3

Bulk Waves in Fluids

This chapter makes an extension of the introductory material of Chapter 2

to the simplest acoustic case of interest to us here, namely the propagation
of bulk waves in liquids and gases. Formally, this case is much simpler than
that of solids; fluids in equilibrium are always isotropic and only longitudinal
(compressional) waves can propagate. Hence, there is no polarization to
specify, and scalar wave theory can be applied. From another point of view,
ultrasonic waves in liquids are sufficiently different from those in solids that
a separate discussion is required. Finally, these results on liquids form a good
basis for extending the theory to solids. A good discussion of waves in liquids
is given in [6] and [7].
In terms of notation, Vi with a subscript i will be used for sound velocity,
V0 for bulk waves in liquids, VL and VS for longitudinal and shear waves
in solids, VP and VG for phase and group velocity, etc. When the symbol V
stands alone, it normally represents the thermodynamic variable for vol-
ume V.

3.1 One-Dimensional Theory of Fluids

We consider bulk fluids that are homogeneous, isotropic, and compressible
with equilibrium pressure p0 and density ρ0. As for the case with waves in
strings in Chapter 2 we apply Newton’s law to an element of volume, and
we need an additional equation relating a pressure increase to change in
volume of the fluid, which will be provided by the definition of the com-
pressibility.
Considering a simple volume element, a wave will be provided in the
following way. If a pressure increase is applied at t = 0 to the plate at the
origin, this will cause an increase in pressure and density in the layer of fluid
next to it relative to the layer at the right. Hence, particles will flow to the
right, leading to an increase in pressure and density, and the disturbance
will then flow as a series of alternative compressions and rarefactions.

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40 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

Considering the volume element between x and x + dx we have

 ∂P  ∂P
dF x = P ( x ) –  P ( x ) + ------ dx  A = – ------ dxA (3.1)
 ∂ x  ∂x

Applying Newton’s law to the element of mass ρ0 dxA

∂-----P- ∂ u
2
= – ρ 0 --------2- (3.2)
∂x ∂t

Here P and u are the instantaneous pressure and displacement, respectively.

For simplicity, we distinguish between the equilibrium pressure P0 and
the instantaneous pressure P to the excess, acoustic pressure p by

p = P – P0

so

∂-----p- ∂ u
2
= – ρ 0 --------2- (3.3)
∂x ∂t

To link the applied pressure to the compression of the liquid, we define the
compressibility

1 ∂V
χ = – ---  ------- (3.4)
V  ∂p

and the compression of the liquid will be described by the dilatation S

∆V
S ≡ ------- (3.5)
V

During a compression of the volume dV = Adx at pressure p on the left to

dV = A(1 + ∂ u/ ∂ x )dx at pressure p + dp on the right

∆V ∂u
S = ------- = ------ (3.6)
V ∂x

From the definition of the compressibility

S 1 ∂u
p = – --- = – --- ------ (3.7)
χ χ ∂x

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 41

Hence, the equation of motion can be rewritten

∂--------u- 2∂ u
2 2
= V 0 --------2- (3.8)
∂t ∂x
2

where

1
V 0 ≡ ---------
2
(3.9)
ρ0 χ

The compressibility can be rewritten

1 ∂V 1 ∂ρ
χ = – --- ------- = ----- ------ (3.10)
V ∂p ρ0 ∂ p

which gives a more general form

∂P
V 0 = ------
2
(3.11)
∂ρ

Since pressure is only proportional to density in first order, this highlights the
fact that V0 = constant only to first order. In other words, since the pressure-
density relation is nonlinear in an exact theory, linear acoustics, correspond-
ing to V0 = constant, does not exist as such but is only an approximation.
Summarizing from the previous, the wave equation can be written in the
form

∂--------u- 2∂ u
2 2
= V 0 --------2-
∂t ∂x
2

or

∂--------p- 2∂ p
2 2
= V 0 --------2- (3.12)
∂t ∂x
2

or

∂--------v- 2∂ v
2 2
= V 0 --------2- (3.13)
∂t ∂x
2

where
v = ∂ u/ ∂ t = particle velocity,
S = dilatation = ∂ u/ ∂ x , and
p = −ρ0 V 0 S
2

