Notes
Notes
Notes
For the same resistance and length, cross-sectional area of aluminum is 61% larger than that of the
copper conductor and almost 50% lighter than copper. Though the aluminum reduces the cost of small
capacity transformers, it increases the size and cost of large capacity transformers. Aluminum is being
much used now a day’s only because copper is e
50% cheaper than Copper and not much superior to copper.
Insulating materials.
To avoid any electrical activity between parts at different potentials, insulation is used. An
ideal insulating material should possess the following properties.
1) Should have high dielectric strength.
2) Should with stand high temperature.
3) Should have good thermal conductivity
4) Should not undergo thermal oxidation
5) Should not deteriorate due to higher temperature and repeated heat cycle
6) Should have high value of resistivity ( like 1018
7) Should not consume any power or should
8) Should withstand stresses due to centrifugal forces ( as in rotating machines), electro
dynamic or mechanical forces ( as in transformers)
9) Should withstand vibration, abrasion, bending
10) Should not absorb moisture
11) Should be flexible and cheap
12) Liquid insulators should not evaporate or volatilize
Insulating materials can be classified as Solid, Liquid and Gas, and vacuum. The term
insulting material is sometimes used in a broader sense to designate also insulating liquids, gas and
vacuum.
Solid: Used with field, armature, and transformer windings etc. The examples are:
1) Fibrous or inorganic animal or plant origin, natural or synthetic paper, wood, card board,
cotton, jute, silk etc.,
2) Plastic or resins. Natural resins-lac, amber, shellac etc.,
For a given window area, as the voltage rating of the transformer increases, quantity of
insulation in the window increases, area of copper reduces. Thus the window space factor reduces
as the voltage increases.
circuit condition and low value of steady state stability limit and small value of synchronizing power.
(iv) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses will increase. Values of
specific magnetic and specific electric loading can be selected from Design Data
Hand Book for salient and non salient pole machines.
Separation of D and L: Inner diameter and gross length of the stator can be calculated from D2L
product obtained from the output equation. To separate suitable relations are assumed between D and L
depending upon the type of the generator. Salient pole machines: In case of salient pole machines either
round or rectangular pole construction is employed. In these types of machines the diameter of the
machine will be quite larger than the axial length.
Thermal considerations
Classification of insulating materials based on thermal consideration
The insulation system (also called insulation class) for wires used in generators, motors transformers
and other wire-wound electrical components is divided into different classes according the temperature
that they can safely withstand.
As per Indian Standard (Thermal evaluation and classification of Electrical
Insulation,IS.No.1271,1985,first revision) and other international standard insulation is classified by letter
grades A,E,B,F,H (previous Y,A,E,B,F,H,C).
Where Φth is the heat flow rate, l the thermal conductivity, S the heat transfer area and ∇T the
temperature gradient.
1.6.Temperature rise
The temperature rise of a machine depends on the power loss per cooling area S
In electrical machines, the design of heat transfer is of equal importance as the electromagnetic
design of the machine, because the temperature rise of the machine eventually determines the maximum
output power with which the machine is allowed to be constantly loaded. As a matter of fact, accurate
management of heat and fluid transfer in an electrical machine is a more difficult and complicated issue
than the conventional electromagnetic design of an electrical machine. However, as shown previously in
this material, problems related to heat transfer can to some degree be avoided by utilizing empirical
knowledge of the machine constants available. When creating completely new constructions, empirical
knowledge is not enough, and thorough modeling of the heat transfer is required. Finally, prototyping and
measurements verify the successfulness of the design. The problem of temperature rise is twofold: first, in
most motors, adequate heat removal is ensured by convection in air, conduction through the fastening
surfaces of the machine and radiation to ambient. In machines with a high power density, direct cooling
methods can also be applied. Sometimes even the winding of the machine is made of copper pipe, through
which the coolant flows during operation of the machine. The heat transfer of electrical machines can be
analyzed adequately with a fairly simple equation for heat and fluid transfer.
The most important factor in thermal design is, however, the temperature of ambient fluid, as it
determines the maximum temperature rise with the heat tolerance of the insulation. Second, in addition to
the question of heat removal, the distribution of heat in different parts of the machine also has to be
considered. This is a problem of heat diffusion, which is a complicated three-dimensional problem
involving numerous elements such as the question of heat transfer from the conductors over the insulation
to the stator frame. It should be borne in mind that the various empirical equations are to be employed
with caution. The distribution of heat in the machine can be calculated when the distribution of losses in
different parts of the machine and the heat removal power are exactly known. In transients, the heat is
distributed completely differently than in the stationary state. For instance, it is possible to overload the
motor considerably for a short period of time by storing the excess heat in the heat capacity of the machine
1.7.Rating of machines
Rating of a motor is the power output or the designated operating power limit based upon certain
definite conditions assigned to it by the manufacturer.
The rating of machine refer to the whole of the numerical values of electrical and mechanical
quantities with their duration and sequence assigned to the machines by the manufacturer and stated on the
rating plate, the machine complying with the specified conditions.
Rating of a single phase & three phase transformer in KVA is given as
Q = 2.22 f Bm δ w KAw Ai * 10-3
Q = 3.33 f Bm δ w KAw Ai * 10-3
Where f = frequency, Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, Wb/m2
2
δ = current density, A/mm
Kw = Window space factor
Aw = Window area, m2
Ai = Net core area, m2
1.8.Standard specifications.
1. Output : kW (for generators), kW or Hp (for motors)
2. Voltage : V volt
3. Speed : N rpm
4. Rating : Continuous or Short time
0 0
5. TemperatureCforanambientrise:temperature θof 40 C
6. Cooling : Natural or forced cooling
7. Type: Generator or motor, separately excited or self-excited-shunt, series, or compound, if
compound type of connection –long or short shunt, type of compounding –cumulative or
differential, degree of compounding –over, under or level. With or without inter poles, with or
without compensating windings,with or without equalizer rings in case of lap winding.
8. Voltage regulation ( in case of generators) : Range and method
9. Speed control ( in case of motors ) : range and method of control
10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the efficiency increases, cost of the machine
also increases).
11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application –totally enclosed, screen protected, drip
proof, flame proof, etc.,
12. Size of the machine etc.,
CLASS TEMPERATURE
Y 90°C
A 105° C
Ys - Kcs Ws
24. What is gap contraction factor for ducts?
The ratio of reluctance of air gap with ducts to reluctance of air gap without ducts is known as
gap contraction factor for ducts.
L
Kgd = --------------------------------------
L - Kcd nd Wd
Where L = Length of core; Kcd = Carter’s-efficient forcoducts ;
Nd = number of radial ducts; Wd = Width of each duct
25. Write the expression for mmf of air gap with smooth and slotted armatures.
M.M.F. for air gap with smooth armature is ATg = 8,00,000 B lg
M.M.F. for air gap with slotted armature is ATg = 8,00,000 Kg B lg
Where Kg is gap expansion factor; B is flux density; lg is gap length.
