc)

On the other hand thechurch and its leaders play a significant role in

influencing adolescent sexual behaviour xuality and religious participation have

reciprocal influences. Studies generally have shown that adolescents who value

religion and who frequently attend religious services have less permissive

60
attitudes toward premarital sex and are less experienced sexually. The principal

notion is that religion, especially zealous religious conuictious reinforces

asceticism amongst followers. It has also been shown that adolescents who have

permissive attitudes towards pre marital sex tend to have reduced attendance at

religious services (Thornton and Camburn, 1989). Religious observance and

proclamation however, does not provide an absolute barrier to adolescent sexual

activity. A 1987 survey of 1,438 teenage members of eight “born again” Christian

denominations showed that by the age 18, 43 percent had sexual intercourse

and 65 percent had participated in some form of sex play (intercourse or the

fondling of breast and genitals) (AGI, 1988).

Over 95percent of the Akamba adolescents reported to belong to the

Christian faith. In spite of the fact that the Christian religion deplores fornication

and premarital sex, adolescents in Machakos district indicated a propensity

towards sex indulgence before marriage. Indeed, over 90 percent of the sexually

experienced adolescents in Machakos district belonged to the Christian faith.

This confirmed the sentiment that proclamation and observance into a religion

and its teachings may not translate into actual behaviour.

Further, the Christian faith was reported to play a significant role in

admonishing on sexual morality as per the teachings of the Bible but does not

provide in depth analysis to sexuality issues. There is emphasis on moral

teaching than scientific. This study concurred with Balmer (2001) who pointed out

that Christian religion dictates much by giving youth abstract ideas, suggestions

61
and rules in matters touching sexuality without providing an alternative during this

critical transformation stage.

The major Christian organizations in Kenya have consistently been averse

to the introduction of sex education to schools. But according to IPPF (1994), it

has been proven beyond doubt that when sex education is introduced to the

young people from lower classes they develop awareness about their sexuality

and subsequently devise strategies for responsible sex life. Certainly, sex

education helps delay starting sexual activity while for those sexually

experienced become conscious of safety in their sex episodes. This study found

that due to lack of sex education, Machakos Akamba adolescents portrayed

deficiencies in their knowledge about the various types of sexually transmitted

diseases, contraceptives as well as responsible relationships. Knowledge

inadequacy on sexuality matters made the adolescents to be susceptible to

sexual manipulation, indiscriminate sexual indulgence and consequently exposed

them to consequences of irresponsible sex. This sexuality knowledge malaise

amongst the adolescents was compounded by the fact that the Christian Church

too, especially the Catholic Church fervently oppose the distribution and use of

contraceptives including condoms across all generations. The Church asserts

that the contraceptives would be against the Biblical teachings,and would foster

immoral and hedonistic life styles and behaviour, and thus contribute to spread of

HIV/AIDS. But according to UNAIDS (2006), consistent and appropriate use of

especially condoms demonstrate lower levels and decline of STDs/HIV AIDS

62
infections amongst certain global societies, Uganda in Africa being a typical

example in the 1990’s.

In the endeavour to understand the sexual behaviour of the adolescents,

it was important to put the morals or sexual standards of the clergy or laymen of

the church in perspective. This is because, just like teachers, the clergy

occupies a prime position in determining the overall behaviour of the young

people. Their behaviour can ultimately have influence, into the behaviours of the

young people either positively or negatively. In Machakas District, the moral

standards of some clergy men were reported to be wanting. Through personal

observation and personal communication, it emerged some clergy men run illicit

relations with members of their flock, some very young to be their children. This

micro-observation of the questionable moral standards of some clergy among the

Akamba people of Machokas district was reinforced by media reports from Kenya

and elsewhere about the amorous tendencies of the clergy.

For instance, from the United States of America, it was reported how

lawyers for more than 500 people who said they were sexually abused by Roman

/catholic clergy members had settled their lawsuits against the diocese of Los

Angels for 660 million dollars (Associated Press 2007). If approved, according to

the story, it was going to be by far the larges payout made by any single diocese

since the clergy sexual abuse scandals first became public in Boston, USA. In a

parallel report the catholic Diocese of Sandiego in the United States paid 198.1

million dollars to settle claims of sexual abuse by Clergy (TOI, 9 th Sept.2007).

63
The agreement capped more than four years of negotiations in state and federal

courts. In Kenya, similar allegations involving the sexual behaviours impropriety

of the catholic clergy have as well been adduced. A classic example was when a

Government Minister in the 9th parliament (Government)who confessed to have

been assisting catholic Nuns to procure abortions (E.A. standard 30th June 2007).

The Catholic Nuns and Priests by virtue of their calling are supposed to practise

celibacy, thus, this confession by the Minister, as well as reports of Catholic

priests ailing or succumbing to complications arising from HIV/AIDS are fervent

indicators of moral degradation in the church. More cases of the clergy and

immorality have been reported in Kenyan press and elsewhere.

CaseI. Catholic Bishop testities about ailing priest (Daily Nation, 29 th

June, 2007). In this case, a Catholic Bishop revealed that one of his priests was

dying of Aids related complications in Kakamega Diocese, Kenya.

CaseII: Anglican priest charged with rape of form 2 girls (DN, 26th June,

2007). This case involved an Anglican church priest charged with rape in

Kerugoya, District, Kenya.

Case III. Parents and pupils call for clergyman’s arrest (Saturday nation,

19th may, 2007). Parents and pupils marched in protest against a church leader

claimed to have defiled a girl at Kuresoi, Kencho District, Kenya.

64
 Case IV: In Zimbabwe Catholic Archbishop resigns over Adultery

(DN,28thAugust 2007). In this case, the Archbishop in charge of Zimbabwe’s

Roman Catholic Church tendered his resignation letter to the Pope over a case

filed in a Zimbabwea court. He is being charged for running a sexual affair with

somebody’s wife. Picture of the clergy and the woman in a compromising

situation had been availed in court as evidence.