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42 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

All of these three forms of the wave equation are equivalent by the above
relations in the linear approximation. We will focus on the solutions for the
displacement u(x, t). These can be written

u = A exp j ( ω t – kx ) + B exp j ( ω t + kx ) = u + + u − (3.14)

where A(u+) is the amplitude (displacement) of the wave in the forward (+x)
direction and B(u−) is the amplitude (displacement) of the wave in the back-
ward (−x) direction.
Then p, S, and v can also be written in the form

2 ∂u
p = – ρ 0 V 0 ------ = j ρ 0 ω V 0 ( u + – u − ) (3.15)
∂x

∂u
S = ------ = jk ( – u + + u − ) (3.16)
∂x

∂u
v = ------ = j ω ( u + + u − ) (3.17)
∂t

One immediate consequence of these equations is that they provide the phase
relations between pressure, displacement, dilatation, and velocity. These can
best be displayed on a complex phasor diagram as shown in Figure 3.1. From
a practical viewpoint the relation for the pressure and the velocity are most
important. For the forward wave, the pressure and velocity lead the dis-
placement by π /2; for the backward wave, the velocity leads by π /2 and the
pressure lags by π /2. The change in phase relationship with propagation
direction comes about because pressure and dilatation are scalar quantities
while displacement and velocity are vectorial.

3.1.1 Sound Velocity

As seen by the form of the solutions the sound velocity V0 = ∂ P/∂ρ = ω /k
is the phase velocity of the wave. For bulk waves in infinite media, it is a
constant for a given medium but is dependent on all of the thermodynamic
parameters such as compressibility, density, external pressure, temperature,
etc. Within the present context it is independent of frequency (infinite media)
and amplitude (linear regime) but in general this is, of course, not the case.
In fact, the analysis of the velocity is quite different for gases and liquids so
these two cases will be treated separately.

3.1.1.1 Gases
The approximation of an ideal gas will be made: PV = n0RT or P = (RT/M)ρ,
where n0 = number of moles. Since sound propagation in a gas is known to
γ
be essentially an adiabatic process, the relation PV = constant is also applicable.

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 43

FIGURE 3.1
Phasor representation for an acoustic wave in a fluid. (a) Forward wave. (b) Backward wave.

This can be written in the form

P
-----γ = constant (3.18)
ρ

so that

∂-----P- γP
= ------- (3.19)
∂ρ ρ

and for equilibrium conditions P0 , ρ0

γ P0 γ-----------
RT
V0 = -------- = (3.20)
ρ0 M

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44 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

For air (diatomic) at room temperature (20°C) γ = 1.4, P0 = 1.01 × 10 Pa

5

giving V0 ∼ 343 m/s in good agreement with experiment.

In the present treatment of fluids, the first implicit assumption of local
thermodynamic equilibrium has been made, in that only under this condition
can local values of P, T, ρ, etc. be assigned. In the case of a gas, the length
scale for thermodynamic equilibrium is the mean free path l of the gas par-
ticles, i.e., the mean distance between collisions of the molecules. It is stan-
dard that

l = v0 τ (3.21)

where
τ = mean time between collisions
v0 = thermodynamic particle velocity of the molecules
l can be inferred from transport measurements on the gas and v0 is well-
known from the kinetic theory of gases. In order of magnitude
v0 = 3RT/M ∝ 300 m/s at 20°C.

The second implicit assumption is that in order to obtain wave propaga-

tion conditions, the thermodynamic parameters must be well defined over
distances much shorter than the wavelength. Otherwise, the propagating
quantities such as pressure and density would simply not be defined with
respect to the wave. This then gives the condition λ >> l, which must be
respected for a wave description to apply. This implies an upper frequency
−5
limit for wave propagation in a gas, for example, for air at STP l ∝ 10 cm,
leading to a critical frequency f ∝ 1 GHz.
It should be noted that the same conditions apply for liquids and solids
but the critical frequencies are much higher and do not have any practical
consequence for ultrasonic waves.