26. Mention the problems encountered while calculating the mmf for teeth.
The calculation of mmf necessary to maintain the flux in the teeth is difficult during to
the following problems:
*******************************************************************************
The term (Ia Z/A) represents the total ampere-conductors on the armature and is called the
electric loading. Electric loading/unit length of armature periphery is called the specific electric
loading q. That is,
1. Yoke, 2. Pole, 3. Air gap, 4. Armature teeth, 5. Armature core, 6. Leakage flux
ab: Mean length of the flux path corresponding to one pole
Magnetic circuit of a 4 pole DC machine
the flux produced by the pole will be leaking away from the air gap. The flux that passes through the air
gap and cut by the armature conductors is the useful flux and that flux that leaks away from the desired
path is the leakage flux
where LC is the Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient and lies between (1.15 to
1.25). Magnitude of flux in different parts of the magnetic circuit
a) Flux in the yoke
b) Flux in the pole
c) Flux in the air gap
d) Flux in the armature teeth
e) Flux in the armature core
Reluctance of the air gap
Where
lg = Length of air gap
t = Width (pole arc) over which the flux is passing in the air
gap L = Axial length of the armature core
y t L = Air gap area / pole over which the flux is passing in the air gap
PROBLEMS:
EX.1. Calculate the ampere turns required for the air gap of a DC machine given the following data.
Gross core length = 40cm, air gap length = 0.5 cm, number of ducts = 5, width of each duct =
1.0cm, slot pitch = 6.5cm, average value of flux density in the air gap = 0.63T. Field form factor =
0.7, Carter’s coefficient = 0.82 for openin opening/gap length = 1.0, and Carter’s2.0. coeffici
EX.2. Find the ampere-turns/pole required for a dc machine from the following data. Radical length of
the air gap = 6.4mm, tooth width = 18.5 mm, slot width = 13.5mm, width of core packets
= 50.8mm, width of ventilating ducts = 9.5m
0.21, maximum gap density = 0.8T. Neglect the ampere turns for the iron parts.
EX.3. Find the ampere turns required for the air gap of a 6pole, lap connected dc machine with the
following data. No load voltage = 250V, air gap length = 0.8cm, pole pitch = 50cm, pole arc =
33cm, Carter’s coefficient for slots and d
300RPM, armature core length = 30cm.
EX.4. Calculate the ampere turns for the air gap of a machine using the following data. Core length =
32cm, number of ventilating ducts = 4, width of duct = 1.0cm, pole arc of ventilating ducts = 4,
width of duct = 1.0cm, pole arc = 19cm. Slot pitch = 5.64 cm, semi-closed slots with slot opening
= 0.5cm, air gap length = 0.5cm, flux/pole = 0.05Wb.
EX.5. A DC machine has an armature diameter of 25cm, core length of 12cm, 31 parallel slots 1.0cm
wide and 3.0cm deep. Insulation on the lamination is 8.0%. The air gap is 0.4cm long and
there is one radial duct 1cm wide in the co
Determine the ampere turns required for the gap and teeth if the flux density in the gap is 0.7T.
The magnetization curve for the iron is:
Flux density in tesla 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
ampere- turns/cm 18 30 65 194 344 630 1200
EX.7. Find the ampere turns required to drive the flux through the teeth with the following data using
graphical method. Minimum tooth width = 1.1cm, maximum tooth width = 1.5cm, slot depth =
4.0cm, maximum value of flux density at the minimum tooth section = 2.0T. Material used for the
armature is Stalloy.
EX.8. Calculate the apparent flux density at a section of the tooth of the armature of a DC machine
with the following data at that section. Slot pitch = 2.4cm, slot width = 1.2 cm, armature core
length including 5 ducts each 1.0cm wide = 38cm, stacking factor = 0.92, true flux density in the
teeth at the section is 2.2T for which the ampere turns/m is 70000.
EX.9. Calculate the apparent flux-density at a particular section of a tooth from the following data.
Tooth width = 12mm, slot width = 10mm, gross core length = 0.32mm, number of ventilating
ducts = 4, width of the duct each = 10mm, real flux density = 2.2T, permeability of teeth
corresponding to real flux density = 31.4x10-6H/m. Stacking factor = 0.9.
EX.10. The armature core of a DC machine has a gross length of 33cm including 3 ducts each 10mm
wide, and the iron space factor is 0.9.If the slot pitch at a particular section is 25 mm and the slot
width 14mm, estimate the true flux density and the MMF/m for the teeth at this section
corresponding to an apparent flux/density of 23T. The magnetization curve data for the armature
stamping is,
B in tesla 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
At/m 3700 10000 17000 27000 41000 70000 109000
2.4.Carter’s Coefficient
Carter’s gap expansion coefficient
According to the IEC, the armature reaction is the current linkage set up by the currents in the
armature winding or, in a wider sense, the resulting change in the air-gap flux. Since the brushes are
on the quadrature axis, the armature current produces the armature reaction also in the quadrature
direction; that is, transversal to the field-winding-generated flux. Figure depicts the armature
reaction in the air gap of a non compensated DC machine.
Resulting air-gap flux density as a sum of the field winding flux density and the armature reaction. As a
result of the armature reaction, the flux densities at the quadrature axes are not zero. This is harmful for
the commutation of the machine
2.7.Selection of number of poles
As the armature current increases, cross sectional area of the conductor and hence the eddy current
loss in the conductor increases. In order to reduce the eddy current loss in the conductor, cross-sectional
area of the conductor must be made less or the current / path must be restricted.
For a normal design, current / parallel path should not be more than about 200A. However, often,
under enhanced cooling conditions, a current / path of more than 200A is also being used. By selecting a
suitable number of paths for the machine, current / path can be restricted and the number of poles for the
machine can be decided. While selecting the number of poles, the following conditions must also be
considered as far as possible.
Weight of overhang copper: For a given active length of the coil, overhang ∝pole pitch goes on reducing as the
number of poles increases. As the overhang length reduces, the weight
of the inactive copper used at the overhang also reduces.
Armature reaction
Since the flux produced by the armature and armature ampere turns
Overall diameter
When the number of poles is less, ATa / pole and hence the flux, produced by the armature is
more. This reduces the useful flux in the air gap. In order to maintain a constant value of air gap flux,
flux produced by the field or the field ampere-turns must be increased. This calls for more field coil
turns and size of the coil defined by the depth of the coil df and height of the coil hf increases. In order
that the temperature rise of the coil is not more, depth of the field coil is generally restricted. Therefore
height of the field coil increases as the size of the field coil or the number of turns of the coil increases.
As the pole height, is proportional to the field coil height, height of the pole and hence the overall
diameter of the machine increases with the increase in height of the field coil.
Obviously as the number of poles increases, height of the pole and hence the overall diameter
of the machine decreases.
2.8.Design of Armature
The armature winding can broadly be classified as concentrated and distributed winding.
In case of a concentrated winding, all the conductors / pole is housed in one slot. Since the
conductors / slot is more, quantity of insulation in the slot is more, heat dissipation is less, temperature rise
is more and the efficiency of operation will be less. Also emf induced in the armature conductors will not
be sinusoidal. Therefore
a. design calculations become complicated (because of the complicated expression of non-
sinusoidal wave).
b. Core loss increases (because of the fundamental and harmonic components of the non-
sinusoidal wave) and efficiency reduces.
c. Communication interference may occur (because of the higher frequency components of the
non-sinusoidal wave).