Falling moral standards of the clergy as evidenced by emerging reports in

the media and also through casual observation of their behavioural tendencies

will inevitably have a negative implication to the sexual behaviour of the young

people.

The role of civil societies, social workers and independent counselors in

providing educational outreach programmes to schools in Machakos district was

highly appreciated across all the divisions featuring in this study. The information

gathered indicated that external speakers on pertinent youth matters including

sexuality were popular among the adolescents for their sincerity and expediency.

They seemed to have filled the void created by the silence of parents, teachers

and the society at large.

The only handicap noted, and especially after discussion with several

principals of schools was the existence of some organizations or civic bodies or

counselorswithout expertise in child or adolescence admonishing. As noted in

65
Machakos District, some civic organizations, (NGO’s) flush with foreign funds,

conduct out reach programs in schools on sexuality, drugs, interalia, but the

facilitators not qualified as counsellors. One principal intimated to me that some

of these facilitators who are almost age of adolescents or young adults end up

giving the impression that sex is just that –cool. In one educational session in

this school the facilitator from a local NGO emphasized on use of condom

without offering other alternatives to the adolescents on how to deal with sexual

urge. The Head teacher and his teachers remained aghast through out the

lecture session!!

5.7 SOCIO - ECONOMIC FACTORS

Poverty as a socio-economic condition has been documented as a key

factor predisposing adolescents to initiate sexual activity earlier, or simply to

indulge in indiscriminate sexual behaviour (Furstenberg, et.al.1987; Njau, 1993).

Most of the adolescents in Machakos district come from poor economic

backgrounds (Machakos district has 66 percent poverty rate) and, this was

ascertained as a key force predisposing them to enter consensual sexual

relations or fall prey to economic inducements for sexual reciprocation. This was

further reinforced and ascertained from FGDs with the adolescents as well as

reports from the questionnaires

Indeed, research indicates that economic disadvantage significantly

affects young peoples sexual behaviour negatively. The German Foundation for

66
World Population (DSW) (2007) point out that not only do young people

exchange sex for money, goods or favour due to poverty but also engage in wide

range of risky behaviours. In addition to the fact that being from a poorer

household increases the likelihood of exchanging sex, DSW(2007) observes that

it also::

• Raises a young woman’s /mans chances of experiencing non-consensual

sex.

• Increases the likelihood of having multiple sex partners (both young men

and women)

• Lowers the chances of secondary abstinence.

• Decreases the likelihood of contraceptive use (condom) during the last

sexual intercourse, and

• Lowers the average age at first sexual experience for boys and girls.

Furthermore, impoverished young people especially young women are the

most disadvantaged when it comes to discussing sensitive topics such as

condom use with their sexual partners (DSW, 2007) Machakos District which is

lowly economically endowed adolescents demonstrated an inclination to being

woed or hooked into sexual intercourse through favours especially transport lifts,

shopping and outings. Interestingly adolescents agreed that “nothing is for free”,

such that, any doled outr offered has to be paid back in kind, through sex.

67
Such pattern of sexual exploitation due to poverty is equally reported in other

cultures. In South Africa, young people living in the street reported having

exchanged sex for money, goods and protection, and several indicated that they

had been raped (Swart-Kruger&Richer, 1997). Street children in Jakarta,

Indonesia, reported that being forced to have sex was one of the greatest

problems that they faced continuously (Black & Farrington, 1997). In Brazil,

where it was estimated that 7 million young people lived on the streets, between

1.5 to 7.5 % of those tested for HIV were infected (Filgueiras, 1993). This was a

significant indicator of sexual exchange, due to poverty, unprotected sexual

activity, rape and coercion as well as high prevalence of injecting drug use on the

streets which heightens young peoples’ vulnerability to HIV infection (Filgueiras,

1993).

The issue of “Sugar Daddy” as well as “Sugar Mummy” relationships did arise

in Machakos District. Cases were reported of elderly moneyed men making

technical visits in schools or picking and dropping especially girls in the pretext of

being “uncles”while sugar mummy and sugar boy relations exist, but remotely.

Interestingly as narrated during FGD’s and personal communication with

adolescents, most of the elderly moneyed men befriending adolescents girls are

well known friends to their parents or close relatives. Similar situation has been

reported in Tanzania where young girls report having older men or “mishefas”

(those who provide) as sexual partners (Fuglesang, 1997)

68
5.8 OTHER EXTERIOR FACTORS

A couple of other factors were adduced to account for the sexual

behaviour of the Akamba adolescents of Machakos district, Kenya. Machakos

district is poorly endowed in terms of social facilities. For instance, most games

playing fields were institutionally owned thus adolescents when not in school

were not allowed to participate in any form of games. The society was also not

well developed in terms of technological facilities, playing fields for other games

as well as other forms of social clubs which would otherwise have made the

adolescents busy. This leaves the adolescents preferably free and idle. Owing to

the fact that this transition phase (adolescence) is associated with a lot of energy

due to hormonal growth, failure to find outlets to vent off this inbuilt energy,

adolescents are likely to expend it into sexual activity. Hajcak and Garwood

(1988), point out that adolescents may have sex to alleviate a sense of loneliness

and idleness.

Drugs and drug abuse amongst the adolescents of Machakos district

demonstrated a strong nexus to sexual behaviour. Apparently, all the

adolescents who reported to partake to cigarettes, alcohol, cocaine and “Miraa”

or “Ghat” were sexually experienced by the time of this study. This study agrees

with AGI (1994), who posit that in the early teenage years, those who frequently

smoke, drink and abuse drugs are more likely than others to have sex. Further,

for both adolescent men and women, there is a strong association between

alcohol use and having multiple sexual partners. Indeed, cases of school going

69
adolescents being involved in drug taking and abuse were reported to be rampart

in Machakos District.Moreover, adolescents reported that orgies or group sex

(sharing sex partner) occurs mostly when they are inrebriated Several cases had

even been captured in the press of adolescents arrested pertaking into alcohol in

urban restaurants. This finding is further corroborated by the National Agency for

the Campaign Against Drug Abuse (NACADA) WHOSE STUDY IN 2007

ESTABLISHED THAT 27.7% OF STUDENTS IN KENYAN LEARNING

INSTITUTIONS AND 77.1 PERCENT OF NON STUDENT youth are on long

term abuse of alcohol. Overall, the proportion of non student ADOLESCENTS

reported to be on bhang, miraa and inhalants was 34.9%. 55.1% and 22.5%,

respectively (NACADA,2007). In Nairobi, Kenya an incident was captured in the

television of high school students (boys and girls) found drunk in a bar (KTM, 25 th

may 2007). This episode can certainly be replicated to others towns in kenya. It

has been reported that over 75% of indiscriminate sex, rape and defilement in

Kenyaoccur when the youth is inebriated.(NACADA,2007)