3.1.1.2 Liquids
It is relatively easy to find simple models for the limiting cases of sound
propagation in gases and solids. Liquids, however, constitute an intermedi-
ate case and it is more difficult to find a simple model connecting the sound
velocity V0 to the molecular constants. The few available models will be
outlined briefly.
A semi-empirical approach, similar to that for gases, gives

γ KT
V0 = --------- (3.22)
ρ0

where KT is the isothermal bulk modulus. Another semi-empirical approach

is Rao’s rule, of the form

V0 V = Ra
1/3
(3.23)

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 45

where V is the molar volume and Ra is a constant for a given liquid. It was
pointed out by Rao that Ra undergoes regular increments among the mem-
bers of a homologous series of liquids so that

R a = AM + B (3.24)

where M is the molecular weight.

One of the few relations between V0 and the liquid structure was provided
by the early study of Schaaffs [8]. He assumed that although a realistic
equation of state for the liquid was too complicated, some properties of
organic liquids such as the sound velocity could be deduced from the van
der Waals equation

 P + -----
a
( V – b ) = RT (3.25)
 V
2

where R is the universal gas constant, a = constant, and b = excluded volume.

Schaaffs obtained for organic liquids

V0 = γ RT  ---------------------------
M
-2 – ------------------
2
(3.26)
3(M – ρb) M – ρ b

Actual comparisons were made by solving for b

1
RT  MV 2 
2 ---

b = ----- 1 – ------------2   1 + ------------0 – 1

M
(3.27)
ρ MV 0   3RT  
Excellent agreement was obtained by comparing b = 4Vmolecule with molecular
volumes determined by other means. Further discussion of other semi-
empirical approaches is given by Beyer and Letcher [7], including that for
the sound velocity in liquid mixtures. Values for representative liquids are
given in Table 3.1.

3.1.2 Acoustic Impedance

Using the electromechanical analogy developed in Chapter 2, we define the
specific acoustic impedance Z of an acoustic wave

p
Z = --- (3.28)
v
Z carries a sign as v can be either in the positive or negative direction. The
absolute value of Z for plane waves, useful to characterize the bulk (infinite)
medium, is called the characteristic impedance of the liquid, Z0 = ρ0V0. A
third variant, the normal acoustic impedance, will be introduced in Chapter
7 for reflection and transmission analysis.

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46 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

TABLE 3.1
Acoustic Properties of Representative Liquids
VL ρ Z0
−1 3 −3
Liquid (km-s ) (10 kg-m ) (MRayls)
Acetone 1.17 0.79 1.07
Liquid argon (87 K) 0.84 1.43 1.20
Methanol 1.1 0.79 0.87
Gallium (30 K) 2.87 6.10 17.5
Glycerin 1.92 1.26 2.5
4
Liquid He (2 K) 0.228 0.145 0.033
Mercury 1.45 13.53 19.6
Liquid nitrogen (77 K) 0.86 0.85 0.68
Silicone oil 1.35 1.1 1.5
Seawater 1.53 1.02 1.57
Water (20°C) 1.48 1.00 1.483

Using the previous notation we can determine the acoustic impedance for
forward and backward propagation

p j ρ0 ω V0 u+
Z + = ----+- = -----------------------
- = ρ0 V0 (3.29)
v+ j ω u+

p –j ρ0 ω V0 u−
Z − = ----−- = --------------------------
- = –ρ0 V0 (3.30)
v− j ω u−

Acoustic impedance is a highly useful concept in ultrasonics. From

Chapter 2, it is the direct analogy of impedance in electrical circuits. In the
latter case, it is well known that there is maximum power transfer between
two circuits when the impedances are matched. In the ultrasonic case, this
corresponds to maximum transmission of an ultrasonic wave from one
medium to another when the characteristic impedances are equal. Character-
istic acoustic impedances for some liquids are shown in Figure 3.2 in a repre-
sentation that is useful for choosing liquids with prescribed density and sound
velocity.