Hence no concentrated winding is used in practice for a DC machine armature.
In a distributed winding (used to overcome the disadvantages of the concentrated winding),
conductors / pole is distributed in more number of slots. The distributed winding can be classified as
single layer winding and double layer winding.
In a single layer winding, there will be only one coil side in the slot having any number of
conductors, odd or even integer depending on the number of turns of the coil. In a double layer winding,
Since for a given number of conductors, poles and slots, a single layer winding calls for less
number of coils of more number of turns, reactance voltage proportional to (turn)2 is high. This decreases
the quality of commutation or leads to sparking commutation. Hence a single layer winding is not
generally used in DC machines. However it is much used in alternators and induction motors where there
is no commutation involved.
Since a double layer winding calls for more number of coils of less number of turns/coil, reactance
voltage proportional to (turn)2 is less and the quality of commutation is good. Hence double layer
windings are much used in DC machines.
Unless otherwise specified all DC machines are assumed to be having a double layer winding.
A double layer winding can further be classified as simplex or multiplex and lap or wave winding.
In order to decide what number of slots (more or less) is to be used, the following merits and
demerits are considered.
1. As the number of slots increases, cost of punching the slot increases, number of coils increases
and hence the cost of the machine increases.
2. As the number of slots increases, slot pitch
λs = (slot width bs + tooth width bt)
= πD/ numberdecreasesofand henceslotsthetooth width reduces. This makes the tooth mechanically
weak, increases the flux density in the tooth and the core loss in the tooth. Therefore efficiency of the
machine decreases.
The diameter of the commutator will generally be about (60 to 80)% of the armature diameter.
Lesser values are used for high capacity machines and higher values for low capacity machines.
Higher values of commutator peripheral velocity are to be avoided as it leads to lesser
The commutator peripheral velocity vc = π DCshouldNnot /as for60aspossible be more than about
15 m/s. (Peripheral velocity of 30 m/s is also being used in practice but should be avoided whenever
possible.)
The commutatorC = segment(outsidewidthof onepitchsegment + τmica insulation between segments) = π
DC / Number of segments should n due to 3.2 mm of copper + 0.8 mm of mica insulation between segments.) The
outer surface width of commutator segment lies between 4 and 20 mm in practice.
If the length of the commutator (as calculated from the above expression) leads to small dissipating surface
π DC LC, then increasedthe socommutatorthatthe length mus
temperature rise of the commutator does not exceed a permissible value say 550C.
The temperature rise of the commutator can be calculated by using the following empirical
formula.
The different losses that are responsible for the temperature rise of the commutator are
(a) Brush contact loss and
(b) Brush frictional loss.
Brush contact loss = voltage drop / brush set × Ia
The voltage drop / brush set depend on the brush material –Carbon, graphite, electro graphite
or metalized graphite. The voltage drop / brush set can be taken as 2.0 V for carbon brushes.
Brush frictional loss (due to all the brush arms)
= frictional torque in Nm × angular velocity
= frictional force in Newton x distance in meter × 2 π N/60
It has been found that the brush width should not be more than 5 segments in machines less than
50 kW and 4 segments in machines more than 50 kW.
The number of brushes / spindle can be found out by assuming a standard brush width or a
maximum current / sub divided brush.
Standard brush width can be 1.6, 2.2 or 3.2 cm
Current/subdivided brush should not be more than 70A
2.10. Brush materials and their properties:
Problems:
EX.1. A 500kW, 500V, 375 rpm, 8 pole dc generator has an armature diameter of 110 cm and the
number of armature conductor is 896. Calculate the diameter of the commutator, length of the
commutator, number of brushes per spindle, commutator losses and temperature rise of the
commutator. Assume single turn coils.
Diameter of the commutator DC = (0.6 to 0.8) D = 0.7 x 110 = 77cm
Length of the commutator LC = (width of the brush Wb + brush box thickness 0.5 cm)
number of brushes / spindle nb + end clearance 2 to 4 cm + clearance for risers 2 to 4 cm +
clearance for staggering of brushes 2 to 4 cm.
EX.2. A 600 kW, 6 pole lap connected D.C. generator with commutating poles running at 1200 rpm
develops 230V on open circuit and 250V on full load. Find the diameter of the commutator,
average volt / conductor, the number of commutator segments, length of commutator and brush
contact loss. Take Armature diameter = 56 cm, number of armature conductors = 300, number of
slots = 75, brush contact drop = 2.3 V, number of carbon brushes = 8 each 3.2 cm x 2.5 cm. The
voltage between commutator segments should not exceed 15V.
2.11. Performance prediction using design values.
Based on the design data of the stator and rotor of DC Machine, performance of the
machine has to be evaluated. The parameters for performance evaluation are
b. For a preliminary design of a 1500kW, 275V, 300rpm, dc shunt generator determine the number of
poles, armature diameter and core length, number of slots and number of conductors per slot. Assume:
Average flux density over the pole arc as 0.85T, Output coefficient 276, Efficiency 0.91.Slot loading
should not exceed 1500A.
c. Calculate the armature diameter and core length for a 7.5kW, 4pole, 1000rpm, and 220V shunt motor.
Assume: Full load efficiency = 0.83, field current is 2.5% of rated current. The maximum efficiency
occurs at full load.
d. For a preliminary design of a 50hp, 230V, 1400 rpm dc motor, calculate the armature diameter and
core length, number of poles and peripheral speed. Assume specific magnetic loading 0.5T, specific
electric loading 25000 ampere- conductors per meter, efficiency 0.9.
f. Determine also the number of armature conductors and slots. A design is required for a
50kW,4pole,600rpm, and 220V dc shunt generator. The average flux density in the air gap and
specific electric loading are respectively 0.57T and 30000 ampere- conductors per metre. Calculate
suitable dimensions of armature core to lead to a square pole face. Assume that full load armature drop
is 3% of the rated voltage and the field current is 1% of rated full load current. Ratio pole arc to pole
pitch is 0.67.
g. Determine the main dimensions of the armature core, number of conductors, and commutator
segments for a 350kW, 500V, 450 rpm, 6pole shunt generator assuming a square pole face with pole
arc 70% of the pole pitch. Assume the mean flux density to be 0.7T and ampere conductors per cm to
be 280.
h. Determine the number of poles, armature diameter and core length for the preliminary design of a
500kW, 400V, 600 rpm, dc shunt generator assuming an average flux density in the air gap of 0.7 T
and specific electric loading of 38400 ampere- conductors per metre. Assume core length/ pole arc =
1.1. Apply suitable checks
It is defined as the ratio of net length of armature to the gross length of the armature.
Ki = 0.9 to 0.96
7. What is meant by peripheral speed of armature?
The distance travel by the armature per unit time is called as peripheral speed.
Va = Dn m/sec n
= speed in r.p.s.
D = diameter of armature in m
8. Define armature reaction.
The flux produced due to current flow to the armature conductors opposes the main flux. This
phenomenon is known as armature reaction.
9. What are the effects of armature reaction?
Reduction in emf
Increase in iron loss
Sparking and ring fire
Delayed commutation
10. What does staggering of brushes mean?
Brushes are provided in different planes instead of same plane at the surface of
commutator to avoid the formation of ridges. This is called staggering.