Curiosity was stated as a culpable factor in the lower adolescence (12-15)

to experiment on sexual intercourse. Just the desire to “feel” was reported to be

quite tantalizing for the lower adolescents in this study. Further, the condition of

ignorance and lay knowledge about sexuality could not be overemphasized. The

fact that some adolescents were quite naive to sexuality matters meant that they

could easily be manipulated onto sex by those in the “know how”. Sex was also

reported to boost one’s macho and the conquering ego amongst the boys. During

FGDs, it was reported how boys who have had sex or have a variety of girlfriends

70
boast to the others. Having had sex was perceived as an aspect of “maturity” for

both boys and girls. Moreover, to prove love to each other (boy and girl) and also

to “others”, sex had to be consummated. This was reported by most adolescents

in Machakos District who participated in the study.

Crucial segments of people amongst the Akamba people on Machakos

District who were reported by adolescents as potent factors in influencing their

sexual behaviours were the policemen and security agents First and foremost

some policemen within Machakos District were reported to have sexual relations

with school going adolescents. This was reported during FGD’s as well as

information gathered from questionnaires. Although in Machakos District there

were no forthcoming cases of policemen involvement in Henious sexualactivities

like rape and sexual abuse agents the adolescents, it emerged that police

officers and law enforcing connive with sex abuses or rapists to conceal or let

free those accused of sexual abuse. There were several cases in point, a classic

one being of an incestuous father, known to defile his girls in Machakos, Central

division, but whenever arrested he eventually gets set free. It was also alleged

that the wife to the man died because of physical abuse and violence from the

said brutal character. His daughter had by the time of this research been taken

in by maternal relatives.

Several cases of the police as well as law enforcers being accomplices or

culprits in sexual abuseof the young people have been reported across global

cultures. Several cases as highlighted in several studiesinclude UNICEF report

71
(2007) on sexual abuse of young and underage girls some as young as 11 years

by Peace Keeping Soldiers in Cote Divorce, Burundi (including Burundi soldiers)

and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Further, details of sexual abuse of

young women emerge from Iraq and Guantanamo prison in Cuba perpetrated by

American Soldiers. A significant case at hand involved as American soldier

found guilty by a military Jury for rape and murder in the slaying of a 14-year-old

Iraq girl and her family (TOI, 5th August 2007). In Kenya, several episodes have

also been captured were the police and other low enforcers have been implicated

in rape and sexual abuse of the young people:

Case1: “ I became pregnant in police custody,” says girl 15 years (DN,

27th April, 07). This case was captured in BuruBuru police station, Nairobi, where

a 15 year old girl accused of manslaughter had blamed a senior policeman for

making her pregnant while she was in custody.

CaseII: Dodgy council of elders (E.A. standard, 2nd may, 07). This case

involved asenior police officer attached to Nyamira District, Kenya ,who had been

forced to pay Ksh.300,000 as compensation for impregnating a standard six

pupil.

CaseIII: Uproar over police officer who raped pupil (DN, 16th Feb. )7).

Teachers and parents protested against policemen who defiled a 14 year old

pupil in Mt.Elgon District , Kenya, to be prosecuted.

72
 CaseIV: Chief released after denying rape charges (DN, 30th may,07).

This case involved a chief in Kuna district, Kenya charged with defiling a minor.

Case V: Chief sacked after rape of high school student (DN, 16th may,

2007). This was a case of a Nandi South District chief who raped a secondary

school student. He was sacked for this felony.

Lastly,Other community leaders in the limelight in connection with

adolescent sexuality and who cannot fail to be mentioned on adolescent issues

include the politicians and political class in Kenya. As observed, their silence,

aparthy and disinterest on adolescent sexual behaviour in Kenya aroused

concern. Indeed, politicians in Kenya appear to concentrate Note on political

survival and personal enrichment at the expense of critical national issues,

including adolescent sexuality crisis.

5.9 CONSEQUENCES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG AKAMBA

ADOLESCENTS OF MACHAKOS DISTRICT

Reports from previous studies indicate that early adolescent sexual

involvement is associated with STD’s/HIV/AIDS infection, unwanted pregnancies,

abortion, school dropouts, surreptitious marriages, poor academic performance,

inter alia (Akong’a, 1988; CDC, 2005; KDHS, 2003; Njau, 1993). These

consequences are further associated with a myriad of other offshoot negative

73
implications to the adolescents which could be categorized into physical (Health),

economic, social, emotional and psychological.

Indeed, Akamba adolescents of Machakos district were not devoid of the

above consequences due to their involvement in early and indiscriminate sexual

activity. This study confirmed that the above mentioned maladies were quite

rampant and possibly ad infinitum in the district. Clinical observations from

Machakos Provincial general hospital, private medical practitioners, teachers,

parents and adolescents themselves affirmed a multiplication of problems

amongst the adolescents and the society at large due to indiscriminate sexual

indulgence. Although it was difficult to come up with actual statistical figures

about the maladies accompanying indiscriminate sex in the district (owing to poor

record keeping) cases of teenage pregnancies and school dropouts, and early

and unplanned, immature marriages were quite rampant.