3.1.3 Energy Density

The energy density is the total energy per unit volume, comprised of the sum
of the kinetic and potential energy. By definition, the kinetic energy density is

1 2
u K = --- ρ 0 u̇ (3.31)
2

For the potential energy, we consider a volume element V changed to V′ by

the passage of the acoustic wave.

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 47

FIGURE 3.2
Density-sound velocity/characteristic acoustic impedance relation on a log-log scale for various
liquids. (Based on a graph by R. C. Eggleton, described in Jipson, V. B., Acoustical Microscopy
at Optical Wavelengths, Ph.D. thesis, E. L. Ginzton Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford,
CA, 1979.)

Since S = ∂-----u- from Equation 3.6

∂x

∂u
V′ = V  1 + ------
 ∂ x

= V  1 – -----------2
p (3.32)
 ρ 0 V 0

and the change in potential energy is

∆U P = – ∫ p dV′ (3.33)

From Equation 3.32

Vdp
dV′ = – -----------2 (3.34)
ρ0 V0

Hence,
2
V p 1 p V
∆U P = -----------2
ρ0 V0 ∫0 p dp = --2- ----------
ρ0 V0
-2 (3.35)

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48 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

Finally,

2
∆U tot = ∆U K + ∆U P = --- ρ 0  u̇ + ----------
1 2 p 
- V (3.36)
2  ρ 0 V 0
2 2

so that the acoustic energy density

∆U tot 2
= --- ρ 0  u̇ + ----------
1 2 p 
u a = ------------ - (3.37)
V 2  ρ 0 V 0
2 2

3.1.4 Acoustic Intensity

The acoustic intensity I is the average flux of acoustic energy per unit area
per unit time. For a plane wave, it is clear that for a tube element of area A
and length V0 dt, all of the acoustic energy dUa inside the cylindrical element
will traverse the end face and leave the cylinder in time dt.
Hence,

dU a = u a AV 0 dt

so that

dU
I ≡ ----------a = u a V 0 (3.38)
Adt

3.2 Three-Dimensional Model

The previous results can be generalized immediately to three dimensions.
Displacement u and velocity v now become explicitly vectors u and v while
the acoustic pressure p remains a scalar. Hence the 3D description of the acoustic
properties of fluids is usually carried out in terms of the pressure; not only
is this the simplest choice, but pressure is also the variable that is usually
measured in the laboratory.
For a surface element dA with displacement u the associated volume is
dV = u • dA. By Gauss’ theorem

∆V =
°∫S u • dA = ∫V ( ∇ • u ) dV ≡ ∫V S ( r ) dV (3.39)

where S( r ) is the dilatation.

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 49

Hence,

∂u ∂u ∂u
S ( r ) = ∇ • u ≡ --------x + --------y + --------z (3.40)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Newton’s law in three dimensions is

∂ u
2
ρ 0 --------2- = – ∇p (3.41)
∂t

where − ∇p is the net force on the element.

We want to change to a simple set of variables so that u on the left-hand
side should be expressed in terms of the pressure. This can be done by using
S( r ) = ∇ • u and then using Equation 3.7, the relation between the dilatation
and the pressure. Applying those steps to Equation 3.41, we obtain

∂ S
2
ρ 0 --------2- = – ∆ ( p ) (3.42)
∂t

where

∂ ∂ ∂
2 2 2
∆= ∇ • ∇ = --------2 + --------2 + -------2 ≡ Laplacian
∂x ∂y ∂z

and finally the wave equation

1 ∂ p
2
∆ ( p ) = -----2 ---------2 (3.43)
V0 ∂ t

where

1
V 0 = ---------
2
(3.44)
ρ0 χ

In analogy with Equation 3.43 the 3D wave equations for u and v are

1 ∂ u
2
∇ u = -----2 ---------
2
(3.45)
V0 ∂ t
2

1 ∂ v
2
∇ v = -----2 --------2-
2
(3.46)
V0 ∂ t

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50 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