11. Mention the different modes of operation of a D.C. Machine.
Generator mode: In this mode, the machine is driven by a prime mover with mechanical power converted
into electrical power.
Since they are of larger cross section, the reluctance of the magnetic path is reduced.
They support the field coils.
14. Mention the factors that affect the size of rotating machines.
The factors that affect the size of rotating machines are:
Speed and
Output co-efficient
15. What is known as output equation?
The output of a machine can be expressed in terms of its main dimensions, specific magnetic and
electric loadings and speed. The equation describing this relationship is known as output equation.
16. Derive the output equation of a D.C. machine.
= 185.5 KW / m3 –rps.
18. What is the range of specific magnetic loading in D.C. Machine?
The usual range of specific magnetic loading in dc machine is 0.4 to 0.8 Wb/m2.
19. What are the factors to be considered for the selection of number of poles in dc machine?
The factors to be considered for the selection of number of poles in dc machine are: Frequency
Weight of iron parts
Weight of copper
Length of commutator
SVCE 43 of 133 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
EE16502 DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
Lab our charges
Flash over and distortion of field mmf
20. What are the quantities that are affected by the number of poles?
Weight of iron and copper, length of commutator and dimension of brushes are the
quantities affected by the number of poles.
21. List the disadvantages of large number of poles.
The large number of poles results in increases of the following:
Frequency of flux reversals
Labour charges
Possibility of flash over between brush arms
22. Mention guiding factors for the selection of number of poles.
The frequency should lie between 25 to 50 Hz.
per parallel path is limited to 200A, thus the current per brush arm should not be
The value of current
more than 400A.
The armature mmf should not be too large. The mmf per pole should be in the range 5000 to 12,500 AT.
Choose the largest value of poles which satisfies the above three conditions.
23. What are the losses at the commutator surface?
The losses at the commutator surface are the brush contact losses and brush friction losses.
24. Write down the expression for brush friction losses.
The brush friction loss is given as Pbf = µ Pb AB Vc
Where µ = co-efficient of friction
Pb = brush contact pressure
AB = total contact area of all brushes, m2
Vc = Peripheral speed of commutator, m/s
25. What are the advantages of carbon brushes?
They lubricate and polish the commutator
If sparking occurs, they damage the commutator less than with the copper brushes.
They provide good commutation.
26. What is the height occupied by series field coil in a field pole?
In a field pole of compound machine, approximately 80% of the height is occupied by shunt
field coil and 20% by the series field coil.
27. How the Ampere turns of the series field coil is estimated?
In compound machines, the ampere turns to be developed by the series field coil are estimated as
15 to 25% of full load armature mmf. In series machines, the ampere turns to be developed by the
series field coil are estimated as 1.15 to 1.25 times of full load armature mmf.
28. Mention the factors to be considered for the design of shunt field coils.
Mmf per pole and flux density
Loss dissipated from the surface of field coil
Resistance of the field coil
Current density in the field conductors
29. State the use of interpoles.
The interpoles are used in D.C. machines to neutralize the cross magnetizing armature mmf at the
interpolar axis and to neutralize the reactance voltage in the coil undergoing commutation.
30. State the relation between the armature and the commutator diameter for various ratings of
D.C. machines. The diameter of the commutator is chosen as 60 to 80% of armature diameter. The
limiting factor is the peripheral speed. The typical choice of commutator diameter for various voltage
ratings are listed here:
Therefore ----(2)
Therefore -------(2)
Note: Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two windows, as both the
windows are symmetrical. Since each leg carries the LV &HV windings of one phase, each window carry
the LV & HV windings of two phases
Since each window carries the windings of two phases, area of copper in the window, say due to R
& Y phases
Therefore -------(2)
After substituting (2) in (1)
Therefore ----(2)
Note : Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two windows as
both the windows are symmetrical. Since the LV and HV windings are placed on the central leg,
each window accommodates T1 and T2 turns of both primary and secondary windings.
Area of copper in the window
Therefore -------(2)
Note: Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two windows, as both the
windows are symmetrical. Since each leg carries the LV &HV windings of one phase, each window carry
the LV & HV windings of two phases
Since each window carries the windings of two phases, area of copper in the window, say due to R
& Y phases
Therefore -------(2)
After substituting (2) in (1)
For a given window area, as the voltage rating of the transformer increases, quantity of
insulation in the window increases, area of copper reduces. Thus the window space factor reduces
as the voltage increases. A value for Kw can be calculated by the following empirical formula.
3.5. Overall dimensions
The main dimensions of the transformer are
(i) Height of window(Hw)
(ii) Width of the window(Ww)
The other important dimensions of the transformer are
(i) width of largest stamping(a)
(ii) diameter of circumscribing circle
As the iron area of the leg Ai and the window area Aw = (height of the window Hw x Width of
the window Ww) increases the size of the transformer also increases. The size of the transformer increases
as the output of the transformer increases.
1. Output-kVA
2. Voltage-V1/V2 with or without tap changers and tapings
3. Frequency-f Hz
4. Number of phases –One or three
5. Rating –Continuous or short time
6. Cooling –Natural or forced
7. Type –Core or shell, power or distribution
The no-load current I0 is the vectorial sum of the magnetizing current Im and core loss or working
component current Ic. [Function of Im is to function of Ic is to satisfy the no load losses of the transformer].
Thus,
Since the fins are not effective in dissipating heat and corrugated tank involves
constructional difficulties, they are not much used now a days. The tanks with tubes are much used
in practice. Tubes in more number of rows are to be avoided as the screening of the tank and tube
surfaces decreases the dissipation. Hence, when more number of tubes are to be provided, a
radiator attached with the tank is considered. For much larger sizes forced cooling is adopted.
Dimensions of the Tank
The dimensions of tank depends on the type and capacity of transformer, voltage rating and
electrical clearance to be provided between the transformer and tank, clearance to accommodate
the connections and taps, clearance for base and oil above the transformer etc.,. These clearances
can assumed to be between
(30 and 60) cm in respect of tank height (10
and 20) cm in respect of tank length and
(10 and 20) cm in respect of tank width or breadth.
Tank height Ht = [ Hw + 2Hy or 2a + clearance (30 to 60) cm ] for single and three phase
core, and single phase shell type transformers.
= [3(Hw + 2Hy or 2a) + clearance (30 to 60) cm ] for a three phase shell type transformer.
Tank length Lt = [ D + Dext + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single phase core type
transformer = [ 2D + Dext + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for three phase core type transformer = [ 4a
+ 2Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and three phase shell type transformer.
Width or breadth of tank Wt = [ Dext + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for all types of transformers with a
circular coil.
= [ b + Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and three phase core type transformers
having rectangular coils.
= [ b + 2Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and three phase shell type transformers.
When the tank is placed on the ground, there will not be any heat dissipation from the
bottom surface of the tank. Since the oil is not filled up to the brim of the tank, heat transfer from
the oil to the top of the tank is less and heat dissipation from the top surface of the tank is almost
negligible. Hence the effective surface area of the tank St from which heat is getting dissipated can
assumed to be 2Ht (Lt + Wt) m2.