This finding about school drop out and early marriages as a result of early

pregnancies among Akamba adolescents of Machakos District is augmented by

the World Bank report (2007), which points out that more than 54 percent of girls

in sub-Saharan Africa do not complete primary school and that the transition rate

to secondary school for those who complete is very low. This has led to only 79

females out of every 100 males in secondary school and universities according to

the World Bank report, achieving universal education by 2015. Kenya has a drop

out rate of 13000 – 17000 teenagers every year due to pregnancy (CSA, 2000),

while 20 percent of adolescents begin child bearing before 17 years, 30% by age

18, and 50% by age 19 years (CBS, 2002). The multiplier effect of this high level

74
dropout to the society has been accelerated dependency rate, unplanned

marriages, prostitution and hence, poverty.

In the global arena,the United States still continues to have the highest rates of
adolescent pregnancies and child bearing in the world. (AGI, 2003a & CDC
2001a). In the US, over one million teen pregnancies occur every year and
indeed, has been described as an epidemic in the past by Hayes (1987) and
Jorgensen (1993). U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates are similar to those of
Russia and Several other former east European countries such as Bulgaria,
nearly twice those of Canada and UK and at least four times the rates in France,
Sweden, Germany & Japan. (Santrack 2005). Reason why U.S. adolescent
pregnancy are higher than any country have been based on cross cultural
studies (AGI, 2002), and are as follows : Childbearing not regarded as adult
activity: European countries, as well as Canada give a strong consensus that childbearing
belongs in adulthood when young people have completed their education, are
employed,and are living independently from their parents in stable relationships. In the
United States, this belief is not strong and varies across groups and areas of the country.

No clear messages about sexual behaviour: Compared to Europe, American adults are
less accepting of adolescents having sex. In France and Sweden, for example, adolescent
sexual expression is viewed as normal and positive but there are widespread expectations
that sex will take place within a committed relationship. Indeed, U.S. adolescents tend to
have more sporadic and short-lived sexual relationships than their counterparts in
European countries. The expectation that adolescents who are having sex will take
precautions to protect themselves and their partners from pregnancy and sexually
transmitted infections is also stronger in Europe than in the United Sates. In keeping with
this view, schools in Great Britian, France, Sweden, and most of Canada have sex
education programs that provide more comprehensive information about prevention than
U.S. schools. In addition, these countries use the media more often in Government –
sponsored campaigns of promoting responsible sexual behaviour. The United States is
reported as the only country with formal policies directing state and federal funds toward
educational programs that have as their sole purpose the promotion of abstinence. More
than one-third (35 percent) of all local U.S. school districts that have policies on sex
education require that abstinence be taught as the only appropriate option for unmarried
individuals, and that co9ntraception either be presented as ineffective inn preventing
pregnancy or not be covered at all.

Less access to family planning services: In countries with a more accepting attitude
toward adolescent sexual relationships, adolescents have easier access not only to
information and contraception, but also to reproductive health services. For instance, in
Canada, France, Great Britian, and Sweden, contraceptive services are integrated into
other types of primary health care and are available free or at a low cost for adolescents.
Generally, adolescents in these countries know where to obtain such services and are
confident that they will receive competent, confidential, nonjudgemental care. In the
United States, where attitudes about adolescents have a more difficult time obtaining

75
contraceptive services. Many do not have health insurance and cannot get contraceptives
as part of their basic health care (AGI,2002).

The situation in the United states were sex education mostly dwells on abstinence,
adult community has not fully accepted early adolescents sex involvement and
contraceptives are difficult to access for the young people is a total replica to the situation
in Machakos District, and Kenya as a whole. As a result, Kenya is equally experiencing
high level adolescent pregnancies in same way as U>S.
The intensity and propensity of school girl pregnancies and dropout in

Machakos district is further buttressed by reports captured in Kenyan press from

other Kenyan districts :-

Case I : Two primary school pupils gave birth during exams (Daily Nation, 10 th

Nov, 2006). In these two cases, first one, the teenager girl gave birth while

sitting her last paper in2006 Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) in a

primary school, Kericho District. The candidate developed labour pains as she

wrote the paper forcing supervisors to delay the exam by more than 20 minutes.

In the second case, the Kenya Certificate of primary education school girl

candidate(2006 National exam) gave birth while sitting the science paper. The

17 year old girl had to do the rest of the examination at the Kencho District

Hospital, Kenya.

Case II : Pregnancy of 18 school girls to be probed (E.A. standard, 2nd Aug

2006). In this case, the Keiyo District commissioner ( D.C) had ordered

education officials to investigate how 18 girls in four primary schoold had become

pregnant. There were claims that three of the primary pupils and a secondary

school girl in one location were forced into sex by their parents who were

planning to marry them off.

76
Case III : Police holding boy, 16 over pregnant of 9 minor (Sunday Nation, April

8th, 2007). In this case, in Hola District, Kenya a 16 year old boy had been

arrested for making his standard four girlfriend pregnant. The 13 year old girl’s

father said he was angry that his efforts to educate his daughter had been

thwarted, and he wanted the boy punished severely.

Case IV : Ngilu (Health Minister) shocked by Poverty and underage pregnancies.

(E.A. Standard, January 9th, 2007). In this case, the Health Minister, , Kenya had

come face to face with the realities of grim poverty that was fueling teenage

pregnancies. This was at Kilifi District, Kenya, where she met a group of young

mothers, among them a 15 year old mother of two. The young mother had given

birth to her first born, four years, at the age of 11 while in Lower Primary school.

The girl said she was first raped by a person known to her. A few years later,

she said, a boy promised to marry her but took off after impregnating her.

Another young mother had been married to an 18 year old man, who was her

class mate at a Kilifi primary school.

The agonising aspect about adolescent pregnancies and drop out is that the girls

may not get another chance to continue with education, and those who manage

face hostility and alieriation for being “Mothers” among babies. Further more, the

Kenyan society has very few institutions (informal and formal) which

accommodate such victims, while the existing ones like the village polytechnics

have virtually become Moribund. Indeed, such victims are condemned to

obscurity and eminent vicious cycle of poverty in a majority of Kenyan Culture.