and the solutions for u are

u = u 0 exp j ( ω t – k • r ) (3.47)

where k is the propagation vector whose direction gives the direction of

propagation and whose magnitude is

2π
k = ------ (3.48)
λ

3.2.1 Acoustic Poynting Vector

In the presence of applied volume forces f per unit volume Equation 3.42
becomes

∂v
ρ 0 ------- = – ∇ ( p ) + f (3.49)
∂t

If this force represents the force by the adjoining fluid on an element dV,
then the work done per unit volume in time dt is

dw = f • du = f • vdt

= ρ 0 v • dv + ∇p • du by Equation ( 3.49 )

= d  --- ρ 0 v  – pdS + ∇ • ( pdu )

1 2
(3.50)
2 

Referring to the one-dimensional model, we immediately identify the first

two terms as the variation of the kinetic and potential energy per unit volume,
respectively.
Hence,

1
u K = --- ρ 0 v
2
(3.51)
2

and

2
S S S dS 1S
u P = – ∫ p dS = ∫0 ---------- = --- ----- by Equation 3.7
0 χ 2χ

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 51

We define the acoustic Poynting vector

P ≡ pv (3.52)

and taking the time derivative of Equation 3.50

dw d
------- = ----- ( u K + u P ) + ∇ • P
dt dt

For a finite system, integrating over the volume

dw d
------- = ----- ( U K + U P ) + ∫ P • dA
dt dt °S (3.53)

where P is the instantaneous acoustic power per unit area radiated from
the system through the surface S. This equation represents the law of conser-
vation of energy at a given time.
The average value of P ≡ I then corresponds to the average flux density
carried by the acoustic wave. For a system with no absorption I = constant
and by Equation 3.53 the net acoustic power radiated from a closed element
in the steady state is zero.

3.2.2 Attenuation
Up to now we have assumed perfectly lossless reversible behavior of the
fluid. In practice, there are losses or absorption of acoustic energy by the
medium. These losses are normally attributable to viscosity and thermal
conductivity leading to the so-called classical attenuation. In addition, there
are molecular processes where acoustic energy is transformed into internal
molecular energy. The finite time for these processes leads to relaxation and
loss effects.
In fact, all of the loss effects in fluids can be described by a phase lag
between acoustic pressure and the medium response (density or volume
change). A classical example from thermodynamics is that of the P-V dia-
gram, which can be used to display the work done on the medium due to
a pressure change.
The situation is shown in Figure 3.3 on the usual P-V diagram for compres-
sion and expansion of a gas. Let us suppose that changes in P and V are due
to an acoustic wave. The work done or supplied by the system is given by

W = – ∫ P dV

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52 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 3.3
(a) Reversible transformation from A to B and from B to A in a lossless medium. (b) Transfor-
mation from A to B and from B to A in a lossy medium.

for the appropriate process. It is well known that the area enclosed by the
curve for a cycle is the net work done on the system. In the lossless case,
B
the system evolves along the same path I during expansion from A to B ( ∫ )
A A
and compression from B back to A ( ∫ ). These two amounts of work are of
B
opposite sign so the net amount of work absorbed by the system from the
acoustic wave is zero. On the other hand, if the system does not respond
immediately then intuitively volume change will tend to lag that for the
reversible case for both expansion (II) and compression (I), leading to a net
amount of work per cycle by the acoustic wave on the medium, leading to
absorption of energy.

3.2.2.1 Decibel Scale of Attenuation

If we consider the displacement u of the wave as

u = u 0 exp j ( ω t – kx )

for the wave without dissipation, then I ∝ u for plane waves. If now we add
2

dissipation, the only effect is that the wave vector k becomes complex, i.e.,
k → β − jα, where α is seen to be the attenuation coefficient for the amplitude
of the wave, as now

u = u 0 exp j ( ω t – β x ) exp ( – α x ) (3.54)