Heat goes dissipated to the atmosphere from tank by radiation and convection. It has been
found by experiment that 6.0W goes radiated per m2 of plain surface per degree centigrade
difference between tank and ambient air temperature and 6.5W goes dissipated by convection / m 2
of plain surface / degree centigrade difference in temperature between tank wall and ambient air.
Thus a total of 12.5W/m2/0C goes dissipated to the surrounding. If is the temperature rise, then at
final steady temperature condition, losses responsible for temperature rise is losses dissipated or
transformer losses = 12.5 St .
Number and dimensions of tubes
If the temperature rise of the tank wall is beyond a permissible value of about 500C, then
cooling tubes are to be added to reduce the temperature rise. Tubes can be arranged on all the sides
in one or more number of rows. As number of rows increases, the dissipation will not
proportionally increase. Hence the number of rows of tubes are to be limited. Generally the
number of rows in practice will be less than four.
With the tubes connected to the tank, dissipation due to radiation from a part of the tank
surface screened by the tubes is zero. However if the radiating surface of the tube, dissipating the
heat is assumed to be equal to the screened surface of the tank, then tubes can assumed to be
radiating no heat. Thus the full tank surface can assumed to be dissipating the heat due to both
radiation and convection & can be taken as 12.5 St watts.
Because the oil when get heated up moves up and cold oil down, circulation of oil in the
tubes will be more. Obviously, this circulation of oil increases the heat dissipation. Because of this
siphoning action, it has been found that the convection from the tubes increase by about 35 to 40%.
Thus if the improvement is by 35%, then the dissipation in watts from all the tubes of area At =
1.35 x 6.5At = 8.78 At .
Thus in case of a tank with tubes, at final steady temperature rise condition,
Losses = 12.5 St + 8.78 At
Round, rectangular or elliptical shaped tubes can be used. The mean length or height of the
tubes is generally taken as about 90% of tank height.
In case of round tubes, 5 cm diameter tubes spaced at about 7.5cm (from centre to centre)
are used. If dt is the diameter of the tube, then dissipating area of each tube at = pdt x 0.9Ht. if nt is
the number of tubes, then At = atnt.
Now a days rectangular tubes of different size spaced at convenient distances are being
much used, as it provides a greater cooling surface for a smaller volume of oil. This is true in case
of elliptical tubes also. The tubes can be arranged in any convenient way ensuring mechanical
strength and aesthetic view.
Pi + Pc
= ----------
12.5 St
where Pi = iron loss ; Pc = copper loss ; St = Heat dissipating surface of the tank
19. Why plain walled tanks are not used for large output transformers?
The plain walled tanks are not used for large output transformers as they are not sufficient to
dissipate losses. This is because volume and hence losses increase as cube of linear dimensions
while the dissipating surface increases as the square of linear dimensions. Thus an increase in
rating results in an increase in loss to be dissipated per unit area giving a higher temperature rise.
20. How is leakage reactance of winding estimated?
It is estimated by primarily estimating the distribution of leakage flux and the resulting flux
leakages of the primary and the secondary windings. The distribution of the leakage flux depends
upon the geometrical configuration of the coils and the neighboring iron masses and also on the
permeability of the iron.
21. Define stacking factor and give its typical value.
Area of cross-section of iron in core
Stacking factor = ----------------------------------------------
Area of cross-section of core including
Insulation area
Its typical value is 0.9.
22. Why stepped cores are used in transformers?
23. What is the range of flux densities used in the design of a transformer?
When hot rolled silicon steel is used,
Bm = 1.1 to 1.4 Wb / m2 for distribution transformer
= 1.2 to 1.5 Wb / m2for power transformer When
cold rolled silicon steel is used,
2
Bm = 1.5 Wb / m for up to 132 KV transformer
= 1.6 Wb / m2 for 132 KV to 275 KV transformer
= 1.7 Wb / m2 for 275KV to 400 KV transformer
24. Name the factors to be considered to choose the type of winding for a core type transformer.
Current density
Short circuit current
Surge voltage
Impedance
Temperature rise
Transport facilities
25. Give typical values of core area factor for various types of transformers.
Core area factor ( Kc ) for various transformers:
Square core Kc = 0.45
Cruciform core Kc = 0.56
Three stepped core Kc = 0.6
Four stepped core Kc = 0.62
26. List the assumptions made for calculation of leakage flux and leakage reactance.
The primary and secondary windings have an equal axial length
The flux paths are parallel to the windings along the axial height
Primary winding mmf is equal to secondary winding mmf
Half of the leakage flux in the duct links with each winding
The length of the mean turn of the windings are equal
The reluctance of flux path through yoke is negligible
27. Define copper space factor.
For a transformer, it is the ratio of conductor area and window area.
Conductor area
Copper space factor = ---------------------
Window area
28. Name the various types of cross section used for core type transformer.
Square
Rectangle
Cruciform and
Multi stepped cores
29. What is window space factor?
The window space factor is defined as the ratio of copper area in window to total window
area. Copper area in window
Window space factor = ----------------------------
Total Window area
30. How the area of window is calculated?
Are of the window (Aw) = Height of window (Hw) * Width of window (Ww).
Ex. 1. Obtain the following design information for the stator of a 30 kW, 440 V, 3 , 6 pole, 50 Hz
delta connected, squirrel cage induction motor, (i) Main dimension of the stator, (ii) No. of turns/phase
(iii) No. of stator slots, (iv) No. of conductors per slot. Assume suitable values for the missing design data.
4.7.Selection of number of rotor slots: The number of rotor slots may be selected using the following
guide lines.
(i) To avoid cogging and crawling: (a)Ss Sr (b) Ss - Sr ±3P
(ii) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed characteristics ±P, ±2P, ±5P.
(iii) To noisy operation Ss - Sr ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P ±2)
Rotor Bar Current: Bar current in the rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor may be determined by
comparing the mmf developed in rotor and stator. Hence the current per rotor bar is given by Ib = ( Kws x
Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r ) ;
where Kws –winding factor for the stator,
Ss –number of stator slots,
Z's –number of conductors / stator slots,
Kwr –winding factor for the rotor,
Sr –number of rotor slots,
Ar < 5mm2 use circular conductor, else rectangular conductor, for rectangular conductor width to
thickness ratio = 2.5 to 4. Then the standard conductor size can be selected similar to that of stator
conductor.
Size of Rotor slot:
Mostly Semi closed rectangular slots employed for the rotors. Based on conductor size, number
conductors per slot and arrangement of conductors similar to that of stator, dimension of rotor slots can be
estimated. Size of the slot must be such that the ratio of depth to width of slot must be between 3 and 4.
Assuming air gap flux density to be 0.5 Tesla, calculate the flux density in (i) Stator teeth (ii) Rotor
teeth (iii) stator core.
EX.4. Following design data have been obtained during the preliminary design of a 3 phase, 850 kW, 6.6
kV, 50 Hz, 12 pole slip ring induction motor. Gross length of stator core = 45 cm, internal diameter of
the stator core = 122 cm, number of stator slots = 133, Number of conductors per slot = 10. For the
above stator data design a wound rotor for the motor.