77
 Abortion and early maternal deaths were reported in Machakos District,

but actual figures were also missing due to the secretive and obscurity nature in

which abortion occurred. Abortion still remains proscribed in Kenya unless it is

occurring under certain accepted medical circumstances.This finding in

Machakos Districtis further reinforced by a report by the Ministry of Health Kenya

(2000) that estimate about 316,500 abortions occur is in the Country annually

and an estimated 20,893 women in Kenya are hospitalised with abortion related

complications. The report further suggest that about one percent of the women

admitted to Kenyan public hospitals die from abortion related complications. This

report is in addition augmented by the WHO (2007) which estimated that unsafe

abortions kill about 70,000 women annually around the world. In Africa, for

instancewhere medical services are still pudimentary, 4.2 million unsafe

abortions are performed each year and many of those suffer mortally, or serious

injuries and permanent disabilities. The traumatic observation according to the

World Health Organisation is that nearly 60 percent of women who have

abortions in Africa are under the age of 25. In Kenya, the incidence of unsafe

abortions and related consequences is high among adolescents and according to

Rogo etal. (1999), the high rate of cases among this group is out of proportion to

their numbers in the total population. A study of a rural community is Suba

District, Nyanza Province, Kenya, found that 80% of all unsafe abortion cases

occur among women below 20 years of age leading to high mortality and

morbidity rates within the age group (Rogo etal. 2003); while according to

Pregnancy Crisis Ministries in Kenya (an organisation that works with pregnant

78
adolescents) girls as young as 15 years have been procuring abortions from both

professional & back street commercial abortionists (Chrisis Pregnancy Ministries,

2004).

The aforementioned reports are in agreement with the findings among the

Akamba adolescents of Machakos District in that several Medical Practioners as

well as key opinion leaders estimated that over 75 percent of unsafe abortions

occur among school & college going adolescent girls as well as young adults.

Most abortions occur during school holidays, with the peak period in April of

every year. In a personal account by a male parent in Machakos town who had

lost his daughter as she was attempting to procure an abortion, illustrates the

extend of the malady. According to this parent, the daughter, 17 years old had

consumed a combination of herbal concoction to terminate her pregnancy. She

had mixed “Kiluma” Alore vera, with “Muvangi” a local weed, JIK (a fabric bleach)

and Malaria tablets. The combination indeed turned toxic thus she ended up by

poisoned herself in the desire to “flash” a pregnancy, and consequently died.

This was one case among many as confirmed later since cases of dead mothers,

abandoned babies, dead featuses thrown in rivers or blocking sewages were

common features in major towns, villages and training collegesin Machakos

District. It was also narrated how girls through back street doctors use knitting

needlesor sharp implements,drink strong black tea or undiluted juices, take

overdose of malaraguine(a malarial meditation) to terminate pregnancies. If later

turns out to be fatal or interfere with their long term reproductive as well as

general health.

79
 Illegal abortions also appear to be common in other parts of the world,

especially India and China where female foeticide is quite prevalent due to boy

child preference (TOI, 16th July 2007). In India for instance, Government

functionaries have had to sound the alarm of plummeting sex ratio in the country

caused by female infanticides and female foeticide deliberately carried out by the

victims and medical doctors. According to one report 10 million female foetuses

may have been aborted in India over the past 20 years (E.A. Standard, 18 th June

07). The Delhi Minister for Education in 2007, pointed out that, “People kill the

female foetuses because they fear that they may have to spend huge amounts

on dowry” while the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare along with centre for

Social Research in NewDelhi launched an initiative in August,2007 to combat

female faeticide(TOI,16th July 2007). It is reported that in 2001 census, the sex

ratio in India stood at 927 girls per 1000 boys. The following media headlines

have exemplified the intensity of the Malaise in some parts of India: “25 foetuses

found in Haryana” (TOI, 27.7.07), “ centre seeks report on Orissa foeticides”,

(TOI,25.7.07); “Body parts of 30 newborns recovered in Bhubaneswar” (24.7.7,

TOI). The physical, economic & social cost of this practice is quite immense.

On the other handSTDs/HIV infection were reported to be common among

school going adolescents in all divisions while the number of orphaned children

due to HIV/AIDS cases was reported in every division of Machakos District.

HIV/AIDS remains a virulent threat not only to the Akamba people of

Machakos district but the Kenyan Society at large. HIV/AIDS infects and affects

the most productive age category; that is 15-49. The cost of maintaining and

80
sustaining the infected and affected in Machakos District as well as other parts of

Kenya is quite astronomical. The sub-saharan Africa is come to 24.7 million

people living with HIV/AIDS with Kenya having over 2.2. million while a majority

do not know their status (WHO, 2007). According to CSA (2004), 90% of young

women & 93% of men in age 15 – 19 have never tested for HIV. In Kenya and

thus places them at position of infecting or being infected by others. In

Machakos District, a paltry 4 percent of adolescents (15-19) had presented

themselves for HIV testing in the year 2005. Several factors have been adduced

for the low visitations to VCT centres for HIV testing including lack of information,

perception of low risk of infection (principle of invisibility) lack of privacy and

confidentially, and stringent laws that require parental consent for testing (CSA,

2004).

One of the agonising consequences of HIV/AIDS in Machakos District just

as in other parts of the world where AIDS is prevalent and management poor is

orphaned children. Globally, more than 13 million children under 15 years of age

have lost one or both parents to AIDS; 11 million of them are from sub-Saharan

Africa (Kotts, 2003). Kenya has over 650,000 children orphaned due to

HIV/AIDS constituting 11% of all the children in Kenya (UNICEF, 2004). As

noted in Machakos District, must orphaned children faced neglect, shama and

rejection, faced malnutrition, left school to take care of young siblings or simply

get abuse sexually and in labour market. Three cases identified in Machakos

District suffice to illustrate the situation in Kenya:-

81
Case 1 : Case of three orphaned children in Kattiani Division. The parents died

of HIV/AIDS complication and children left in hands of a grandmother too old to

fend for the children. The first born (boy) in standard seven had to relinguish his

learning status to do menial jobs in the village to his young sister standard five

and a last born, 2 years boy who was apparently HIV positive. During the time of

any research, the young boy was accompanying the sister to school, who would

come out of class occasionally to “Mother” the young boy. As narrated by the

H/teacher of the school, they had allowed the girl to come with her young brother

for they understood the situation. The school had also taken the responsibility of

feeding the small boy (lunch time only). The sister (standard five) would

occasionally miss school when the boy fell sick, or when going to pick anti-

retroviral drugs for him. Her performance in school had drastically dropped,

while the elder brother who had dropped out of school was foiling day and night

to feed this family.