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 53

In plane wave conditions, which are standard for attenuation measure-

ment, I ∝ u , so that the acoustic intensity decays as exp(−2αx). The factor
2

of two comes from the difference in attenuation between the amplitude and
the intensity due to the quadratic term. In practice, care must be taken as to
what is being measured (and calculated) to avoid confusion on this point.
In practice the attenuation factor for the amplitude is measured by deter-
mining the amplitude ratio r12 of the wave at two different positions x1 and x2.
Hence,

r 12 = exp α ( x 2 – x 1 )

The attenuation in nepers ≡ ln(r12) = α(x2 − x1), so that α is measured in

Np/m.
It is more common to use the decibel (dB) scale to compare acoustic intensity
level; the attenuation in dB is defined as

attenuation ( dB ) = 10log 10 ( r 12 )
2
(3.55)
= 20 ( log 10 e ) α ( x 2 – x 1 ) dB

where α is in dB/m.
Hence, the relation between the two units is

α ( dB/m ) = 20 ( log 10 e ) α ( Np/m ) = 8.686 α ( Np/m ) (3.56)

3.2.2.2 Relaxation Time Formulation for Viscosity

Stokes’ classic treatment includes a time-dependent term in the pressure-
condensation relation [6]

∂s
p = ρ 0 V 0 s + η -----
2
(3.57)
∂t

where η is a viscosity coefficient and s = −S is the relative density change or

condensation. For an applied pressure pa = pa0 exp( jω t), if we assume a
response for the condensation s = s0 exp( jω t), direct substitution yields

p0
s 0 = ---------------------------
- (3.58)
ρ 0 V 0 + j ωη
2

Clearly, the density change lags the applied pressure by a phase angle φ
where

ωη
tan φ = -----------2 (3.59)
ρ0 V0

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54 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

If a step function pressure change ∆ pa0 is applied at t = 0, the solution is

∆p ρ 0 V 0 t 
2
s = ----------0-2  1 – exp  – ------------- (3.60)
ρ0 V0   η 

and if a step function pressure is suddenly removed

∆p ρ 0 V 0 t
2
s = ----------0-2 exp  – ------------- (3.61)
ρ0 V0  η 

Recalling the electromechanical analogy, it is readily seen that these solutions

are identical to those for the current in an L-R circuit when a potential
difference is suddenly applied or removed. That process is described by a
relaxation time τ = L/R. By analogy, we define a viscous relaxation time

η
τ = -----------. (3.62)
ρ0 V0
2

3.2.2.3 Attenuation Due to Viscosity

The effects of attenuation are normally incorporated by using a complex
wave number

k ≡ β – jα (3.63)

Then
–α x
u = u 0 exp j ( ω t – ( β – j α )x ) = u 0 e exp j ( ω t – β x ) (3.64)

using the Stokes term for the pressure, the wave equation is

∂--------u- 2∂ u η ∂ u
2 2 2
= V 0 --------2- + ----- ------------ (3.65)
∂t
2
∂x ρ 0 ∂ x ∂τ

substituting for u and separating real and imaginary parts

ω
2
α = ---------2  ------------------------
1 1
-
2
- – -------------------- (3.66)
2V 0 1 + ω 2 τ 2 1 + ω τ 
2 2

ω
2
β = ---------2  ------------------------- + --------------------
-
2 1 1
2 2
(3.67)
2V 0 1 + ω τ 2 2 1+ω τ

and

2V 0 ( 1 + ω τ )
2 2 2
ω
2
V P ≡ ------2 = ----------------------------------
2
- (3.68)
β 1+ 1+ω τ
2 2

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Bulk Waves in Fluids 55

For most fluids at ultrasonic frequencies at room temperature, ω τ << 1; hence,

ωτ ωη
2 2
α ∼ --------- = ---------------3 (3.69)
2V 0 2 ρ0 V0

and the modified phase velocity

V P = V 0  1 + --- ω τ 
3 2 2
(3.70)
 8 

The important result here is that in this limit α ∼ ω . This means that α rises
2

rapidly with frequency; this will have important implications for acoustic
devices and NDE. The change in the velocity is small and is neglected in
most cases in practice.