4.10. Magnetic leakage calculations
the flux produced by the pole will be leaking away from the air gap. The flux that passes through the air
gap and cut by the armature conductors is the useful flux and that flux that leaks away from the desired
path is the leakage flux
where LC is the Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient and lies between (1.15 to
1.25). Magnitude of flux in different parts of the magnetic circuit
4.11. Leakage reactance of polyphase machines
Leakage reactance = 2πf x inductance = 2πf x Flux
Note:
1. Useful flux: It is the flux that links with both primary and secondary windings and is responsible
in transferring the energy Electro-magnetically from primary to secondary side. The path of the
useful flux is in the magnetic core.
2. Leakage flux: It is the flux that links only with the primary or secondary winding and is
responsible in imparting inductance to the windings. The path of the leakage flux depends on the
geometrical configuration of the coils and the neighboring iron masses.
4.12. Magnetizing current
Effect of magnetizing current and its effect on the power factor can be understood from
the phasor diagram of the induction motor shown in Fig.
Both of the layers of the voltage phasor diagram have to be circled twice in order to number all the
phasors.
4.15. Operating characteristics.
Now, the equivalent circuit of an asynchronous motor per phase, the quantities of which are
calculated in the machine design, is worth recollecting. Figure 7.12 illustrates a single-phase
equivalent circuit of an ordinary induction motor per phase, a simplified equivalent circuit anda
phasor diagram.
24. How the induction motor can be designed for best power factor?
For best power factor, the pole pitch τis chosen such that τ= SQRT [(0.18 L)].
25. What are the ranges of specific magnetic loading and specific electric loading in
induction motor?
Specific magnetic loading = 0.3 to 0.6 Wb / m2
Specific electric loading = 5000 to 45000 amp.cond/m
26. What are the materials used for slip rings and brushes in induction motor?
The slip rings are made of brass or phosphor bronze. The brushes are made of metal graphite,
which is an alloy of copper and carbon.
27. Write the expression for output equation and output co-efficient of induction motor.
The equation for input KVA is considered as output equation in induction motor.
The input KVA, Q = C0 D2 L ns in KVA
Output co-efficient C0 = 11 Bav ac Kws *10-3 in KVA/ m3 –rps.
28. List the advantages of using open slots.
The advantages are:
The winding coils can be formed and fully insulated before installing and also it is easier to replace the
individual coils.
It avoids excessive slot leakage thereby reducing the leakage reactance.
29. Give the advantages of using semi-enclosed stator slots.
The advantages are less air gap contraction factor giving a small value of magnetizing current, low
tooth pulsation loss and mush quiter operation(less noise). Semi enclosed slots are mostly
preferred for induction motor.
30. What is the maximum value of flux density in stator teeth?
The maximum value of flux density in stator tooth should not exceed 1.7 Wb/m2.
A high value of flux density leads to a higher iron loss and a greater magnetizing mmf.
31. What are the problems that occur in induction motor due to certain combinations of stator
and rotor slots?
The problems in induction motor due to certain combinations of stator and rotor slots
are
The motor may refuse to start
The motor may crawl at some sub-synchronous speed
Severe vibrations are developed and so the noise will be excessive
32. . List the rules for selecting rotor slots.
Number of stator slots should not be equalto rotor slots satisfactory results are obtained when
Sr is 15 to 30% larger or smaller than Ss.
Sr) should not be equal to + or - p, + or –2p or + or –5 p to avoid
The difference (Ss -
synchronous cusps.
Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with
concentrated field windings. This type of construction is for the machines which are driven by
hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.
Construction of Hydro-generators: These types of machines are constructed based on the water
head available and hence these machines are low speed machines. These machines are constructed
based on the mechanical consideration. For the given frequency the low speed demands large
number of poles and consequently large
diameter. The machine should be so connected such that it permits the machine to be transported to
the site. It is a normal to practice to design the rotor to withstand the centrifugal force and stress
produced at twice the normal operating speed.
Stator core:
The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consists of the outer cylindrical frame
called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron.
The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called stator core pressed
into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy
currents, reducing losses and heating. CRGO laminations of 0.5 mm thickness are used to reduce
the iron losses.
A set of insulated electrical windings are placed inside the slots of the laminated stator. The cross-
sectional area of these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the machine. For a 3-
phase generator, 3 sets of windings are required, one for each phase connected in star. Fig. 1 shows
one stator lamination of a synchronous generator.
In case of generators where the diameter is too large stator lamination can not be punched in on
circular piece. In such cases the laminations are punched in segments. A number of segments are
assembled together to form one circular laminations. All the laminations are insulated from each
other by a thin layer of varnish.
Fig 5. (a) Pole body (b) Pole with field coils of a salient pole alternator
Air gap flux per pole = Bav DL/p, and Specific electric loading q = 3Iph Zph/ D
Output of the machine Q = 3 x (2.22 x Pns/2 x Bav DL/p x Zphx Kw) Iph x 10-3 kVA
Output Q = (1.11 x Bav DL x ns x Kw ) (3 x IphZph ) x 10-3 kVA
Substituting the expressions for Specific electric loadings
Output Q = (1.11 x Bav DL x ns x Kw ) ( D q ) x 10-3 kVA
Q = (1.11 2 D2L Bav q Kw ns x 10-3) kVA
Q = (11 Bav q Kw x 10-3) D2L ns kVA
Therefore Output Q = Co D2Lns
kVA or D2L = Q/ Cons m3
where Co = (11 Bav q Kw x 10-3)
Vph = phase voltage ; Iph = phase current Eph = induced EMF per phase
Zph = no of conductors/phase in stator
Tph = no of turns/phase
5. Size and cost of the machine as SCR Xs Zs Isc and hence cost of control equipment
reduces
For salient pole machines SCR value varies from 0.9 to 1.3
For turbo alternators SCR value varies from 0.7 to 1.1
5.9.Length of the air gap:
Length of the air gap is a very important parameter as it greatly affects the performance of
the machine. Air gap in synchronous machine affects the value of SCR and hence it influences many other
parameters. Hence, choice of air gap length is very critical in case of synchronous machines.
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap.
Advantages:
(i) Stability: Higher value of stability limit
(ii) Regulation: Smaller value of inherent regulation
(iii) Synchronizing power: Higher value of synchronizing power
(iv) Cooling: Better cooling
(v) Noise: Reduction in noise
(vi) Magnetic pull: Smaller value of unbalanced magnetic pull
Disadvantages:
(i) Field MMF: Larger value of field MMF is required
(ii) Size: Larger diameter and hence larger size
(iii) Magnetic leakage: Increased magnetic leakage
(iv) Weight of copper: Higher weight of copper in the field winding
(v) Cost: Increase overall cost.
Hence length of the air gap must be selected considering the above factors.
5.10. shape of pole face
Stator slots: in general two types of stator slots are employed in induction motors viz, open clots and
semiclosed slots. Operating performance of the induction motors depends upon the shape of the slots
and hence it is important to select suitable slot for the stator slots.
they have the better starting torque. This type of rotor consists of star connected distributed three phase
windings. Between stator and rotor is the air gap which is a very critical part. The performance parameters
of the motor like magnetizing current, power factor, over load capacity, cooling and noise are affected by
length of the air gap. Hence length of the air gap is selected considering the advantages and disadvantages
of larger air gap length.