Case TWO : Case in Central Division, Machakos District. The boy was fully

orphaned when the form three (17 years), happened to be the only child. The

father, who apparently had remained for a while when the wife died had his name

some distance from his parents, when he passed away, the boy was left alone,

though with some little investment. Fascinatingly, the only persons who would

have taken the boy into his custody (Grand father with a step grand mother

aspired to grab the wealth their son had left behind by isolating the beneficiary

(boy). Sensing eminent threat the boy had gone to find refuge in the name of the

maternal, while his education had started being affected.

82
Case 3 : Case of a 14 year old girl, Machakos town, the first been of five

children. They were orphaned when she has 12 years and had to leave school

to be the breadwinner. She went to work in a relatives home as a housemaid

while the other siblings remained in the village with their grandmother. She

would sent money home to the grandmother to purchase basics for the other

siblings, alfeit the pay was quite erratic. The mamach (head or the household)

started physically abusing her while a young male relative to the lady started

abusing her sexually. She overtime decided to run away, and only safe haven

was the streets of Machakos town. Now 14 years by the time, met her, she

narrated how she had slept in the pavements, had been sexually abused but had

now graduated into prostitution, at least to survive and feed her young siblings

home. Apparently she had aborted once and had already been treated for an

STD what a playful situation indeed.

The above case studies epitomize the horrendous and unfamiliar conditions

which children get subjected to when parents pass out. It is also quite

sysptomatic of the desperate & wanting socio economic conditions of their

societies and Nation as a whole. While a majority army end up in deplorable

conditions, the multiplier effects of such conditions as well as long term effects

could be very disastrous not only to the lives of these orphaned children but the

Nation at large.

On the other hand, one major degenerative effects of high level adolescent

pregnancies, school drop out, orphaned cases and hence poverty in Machokas

83
district as well as other societies has been prostitution and commercial sex by

the young people, mostly girls. In the major urban centres of Machakos district,

over 75% of the noted prositutes were young women between age 15-25.

Prostitution is a global phenomenon but it assumes a different dimension when

even minors get involved. In Kenya, a new kind of prostitution has emerged in

the form of child sex tourism or child sex trade. Although Child sex trade can be

categorised under the global malady of paedophile, they differ in that while

paedophile is driven by a person’s desire or a approach to gratify themselves

sexuality with children, child sex trade is pre-determined by poverty or basically

desire to peddle sex using children to satisfy basic needs. In the Sub -sahara

Africa and South Asia where poverty levels are very high, child sex trade , has

opened room for paedophile and more so, since existing socio-economic & legal

structures may aggravate the situation (UNICEF, 2006). Indeed, much of child

sex trade in the Door Nations perpetrated by foreign tourists especially from

Europe according to the report because of the strict laws in their home countries

and taoughter territorial laws within Europe.

In Kenya for instance, UNICEF (2006). Point out that there are over 30,000

child sex workers although it is difficult to come with exact figures since child

prostitution cases remain least reported. According to the report sexual

exploitation of children in Kenya has reached very high levels with up to 30% of

young girls in some districts especially Kenyan coast engaging the sex trade,

which is mostly tourism related. Forty five (45% of girls in the survey reported to

84
have begin selling sex for cash, goods or favours at tender age of 12 or below,

while in other regions of Kenya including Machakos District, One child in 10 is

involved in sex work and is initiated before reaching puberty (unicef, 2006). Of

the men who engage in sex for cash with children in Kenya as per the report,

38% were Kenyans while Italians comprised 18%, Germans 14%, Swiss 12%

while the rest was shared out between tourists from other parts of the world.

Two momentous cases of child sex trade as reported in the press illustrate the

situation in Kenya:

In the first case, in April, 2005, an American National (50 years) and a

convicted paedophile was jailed for 25 years by an Oregon Court in the US for

producing films on child phonography in Kenya. The American had filmed

himself having sex with a 10-year-old minor, daughter of a Kenyan woman,

whom he had married earlier (Dn, 8 th March, 2006). In the second case, reported

in Dn, 3rd May, 2006, a mother used to force his daughter s to have sex with men

for cash. The two girls, aged 8 and 10 years had escaped from their Thika

District home and told the Nation of their harrowing experiences at the hands of

drunken men who were also their mothers clients, all this ** out a living!!

These cases and many others indicate failure in the part of the society and

law enforces to provide protection to children and to deal appropriately with child

sex promoters. Although sexual exploitation of children in Kenya is a criminal

offence under Kenya’s Penal Code, there is extremely high level of involvement,

85
silence and a more or less acceptance of children getting involved in commercial

sex. After all, it is the adult who constitute the clientele. It is important to note

that the involvement into sexual intercourse of underage girls and mature men

may result to severe physical, social and emotional complications. Indeed, their

bodies are not well developed to endure sex with mature men thus, may terribly

lead to raptures and tear, which consequently has severe multiplier effects to

their future life. Chances of such children becoming abusers of others in the

future as well falling into hard drugs and being infected with STDs/Hiv are quite

phenomenal.

Lastly, the economic, psychological and social costs of all indiscriminate

sex indulgences were felt across the district and quite innumerable.

THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW ADOLESCENT CULTURE AMONG THE

AKAMBA PEOPLE OF MACHAKOS DISTRICT.