3.2.2.4 Attenuation Due to Thermal Conduction

In simple descriptions of sound propagation, perfect adiabaticity is usually
assumed. This is only strictly true if the thermal conductivity κ ≡ 0 . In fact,
there is always a finite κ , so heat will be transported from the hot regions
(compressions) to the cooler regions (rarefactions) created by the sound
wave. As for viscous effects the temperature change will lag the applied
pressure, leading to additional attenuation, described by a relaxation time

κ
τ = ------------------ (3.71)
ρ0 V0 Cp

The corresponding attenuation in the limit ω τ << 1 when added to the viscous
term that Equation 3.69 gives for the so-called classical attenuation coefficient
of liquids

ω 4η κ(γ – 1)
2
α = ---------------3  ------ + -------------------- (3.72)
2 ρ0 V0 3 Cp

It is interesting to compare this classical attenuation to that actually observed

experimentally in liquids, which is done in Table 3.2 for liquids and gases.
Excellent quantitative agreement is obtained for inert gases (He and Ar) and
in cases where the viscous term dominates (glycerin). Otherwise, the exper-
imental value exceeds the classical one sometimes significantly. This is due
to molecular relaxation phenomena.

3.2.2.5 Molecular Relaxation

This is a subject of physical chemistry in itself, which could easily fill a large
book. However, since the subject is now well understood and is not of current
research interest, only a brief overview will be given. A detailed discussion
has been given by Herzfeld and Litovitz [9] and Beyer and Letcher [7].

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

56 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

TABLE 3.2
Acoustic Absorption in Fluids
−1 −
α /f (Np ⋅ s ⋅ m )
2 2
All Data for
T = 20°°C and Shear Thermal

0 = 1 atm Viscosity Conductivity Classical Observed

−11
Gases Multiply All Values by 10

Argon 1.08 0.77 1.85 1.87

Helium 0.31 0.22 0.53 0.54
Oxygen 1.14 0.47 1.61 1.92
Nitrogen 0.96 0.39 1.35 1.64
Air (dry) 0.99 0.38 1.37 α/f peaks at 40 Hz
Carbon dioxide 1.09 0.31 1.40 α/f peaks at 30 kHz
−15
Liquids Multiply All Values by 10

Glycerin 3000.0 — 3000.0 3000.0

Mercury — 6.0 6.0 5.0
Acetone 6.5 0.5 7.0 30.0
Water 8.1 — 8.1 25.0
Seawater 8.1 — 8.1 α/f peaks at 1.2 kHz
and 136 kHz
Source: Data from Kinsler, L.E. et al., Fundamentals of Acoustics, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 2000.

To see how molecular structure can contribute to relaxation effects, let us

look briefly at the simple physics of relaxation, which will also give insight
into the viscosity and thermal conduction contributions. Consider a physical
system at constant temperature that is excited to a higher energy state by
energy absorbed from an incident ultrasonic wave. The system will attempt
to return to equilibrium by giving up this energy to surrounding regions at
a rate determined by a temperature dependent relaxation time. Let us now
slowly increase the ultrasonic frequency from zero.
In the regime ω τ << 1, the variations of the applied field are so slow that
the process is approximately reversible, the system follows in phase the applied
field, there is little excess absorbed energy, and the attenuation is tiny. This
is less true as the frequency is raised, leading to an increase in attenuation.
In the opposite limit with ω τ >> 1 at sufficiently high frequencies, the ultrasonic
field varies so fast that the system cannot follow it. Hence, there is almost
no absorbed energy and the attenuation is again very small. As the frequency
is reduced, the system progressively starts to follow the field and absorb
energy; hence, the attenuation starts to increase.
Clearly, there is an optimal situation at which the system absorbs a large
amount of energy from the field and dumps it efficiently and irreversibly as
heat to the surroundings, thus giving a high value of attenuation. This optimal
situation occurs at ω τ ∼ 1, at which there is a well-defined peak in the atten-
uation. Experimentally, one can also observe the peak at constant frequency by
varying the temperature (or other parameter) which makes τ sweep the critical