Advantages:
(i) Increased overload capacity
(ii) Increased cooling
(iii) Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull
(iv) Reduced in tooth pulsation
(v) Reduced noise
Disadvantages
(i) Increased Magnetising current
(ii) Reduced power factor
5.15. Design of damper winding
Damper windings are provided in the pole faces of salient pole alternators. Damper windings
are nothing but the copper or aluminum bars housed in the slots of the pole faces.
The ends of the damper bars are short circuited at the ends by short circuiting rings similar to
end rings as in the case of squirrel cage rotors.
These damper windings are serving the function of providing mechanical balance; provide
damping effect, reduce the effect of over voltages and damp out hunting in case of alternators.
In case of synchronous motors they act as rotor bars and help in self starting of the motor.
5.16. Determination of full load field MMF
Full load field mmf can be taken as twice the armature mmf.
PROBLEMS
EX.1. Design the stator frame of a 500 kVA, 6.6 kV, 50 Hz, 3 phase, 12 pole, star connected
salient pole alternator, giving the following informations.
(i) Internal diameter and gross length of the frame
(ii) Number of stator conductors
(iii)Number of stator slots and conductors per slot
Specific magnetic and electric loadings may be assumed as 0.56 Tesla and 26000 Ac/m
respectively.
Peripheral speed must be less than 40 m/s and slot must be less than 1200.
EX.2. A 3 phase 1800 kVA, 3.3 kV, 50 Hz, 250 rpm, salient pole alternator has the following
design data.
(i) Stator bore diameter = 230 cm
(ii) Gross length of stator bore = 38
cm (iii)Number of stator slots = 216
(iv) Number of conductors per slot = 4
(v) Sectional area of stator conductor = 86 mm2
(vi) Using the above data, calculate
(i) Flux per pole
(ii) Flux density in the air gap
(iii) Current density
(iv) Size of stator slot
EX.3. A water wheel generator with power output of 4750 kVA, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 1000 rpm,
working at a pf of 0.8 has a stator bore and gross core length of 112 cm and 98 cm respectively.
Determine the loading constants for this machine.
Using the design constants obtained from the above machine determine the main dimensions of the
water wheel generator with 6250 kVA, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 750 rpm operating at a power factor of
0.85. Also determine (i) Details of stator winding (ii) Size of the stator slot, (iii) Copper losses in
the stator winding.
EX.4. Two preliminary designs are made for a 3 phase alternator, the two designs differing only
in number and size of the slots and the dimensions of the stator conductors. The first design uses
two slots per pole per phase with 9 conductors per slot, each slot being 75 mm deep and 19 mm
wide, the mean width of the stator tooth is 25 mm. The thickness of slot insulation is 2 mm, all
other insulation may be neglected. The second design is to have 3 slots per pole per phase.
Retaining the same flux density in the teeth and current density in the stator conductors as in the
first design, calculate the dimensions of the stator slot for the second design. Total height of lip and
wedge may be assumed as 5 mm.
EX.6. Determine the main dimensions of a 75 MVA, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 62.5 rpm, 3 phase star
connected alternator. Also find the number of stator slots, conductors per slot, conductor area and
work out the winding details. The peripheral speed should be less than 40 m/s. Assume average
gap density as 0.65 wb/m2, Specific electric loading as 40,000 AC/m and current density as 4 amp/
mm2.
EX.7. Calculate the stator dimensions for 5000 kVA, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 2 pole alternator. Take
mean gap density of 0.5 wb/m2, specific electric loading of 25,000 ac/m, peripheral velocity must
not exceed 100 m/s. Air gap may be taken as 2.5 cm.
Start
Performance
Human decisions
OUTPUT
Stop
*************************************************************************
PART –A ( 10 X 2 = 20 )
1. What are the major considerations to evolve a good design of electrical machine?
6. Draw the cruciform section of the transformer and give the optimum designs in terms
of Circumscribing circle diameter d.
7. Write the expression for output equation and co-efficient of induction motor.
8. How the induction motor can be designed for best power factor.
PART –B ( 5 X 16 = 80 )
11. i) Derive an expression for the thermal resistivity of winding and prove that the square of
the length of the copper per metre of winding thickness is equal to space factor. (10)
ii) What are the limitations in the design of electrical apparatus? Explain them. (6)
ii) Determine the diameter and length of armature core for a 55 KW, 110 V, 1000 rpm, 4-
pole shunt generator, assuming specific electric and magnetic loadings of 26000
amp.cond./m and 0.5 Wb/m2 respectively. The pole arc should be about 70% of pole pitch
and the length of core about 1.1 times the pole arc. Allow 10 ampere for the field current
and assume a voltage drop of 4 Volts for the armature circuit. Specify the windings used
and also determine suitable values for the number of armature conductors
and number of slots. (10)
[OR]
12. b) i) Calculate the mmf required for the air-gap of a D.C.machine with an axial length of
ii) Design a suitable commutator for a 350 KW, 600 rpm, 440 V, 6-pole D.C.generator
having an armature diameter of 0.75 m. The number of coils is 288, Assume suitable
values wherever necessary. (10)
ii) A 250 KVA, 6600/400 V, 3-phase core type transformer has a total loss of 4800W on
full load. The transformer tank is 1.25mm in height and 1 X 0.5 in plan. Design a suitable
scheme for cooling tubes if the average temperature rise is to be 35 deg. The diameter of
the tube is 50 mm and is spaced 75mm from each other. The average height
of the tube is 1.05m. (10)
14. a) Give a detailed procedure for the design of rotor bars and end rings of a squirrel cage
induction motor. (16)
[OR]
b) Estimate the main dimensions, air-gap length, stator slots, stator turns/phase and cross-
sectional area of the stator and rotor conductors for a 3-phase, 15 HP, 400V, 6-pole, 50 Hz, 975 rpm,
induction motor. The motor is suitable for star delta starting. Bav = 0.45 Wb/m2, L τ = 0.85,
efficiency = 0.9, ac = 20,000 amp.cond./metre. (16)
15. a) i) Give the comparison between single and double layer winding. (6)
ii) Determine the main dimensions for a 1000 KVA, 50 Hz, 3-phase, 375 rpm, alternator. The
average air-gap flux density is 0.55 Wb/m2 and the ampere conductors per metre are 28000. Use
rectangular poles and assume a suitable value for ratio of core length to pole pitch in order that bolted
on pole construction is used for which the maximum permissible peripheral speed is 50 m/s. the run
away speed is 1.8 times the synchronous speed. (10)
[OR]
ii) With a neat sketch, indicate the location of the damper windings in a synchronous
machine and mention its uses. (10)
****************************************************************************
1. State the electrical engineering materials used in the construction of A.C. generators
and A.C.motors.
3. State two factors which should be considered while selecting the number of poles in a
D.C.generator.
4. State the relative merits of lap and wave windings of armature of a D.C. generator.
6. State the factors on which the thermal time constant of a transformer depends.
7. How is leakage reactance different from magnetizing reactance in the case of three
phase induction motor?
8. State two rules for selecting the number of rotor slots in the case of three phase
squirrel cage induction motor.
10. State the factors that must be considered in choosing air-gap length in case of a
synchronous generator.
PART –B ( 5 X 16 = 80 )
11. i) Derive output equation of a single phase transformer and point out salient features of
this equation. (4)
ii) Explain different methods of cooling a transformer with relevant sketches. State
relative merits and limitations of these methods. (4)
iii) Compute the main dimensions of the core of a 5 KVA, 11000/400 volts, 50Hz single
phase core type transformer. Window space factor = 0.2; The height of the window is 3
times its width; Current density = 1.4 A/mm2; Bmax = 1.0 Tesla; Stacking factor = 0.9;
Net conductor area in the window = 0.6 times the net cross –sectional area of
iron in the core. Assume square cross-section for the core. (8)
12. a) i) state different kinds of insulating materials used in the manufacture of generators
and motors of A.C. and D.C. type and transformer. (8)
ii) A field coil has a cross-section of 100mm X 50mm. It has length of mean turn
*************************************************************************
MODEL QUESTION PAPER –III
SEVENTH SEMESTER
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
EE 2355 –DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
Time: 3 Hours [Max. Marks: 100]
ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS
PART –A ( 10 X 2 = 20 )
1. State the properties which determine the suitability of a material for insulating materials.
PART –B ( 5 X 16 = 80 )
11. i) Explain how to select the number of poles for a D.C. machine. (6)
ii) The commutator of a 10 pole, 1000 KW, 500 Volt, 300 rpm D.C. generator has 450
segments and an external diameter of 1 meter. Determine a suitable axial length for
the commutator, giving details of brushes having regard to commutation and
temperature rise. Assume current density as 6 amps/cm2, voltage drop due to brush
contact as 2.2 volt, brush pressure as 1250 Kg/m2 and co-efficient of friction as 0.25
(10)
12. a) i) Discuss the requirements of high conductivity materials. (8)
ii) Write notes on temperature gradient in conductors placed in slots, with help of
equations. (8)
[OR]
12. b) i) Explain heat flow in two dimensions. (8)
ii) Write notes on classification of insulating materials. (8)
13. a) i) Derive the voltage per turn equation for a single phase transformer. (8)
ii) A 1250 KVA, 3 phase, 6000 volt alternator has the following data: air-gap
diameter = 160 cm, core length = 45 cm, number of poles = 20, armature ampere
Conductors per metre = 2800, pole pitch = 0.68, stator slot pitch = 2.8 cm and
current density in the damper bars 3A/mm 2. Design a suitable damper winding for
the machine. (8)
*************************************************************************
2. Why total loadings are not used to determine the output of a rotating machine?
3. Calculate the mmf per meter for a flux density of 1.7 Wb/m2 and a permeability of
23.5 X 10-6 H/m.
4. State the relation between the armature diameter and commutator diameter for
various ratings of dc machines.
5. The voltage per turn of a 500 KVA,11 KV/415 V,delta/star, 3-phase transformer is
8.7V. Calculate the number of turns per phase of L and V and II V windings.
6. What is conservator?
7. Write the formula for air-gap in case of three phase induction motor in terms of
length and diameter.
10. Why the field structure is a rotating member in 3 phase synchronous machine?
PART –B ( 5 X 16 = 80 )
ii) Determine the area of rotor conductors of a 30 KVA, 11 KV, 3000 rpm, 50 Hz, 3-
phase air-cooled turbo alternator. The load power factor is 0.8 lagging. Assume
peripheral speed= 130 m/s and Sf = 2.5 A/mm2. Make other suitable assumptions for
a conventionally cooled generator. (8)
ii) Derive an expression for thermal resitivity of winding and prove that the square of
12. b) i) What are the limitations in the design of electrical apparatus? (6)
ii) Write a note on temperature gradients in conductors placed in slots with the help
of equations. (10)
ii) A 4 pole, 25 HP, 500 V, 600 rpm series series motor has an efficiency of 82%.
The pole faces are square and the ratio of pole arc to pole pitch is 0.67. Take Bav
= 0.55 Wb/m2 and ac = 17000 amp.cond./m. Obtain the main dimensions of the
core and particulars of a suitable armature winding. (10)
[OR]
13. b) i) Determine the air-gap length of a D.C.machine from the following particulars:
Gross length of core = 0.12 m
No. of ducts = 1 and is 10 mm wide
Slot pitch = 25 mm
Slot width = 10 mm
Carter’s-efficient forcoslots and ducts = 0.32
Gap density at pole centre = 0.7 Wb/m2
Field mmf per pole = 390 deg. AT
Mmf required for iron parts of magnetic circuit = 800 AT. (6)
ii) A 500 KW, 460 V, 8 pole, 375 rpm compound generator has an armature
diameter of 1.1 m and a core length of 0.33 m. Design a symmetrical armature
winding, giving the details of equalizers. The ampere conductors per meter are
34000. The internal voltage drop is 4 percent of terminal voltage and the field
current is 1 percent of output current. The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch is 0.7.
The voltage between adjacent segments at no load should not exceed 15 V and
the slot loading should not exceed 15000 A. the diameter of commutator is 0.65
of armature diameter and the minimum allowable pitch of segments is 4 mm.
Make other suitable assumptions. (10)
ii) A 250 KVA, 6600/400 V, 3-phase core type transformer has a total loss of 4800W
on full load. The transformer tank is 1.25mm in height and 1 X 0.5 in plan. Design a
suitable scheme for cooling tubes if the average temperature rise is to be 35 deg. The
diameter of the tube is 50 mm and is spaced 75mm from each other. The average
height of the tube is 1.05m. Specific heat dissipation due to radiation and convection
is respectively 6 and 6.5 W/m2 –deg.celcius. Assume that convection is improved by
35% due to provision of tubes. (10)
[OR]
14. b) i) How will you estimate no load current in single and three phase transformer? (6)
ii) A 15,000 KVA, 53/6.6 KV, 3 phase star/delta, core type transformer has the
following data:
Net iron area of each limb = 1.5 X 10-3
m2 Net area of yoke = 1.8 X 10-3 m2
Mean length of flux path in each limb = 2.3
Mean length of flux path in each yoke = 1.6
Number of turns in H.V. winding = 450.
Calculate the no-load current. Use the following data: (10)
15. a) i) Explain the chance of specific electric loading of synchronous machines. (6)
ii) A 1250 KVA, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 3300V, 300 rpm synchronous generator with a
concentric winding has the following design
data: Specific magnetic loading = 0.58 Wb/m2
Specific electric loading = 33,000 A/m
Gap length = 5.5 mm
Field turns per pole =
60 SCR = 1.2
The effective gap area = 0.6 times the actual area.
Peripheral speed = 30 m/s
Find the stator core length, stator bore, turns per phase, mmf for air-gap, armature
mmf per pole and field current for no load and rated voltage. (10)
[OR]
15. b) i) Compare squirrel cage induction motor with wound rotor motors. (6)
ii) Determine the D and L of a 70 HP, 415 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz, star connected, 6 pole induction
motor for which ac = 30000 amo.cond./m and Bav = 0.51 tesla. Take efficiency = 90% and power
factor = 0.91. Assume τ = L. estimate the num the conductors are connected in 2 paralleled paths. Choose a
suitable number of conductors per slots,
so that the slot loading does not exceed 1750 amp.cond./m.
(10)
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