It is quite evident from the study that the contemporary Akamba adolescents

manifest a cultural orientation totally claim etrical to the traditional Akamba

adolescents. Their cultural manifestation is also equally distinct from the adult

generation ( apart from a few suffering from cultural regression,) while the young

(5 – 10 years) demonstrate a culture consciousness patterned toward the

adolescence cultural preferences. The modern district Akamba adolescent

culture is a total replica of the western cultural lifestyle and in tune with an

86
observed global adolescent culture (universal and pervasive) indeed an

adolescent in machakos town, New Delhi and Newyork demonstrate

characteristically similar cultural orientation.

Culture is a people’s way of life which is expressed materially (technology,

goods of aesthetics, artefacts, food etc), and non-materially (behaviour, habits,

rituals & customs, language and other lite capabilities). On the other hand in

western culture, which had become very pervasive in the contemporary Akamba

society, is in the form of technology, industry, law, politics, lifestyle, diet,

language, religion and values ideally identified with western nations (North

American Continent and Western Europe), It is imperative to note that Modern

Akamba adolescent has been gradually accultured towards the western lifestyle

and this distinctiveness is aided by a popular adolescent culture diffused through

the mass media goods ( clothes, technology, food) as well as Modern education,

and religion (Christianity which paradoxically is synonymous to westernisation)

The degree of influence of western culture to the Akamba adolescents varies

from region to region with urban adolescents being more susceptible to adopting

western cultural patterns compared to rural adolescents, though the former also

appears to catch up with their urban counterparts, gradually. The rural areas are

touted to have some expression of community consciousness and adherence to

customary practices but the rural adolescents in machakos district just like in

many parts of Kenya appear to ape their urban counterparts, and they are

87
couscious to change in line with the urban mode. Mind you, the rural and urban

adolescents meet in boarding schools and market centres, the urban adolescents

visit rural comes with their parents during holidays and appear to appeal to their

counterparts in their life styles, rural adolescents watch western movies in the

plethora of commercial video shows in machakos market centres, rural

adolescents visit relatives in urban centres while the desire to appear “modern” is

fervently the norm among contemporary Akamba adolescents.

The contemporary Akamba adolescents has an expressive cultural lifestyle,

western oriented, which distinguish them as a socially defined age set. Indeed,

they have the trappings of the western culture which is identified in music and

dance, clothes and hairstyles, languages, body posture and aesthetics as well as

food preferences and sexual behaviour. There is also noted distinctiveness in

modern games and leisure time.

Popular western music (hip-hop rap rock and reggae) which also ostensibly

appear to have been copied by local upcoming Kenyan musicians seem to

appeal most to the modern Akamba adolescents. The modern music equally

appeals to their wishes, values, fantasies and attitudes for it deals with love and

sex, violence, freedom and hedonism. Moreover, most music boosts male

chauvinism and ironically, such music appear popular among Akamba

adolescent girls. It is in a myriad of words and lyrics in these songs which depict

the males as “sex studs” and the female as “sex objects” – and this is also

88
typified in the dancing styles. Many wonder why in most songs and dance styles

in the mass media and movies, the man is well clothed while the woman is semi-

nude!! Such music and dance are not devoid among Akamba adolescents, in

and out of school-and their influence towards sexual behaviour quite immense.

When it comes to clothing, hairstyle and associationships, the contemporary

Akamba adolescents identifies with western celebrities as they are depicted in

music, dance, movies and magazines. A closer observation of the adolescents

attires, body postures and hairstyles during holidays and Sundays, suffice.

There is a craze toward sagged trousers/pants, which is more throttle in urban

centres than rural, some so low enough to show underwears or bear buttocks!

This behaviour is common for boys and girls, with boys more oriented than girls

has ir origin in the United Statesin the 1990’s. It is a fashion started in the US

prisons and spread through the US cities and among young pop musicians. It

has been banned in Louisiana city and the proposal to ban saggy pants are

starting to ride up in many US places (AP, September,2007). While jail term for

saggy trousers in US in 6 months, in Kenyan urban centres, including Machakos

it is gaining root. Girls will appear in very tight trousers and simply skirts as well

as “see through “tops. This is common in both rural and urban centres.

Additionally, there is total preference for western games at expense of traditional

pastimes. In Machakos District urban centres, the craze and fixation for

European football is quite overt with little concern for local football tournaments.

No wonder, an adolescent in Machakos town can account for five to ten

89
European football players and clubs but demonstrate total ignorance to any local

Kenyan football player or club. All traditional adolescent Akamba games namely

hunting, riddles, hide and seek, swimming and many others have paved way to

rug by basketball, football, dancing and other commercial recreational facilities.

Equally, modern Akamba adolescents identify with a distinctive slang “Sheng”

language totally incomprehensible to the adult community. It cannot be gain said

that the trappings of Western lifestyles and identification requires resources,

more so, money. This has made modern Akamba adolescents resort to deceit,

and blackmail to get money from their unsuspecting or generous parents or

guardians, to be able to sustain that lifestyle. Others subject themselves to

peddling drugs prostitution and petty crime, simply to be in tune with these socio-

cultural dynamics.

Due to adoption of western lifestyles by the Akamba adolescents, there is

strong evidence of a steady and consistent shift toward more permissive sexual

expression. The western culture now quite embedded to Akamba culture tends

to high light sexual gratification, individual freedom and freedom of choice as

regards one’s friends and love partners. As a consequence, trial marriages,

eloping, rape, aberrant sexual liaisons, prostitution and early and indiscriminate

sexual liaisons are quite rampant among the contemporary Akamba adolescents.

Indeed, the community has undergone a sexual revolution one experienced in

the United States in the 1960’s. In a similar version as to the “flower children” of

the US of 1960’s, the Akamba community of Machakos district is witnessing high

90
level of repercurssions associated with irresponsible sexual liaisons. As

observed in this research, a surprisingly large proportion of sexually active

adolescents and young adults fail to use contraceptives or use them

inconsistently. As a result, the community is experiencing early unintended and

unwise pregnancies, school drop out, STD’s/HIV/AIDS among the youth. The

contemporary young people engage in risky sexual behaviours and other

delinguencies likely to have a negative impact to the Akamba civilization.

Coupled with undertaking risky life behaviours, modern Akamba adolescents

exhibit a “don’t care” attitude while lack of parental and community control fuels

dangerous trends. As reported during the research, most opinion leaders

including parents felt that adolescents make decisions quite mechanically, with

some decisions having severe ramifications not only to the adolescents but the

society. For instance, the decision by adolescent girls to “disappear” with a

purpoted Lover, without informing parents for a long time then reappear without

remorse or anxiety are common. Cases of girls involved in this trend especially

during school holidays or when they finish standard eight or form four are quite

rampant amongst Akamba adolescents of Machakos district. Moreover, respect

for the elderly, a common phenomenon in traditional Akamba culture has

dissipated with modernity while role of clan systems in controlling sexual

relations and discipline have also become obsolescence.

91
 The contemporary Akamba adolescent is as well largely oriented toward one

another with relatively little orientation towards adults. In traditional Akamba

culture, young people were more in contact with the adult community. They

learned their roles and responsibilities through working along side parents or

adults for much of the day (boys with their fathers’ and grandfathers’ and uncles

while girls with mothers, Aunts or grandmothers). More importantly, adolescents

knew they were judged and assessed as adapted members of the Akamba

community they would be in the future. In this way, adolescence was not the

self contained stage that it has become today and a great many adolescents

have infrequent contacts with adults outside the household except for a few

authority figures like teachers, and church leaders. Involvement with adult

neighbours and kin is quite absolete or superficial. To cite schiegel (2000),

modern adolescents are out of sight and out of mind much of time. This leaves

them at the mercy of fellow peers who blatantly misadvise and influence each

other towards mischief and conformity to the unusual.

Peer pressure and orientation among Akamba adolescents is quite intense.

Indeed, the unity portrayed among adolescents mesmerizes many simply

because it defy’s cultural, religious, familial as well as class definitions. Sharing

and exchanging items and ideas is the norm. Incidentally, if not with peers, the

adolescents consciously withdraws to solitude and away from social activities.

Actually, one parent of an adolescent boy in Machokas district during research

intimated how his son could spent a whole day alone lying in his bed, listening to

92
music or watching movies. Laison (1990) posited two reasons for adolescent

solitude behaviour. First, is the need for adolescents to take breaks from new

and difficult task of impression management, which is a developmental task that

emerges in adolescence. Adolescents, much more than younger children are

conscious of the effect they have on those around them. Adolescents report

feeling much less self-conscious and much more like their true selves when they

are alone. The second reason, drawn from Erikson (1968) is the desire for

solitude to question and develop personal identity. This implies that there is a

need for private reflection. That implication, however, is called into question

because most music is listened to in solitude. By self-report, adolescents use

music to pass time, to relieve boredom, tension and loneliness (Christenson &

Roberts, 1990) oras a stimulus to imagination (Schlegel , 2000)

The adolescence period among the Akamba people has been elongated due

to the entry of formal education and preparation for a career. As a consequence,

many adolescents are not making serious preparations for marriage. They thus

take recourse into what one adolescent boy during FGDs referred to, “

highschool husbands and wifes”, implying romantic and sexual partners for

attachments they know will be temporal. Heterosexual relationships based on

“Hollywood romance” are quite public and overt, unlike the traditional periods.

Kayongo-Male and Onyango(1984) point out that romantic relations in traditional

African culture were never open or overt in nature. The situation now is quite

antithetical.

93
 Kenya in the same way as other developing nationsis undergoing social,

political, economic and cultural changes. All these changes are occurring

concurrently and coupled with poverty, unemployment, conflicts and limited

opportunities in decision making contribute to frustration, an identity crisis,

dilemma and confusion. As a consequences, adolescents find themselves going

astray and sleazy.

All in all, the new Akamba adolescent culture can be technically classified into

both Subculture and Counter culture. It is a subculture in that it coexists with the

main Akamba way of life, accepted and adapting as a distinct culture. Cultural

orientation like peer associationships, trial marriages, modern boarding

schooling, watching movies, music, dance, “sheng or slang” language are getting

co-opted into the overall culture. Other cultural patterns can be said to be

counter culture for they run contrary to the overall Akamba cultural expectations.

Such cultural expressions among the adolescents are perceived as revolt and

rebelling against the adult community norms and values surrounding the Akamba

society. Behaviours like adolescence delinquency, drunkenness and radicalism

(hooliganism) at home and school are some of noted behaviours. Reports of

students involving in school arson resulting in fatalism happen. For instance, in

Kyanguli secondary school, Machakos District (26th March 2001), 68 boys died in

an arson attack instigated by fellow schoolmates. In a similar case, 25 girls died

in St.Kizito girls school in Meru District, Kenya, in the 1990’s as they scampered

94
and trampled on each other running away from mass rape by their nearby

counterparts (St. Kizito boys).

Finally, adolescent counter culture or rebelliousness finds expression in the

form of bohemianism. Concept bohemianism is derived from a region in west

Czechoslovakia known as bohemia which is inhabited by persons whose

behaviour is characterized by total disregard for conventional rules (Pandey,

1984). Behemianism is thus a behaviour real or pretended, where one either

artistically or intellectually lives and acts with disregard for conventional rules of

behaviour. Such characters are as well not missing within Akamba adolescent

culture. In the recent times, behaviours have emerged of young people who

keep long and unkempt hairs, some never bath nor take showers while others

especially boys have earings in both ears or one, quite uncommon in traditional

Akamba culture. Traditional Akamba men and women pierced their ears and

wore slings, but these had been sanctioned by the Akamba traditions unlike

today where young people put on rings in their ears, aping western celebrities

and do not understand the symbolic meaning of such a ring. In addition, some

behaviours namely indiscriminate sexual encounters and attendant

consequences, rape, alcoholism and drug abuse among adolescents, aberrant

sexual behaviours, interalia can be classified to as counter cultures within the

Akamba culture.

95
96