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

Bulk Waves in Fluids 57

region around the peak. Another point is that experimentally the relaxation
peak is very sharp and may be confused with a resonance; care must be
taken in interpretation as the physics in the two cases is quite different.
The case of gases is the simplest to analyze. The monatomic and inert gases
have only translational degrees of freedom. τ is hence very short, and there
is no excess attenuation above the “classical” value. Polyatomic gases have
rotational and vibrational levels that require a finite time to take up the excess
energy, particularly the latter. This leads to a specific heat of the form
t
– --
CV = Ce + Cm  1 – e 
τ
(3.73)
 

which will obviously lead to a relaxation type attenuation. A classic example

is CO2 , which at STP exhibits a relaxation peak centered at about 20 kHz;
the maximum attenuation is of the order of 1200 times that of the classical
value. Another interesting example is air. Dry air exhibits slightly greater
attenuation than the classic value but for humid air below 100 kHz there is
an order of magnitude increase. This is due to the reduction of τ for the
vibrational mode of the oxygen molecule due to the catalytic effect of the
water vapor molecules.
Similar relaxation effects have been seen in liquids and this explains the
excess attenuation in nonpolar liquids such as acetone. The excess attenua-
tion observed in water has been shown to be due to structural relaxation as
explained by Hall [10]. Water is known to be a two-state liquid, part of the
water in a free state, the rest in a bound state where the water molecules
have a more closely packed structure. The ultrasonic wave causes transitions
between the two states and the associated time delays lead to a relaxation-
type phenomenon. An additional excess attenuation occurs in seawater
where dissolved salts lead to a type of chemical relaxation.

Summary
Wave equation is a second-order differential equation that allows determina-
tion of the displacement u(x, t) for given initial and boundary conditions.
Sound velocity in a gas is given by the general formula V 0 = dP/dρ. For a
2

perfect gas, V0 = γ RT/M .

Sound velocity in a liquid to a first approximation is given by γ K T / ρ 0 where
KT is the isothermal bulk modulus.
Specific acoustic impedance Z = p/v carries a sign; it is positive in the forward
direction and negative in the backward direction. The absolute value
for plane waves is the characteristic acoustic impedance Z0 = ρ0V0 and
is a constant for the medium.
Acoustic intensity is the average flux of acoustic energy per unit area per
unit time. For a plane wave, it is given by u aV0.

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58 Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

Acoustic Poynting vector is defined as pv and is the flux density of acoustic

energy in a given direction.
Decibel is a log scale used to compare acoustic intensities. Acoustic attenu-
ation in a medium is expressed in dB/m or Np/m.
Classical attenuation for liquids and gases is due to viscosity and thermal
conduction.
Molecular relaxation occurs in polyatomic gases and liquids. Because of the
phase lag in transferring the ultrasonic energy to the different energy
levels, relaxation gives rise to an extra attenuation, which is described
by the parameter ω τ. The limit ω τ << 1 applies to most media at ultra-
sonic frequencies.

Questions
1. Draw waveforms as a function of x for u(x), v(x), and P(x) for a
traveling harmonic wave. Comment on the phase relationships in
the forward direction of the form in Equation 3.14.
2. Use the results of Question 1 and Equation 3.52 to calculate I(x) for
this wave. Calculate and sketch the graph of both instantaneous
and average values of I(x).
3. Using data from Table 3.1, calculate for glycerin:
i. Viscous relaxation time τs
ii. Low frequency attenuation α s; compare this result with that of
Table 3.1
4. Use an approximation for air as a perfect gas of molecular weight
29. At STP (0°C and 1 atmosphere of pressure), calculate:
i. Mass density
ii. Average molecular velocity
iii. Mean free time between collisions
iv. Mean free path between collisions
5. Justify Equation 3.7.
6. Show that the condensation s, the density change per unit density =
−S, where S is the dilatation.
7. Find the specific acoustic impedance for a standing wave p = p0
sin kx cos ω t.
8. For two waves of different frequency traveling in the +x direction,
show that the specific acoustic impedance is ρ0V0.

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC