Raw Water Intake, Screening and Aeration

Raw water intakes withdraw water from a river, lake, or reservoir over a predetermined range of pool
levels.

Screens remove large floating objects from water. In order to protect pumping equipment, screens
are generally located at the intake structures, to remove large objects before they enter the pump
station.

Aeration is a unit process that removes gases and volatile organics that may cause taste and odor
problems in the water supply. Aeration is also used to oxidize certain dissolved metals by forming
insoluble oxides. This unit process may be located either at the intake structure or just ahead of the
treatment plant.

Types of Intake Structures

Floating Intakes – are particularly suitable in water sources that have unsuitable geological
conditions and where relatively little difference in water-surface elevation over time occurs. They
consists of a barge-type structure that floats on water surface and supports pumps, screens, valves,
electrical switches, gears and other equipment. The structure is anchored by at least two mooring
piers.

Submerged Intakes – are used to withdraw water from streams or lakes that have relatively change
in water-surface elevation throughout the year. They may consist of a simple concrete box or of a
rock-filled timber crib to support the influent end of the withdrawal pipe. The withdrawal pipe
discharges either into a sump at the shore where pumping equipment is installed or into a gravity
conveyance system. The top opening is covered with cast iron or mesh grating.

Exposed or Tower Intakes – are used for large projects on rivers or reservoirs with large water-level
fluctuations. They may be built either sufficiently near the shore to be connected by a bridge
walkway or such distance that can be reached only by boat. Gate-controlled openings (also called
ports) are generally provided at several levels in order to permit selection of the best-quality of
water. There are two types, wet-intake towers and dry-intake towers.

Shore-intake Structures – are used on rivers and lakes with a near-constant level or on lakes and
reservoirs with deep shorelines. Typically, they are concrete structures open on the water side. The
structures may be constructed to be integral with a pump station.

Pier Intakes – are used on lakes and rivers where the water depth at the shoreline is too shallow for
a shore-type structure. This type of structure consists of a structural steel or concrete platform
resting on steel piles or concrete piers.

Intake-Site Selection

 Water quality – to yield the best-quality water possible, should not locate in dead areas.

 Water depth – can be withdrawn from the full range of water levels. The range of water
levels should include the lowest expected drought level and the extreme flood level in the
water source.
  Stream or Current Velocities – both direction and magnitude of the stream or current
velocities can have an impact on the operation of intakes. Water currents flowing posts at
velocities greater than 0.6 m/s (2 fps) can cause eddy currents that will affect the hydraulic
function of the intake. Water velocity also affects the lateral stability and foundation stability
of the structure.

 Foundation Stability – the foundation must be carefully designed to resist the resulting
overturning moments.

 Access – intakes must be accessible under all weather conditions, to allow operators to
inspect and maintain the intake equipment.

 Power Availability – electrical power is always required for intake structures.

 Proximity to Water Treatment Plant – the cost of facilities to convey water from the source
to treatment plant is related directly to the distance between the source and the treatment
plant.

 Environmental Impact – environmental issues must be carefully considered. The greatest

impact of raw water intake is on recreational uses in a water body. Typically, a clear zone of
61 m (200 ft) or more is required around intake sites, to protect boaters from the hazards of
the intake and to protect the water quality near the intake.

 Hazard to Navigation – the water body may serve as a navigation channel. Intake structures
must be located and designed so that they do not pose a hazard to navigation.

Intake-Design Considerations

 Intake Velocities – high intake velocities increase head loss, entrain suspended matter, trap
fish and other aquatic animals, compound ice problem. Low velocities require the intake port
to be larger and so add to the cost of structure. Experience has shown that a velocity below
8.0 cm/s (0.3 fps) allows fish and other aquatic animals to escape, reduces frazil ice
obstruction, and minimizes the entrainment of suspended matter.

 Intake-port Location – lakes and reservoirs tend to be stratified. As a result, water quality in
each stratum may vary. Multiple intake ports set at various levels are generally provided.

Ideally, the vertical location of ports should be determined by testing of water quality from
various depths at the proposed intake site. These tests should be performed during all
seasons, which different lake or reservoir levels and climate conditions.

The top intake port should be located not less than 2 m (6 ft) below the normal water surface
so that floating debris will not be drawn into the port. The bottom port should be located at
least 1 m (3 ft) above the bottom to prevent the suspension of bottom sediments.
  Gates – are used to control inflow of water from the raw water source into the water-
conveyance system, to select water from a stratum that has best-quality water, to prevent
water from entering the system altogether, not to regulate the flow into the system.

Gates typically used in intake structures are sluice gates. These are large cast-iron gates that
slide vertically on a guide track.

 Control of Ice –

Screening

 Coarse Screen or Trash Rack – intake ports should be equipped with a coarse screen or bar
rack to prevent large objects from entering the conveyance system. These screens consist of
vertical flat bars, or in some cases, round pipes spaced with 5 to 8 cm (2 to 3 in) of clear
opening. Screens should be installed outside of any sluice gate to prevent debris from
interfering with their operation. The velocity through the course screen is generally less than
8.0 cm/s (0.3 fps).

 Fine Screen – used to remove smaller objects that may damage pumps or other equipment.
They may be located either at the intake structure or at the raw water pump station. These
screens consist of heavy wire mesh with 0.5 cm (1/4 in) square openings or of circular
passive screens with similar opening widths. The typical design velocity through the effective
area is in the range of 0.4 to 0.8 m/s. Screens with small openings will retain a large quantity
of material; therefore, they may require automatic cleaning.

 Microstrainer – are used for the removal of plankton and algae from impounded water. Raw
water containing a heavy population of algae and plankton is difficult to coagulate. Algae and
plankton usually float, because their specific gravity is less than 1. Therefore, microstrainers
installed before chemical coagulation will often improve the performance of clarifiers. A
microstrainer consists of a rotating cylindrical frame covered with fine wire-mesh fabric.

Aeration

Aeration involves bringing air or other gases in contact with water to transfer volatile substances
from the liquid to the gaseous phase and to dissolve beneficial gases into the water.

The volatile substances that may be removed include dissolved gases, volatile organic compounds,
and various aromatic compounds responsible for tastes and odors. Gases that may be dissolved into
water include oxygen and carbon dioxide.

The purposes of aeration in water treatment are (1) to reduce the concentration of taste and odor (2)
to oxidize iron and manganese, rendering them insoluble, (3) to dissolve a gas in the water, and (4) to
remove those compounds that may in some way interfere with or add to the cost of subsequent
water treatment.

Types of Aerators
 1) Gravity aerator – utilize weirs, waterfalls cascades, inclined planes with riffle plates, vertical
towers with updraft air, perforated tray towers, or packed towers filled with contact media
such as coke or stone

2) Spray aerators – spray droplets of water into the air from moving or stationary orifice or
nozzles. The water rises either vertically or at an angle and falls into a collecting apron, a
contact bed, or a collecting basin. Spray aerators are also designed as decorative fountains.
To produce an atomizing jet, a large amount of power is required, and the water must be
free of large solids.

3) Diffused-Air aerators – water is aerated in large tanks. Compressed air is injected into the
tank through porous diffuser plates, or tubes, or spargers. Ascending air bubbles cause
turbulence and provide opportunity for exchange of volatile materials between air bubbles
and water. Aeration periods vary from 10 to 30 min. Air supply is generally 0.1 to 1 m 3 per
min per m3 of the tank volume.

4) Mechanical aerators – employ either motor-driven impellers or a combination of impeller

with air-injection devices. Common types of devices are submerged paddles, surface
paddles, propeller blades, turbine aerators, and draft-tub aerators.

A major design consideration for all types of aerators is to provide maximum interface between air
and water at minimum expenditure of energy.

Mechanics of Gas Transfer

 Equilibrium – gases dissolved in a liquid will seek an equilibrium condition. The

concentration of a gas dissolved in a liquid at equilibrium is called the saturation value. The
saturation value of a gas depends upon the temperature of the liquid, the partial pressure of
the gas and the dissolved-solids concentration in the liquid. The saturation value is directly
proportional to the partial pressure and inversely proportional to the temperature and
dissolved-solids concentration. The difference between the saturation value and actual
concentration provides the driving force for the exchange of gases from the gaseous state to
the dissolved state and vice versa. The rate of exchange is directly proportional to the
difference between the actual concentration and the saturation value.

 Gas Transfer – the rate of gas transfer across a liquid-gas interface is commonly expressed:

dC
 K L a (C s  C0 )
dt

(Cs  C )  (Cs  C0 )e  K L a.t

Where dC/dt = rate of change in concentration (mg/L.s)

KLa = overall mass-transfer coefficient, 1/s

Cs = saturation concentration, mg/L

C = concentration at any time t, mg/L

 C0 = initial concentration at t = 0, mg/L

( K L a )T  ( K L a ) 20 x T  20

Where (KLa)T = gas-transfer coefficient at temperature T, 1/s

(KLa)20 = gas-transfer coefficient at temperature 20C, 1/s

Θ = temperature-correction coefficient that can vary with test condition

From the equations, the following key design considerations for aerators are developed:

1. The gas-transfer rate is directly proportional to the exposure area per unit volume. An ideal
aeration device will maximize the area of exposure. In diffused aerators, for a given air
supply, fine bubbles offer a greater area of exposure than coarse bubbles. In cascade
aerators, a large length of overflow weir increases the area. In spray aerators, the nozzle that
produces a finer spray gives the larger area of exposure.

2. The rate of gas-transfer is also directly proportional to the time of exposure; therefore, an
aeration device should maximize exposure time. For example, the rising velocity of air
bubbles in a diffused-aeration system is generally twenty percent of the falling velocity in
spray aerators. If all other factors were equal, the rate of oxygen transfer would be five times
greater for the diffused aerators than for spray aerators.

3. The rate of gas-transfer is directly proportional to the difference between the saturation
value and the initial concentration (C s – C0). The saturation value depends upon the partial
pressure of gas, temperature of the liquid, and dissolved-solids concentration in the liquid,
so a change in any of these parameters will affect the rate of gas-transfer. For example, by
increasing the percentage of oxygen in the air mixture, the partial pressure is increased,
resulting in a higher saturation value. This situation is encountered with pure-oxygen or high-
oxygen diffuser systems.

4. If C0 is greater than Cs (typical case of groundwater supersaturation with CO 2 or H2S), this

represents desorption, or stripping action.

Application of Aeration

1) Taste and odor removal – aeration has a limited value in taste and odor removal. Most taste-
and odor-causing compounds have a high solubility in water. Therefore, with some
exceptions, aeration is generally less efficient in removal of taste and odor than other
methods, such as chemical oxidation or adsorption.

2) Iron and manganese removal – is typically accomplished by oxidizing the iron and
manganese ions into insolubility oxides. The application of aeration is to provide a sufficient
amount of oxygen for this reaction to occur. This process is used most commonly in
groundwater applications, where the dissolved oxygen of the water is low. Therefore,
aeration will result in oxidation of iron and manganese, causing their precipitation and an
increase in the dissolved-oxygen concentration. Manganese often cannot be readily oxidized
 at normal pH levels. Increasing the pH to 8.5 will enhance manganese oxidation, particular if
a packed-tower aerator with coke-bed packing is used.

3) Volatile organic compounds removal – most of these chemicals can readily be removed by
aeration. Consideration must be given in the design of aeration units to remove of VOCs in
the exhaust air, some of these compounds are also subject to maximum ambient air-
concentration limitation.

4) Carbon dioxide removal – carbon dioxide can readily be removed by aeration. Carbon
dioxide has a low solubility in water; therefore, aeration is very efficient in its removal. This
process is usually applied prior to softening of groundwater.

5) Hydrogen sulfide removal – hydrogen sulfide is an important taste- and odor-causing

compound that can be treated effectively by aeration. The mechanism of treatment in this
case is primarily oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, resulting in water and free sulfur.

Design of Intakes and Screens

 The hydraulic considerations in intake structure design are energy losses due to the
acceleration and deceleration of water at bar racks, intake ports, and fine screens. The low
velocities of a properly designed intake typically make these losses very small; however, a
designer should perform calculations to assure that the system will function properly. The
losses through the intake port can be calculated by using the orifice equation:

1 v 2
hL  ( )
2 g Cd

 Losses through screens can be calculated for either clean or dirty screens:

(v 2  vv2 ) 1
hL  x
2g 0 .7

Where v = velocity through the screen opening, m/s

Vv = velocity upstream of the screen (0 in most cases), m/s

Cd = coefficient of discharge for orifice (usually 0.6 – 0.9)

 The equipment selected for water supply projects should meet the project requirements for
flexibility of operation, maintainability, and durability, while meeting the primary design
requirements for the unit process.

Information checklist for design of raw water intake and screen

1. Information to be obtained from pre-design report:

 Design flow – maximum day demand

 Location of the proposed intake

  Minimum and maximum water surface elevations of raw water source

2. Information to be obtained from the preliminary design

 Preliminary site plan of the raw water intake structure

 Preliminary layout of the intake structure

 Type of screening equipment

3. Information to be obtained from the plant owner and operator

 Any particular preferences with regard to equipment types

 Any particular preferences with regard to structural, mechanical, and electrical design of
the raw water intake

4. Information to be obtained from field investigations

 Topography of the proposed site

 Water current pattern and velocity in the reservoir or river near the intake structure

 Geological conditions at the intake structure (level of groundwater and location of rock
formation)

5. Information to be developed by the design engineering team

 Design criteria established by the regulatory authorities

 Types, sizes, and limitations of available equipment

Water Conveyance, Flow Measurement, and Pumping

Water conveyance systems – include the conduits needed to transport water from one point to
another. In most cases, water conveyance is necessary from its source to the water treatment facility
and from the treatment facility to the consumers.

Pumping – is used to impart the energy required to move water through the conveyance system.
Pump stations are often located at the raw water intake, at the water treatment plant, and in the
water distribution system.

Flow measurement – provides information regarding the quantity of water passing through a point
in the water-conveyance system. Flow meters are generally provided at the following locations: at
the raw water intake, ahead of the water treatment plant, at individual filter units, at the high service
pump station, and at various points in the water treatment and distribution systems.
Types of Conveyance Systems

Various types of conduits are used for transporting water. Topography, available head, construction
materials and practices, economics, and water quality are the primary considerations in selecting
suitable conduits for a water conveyance system.

Water conduits are classified as open channel or pressure conduits. Open channels have a free water
surface in contact with the atmosphere; pressure conduits have confined water surface.

Open channels

1) Canals – are earthen channels excavated through the ground. They may be lined or unlined,
depending on soil conditions, bottom slope, and the cost of water. They are usually
trapezoidal in cross section.

2) Flumes and Aqueducts – are channels supported above the ground to transport water across
valleys and depressions.

3) Gravity conduits – or grade aqueducts are usually buried pipes. However, they have a free
water surface, as canal do.

4) Grade tunnels – are built through mountains or other extreme elevations, either to shorten
the route or to conserve head.

Design Considerations for Conveyance System

 Hydraulic Transition – flow conditions in open channel are classified as either supercritical or
subcritical, depending on the relative velocity and amount of turbulence. Velocity is
controlled by the channel slope and cross-section. Mild slopes result in lower velocities and
less turbulence and are classified as subcritical flow. Steeper slopes result in higher
velocities, and more turbulence and are classified as supercritical flow. Change in slope or
cross-sectional area can cause the flow to transition from one type to the other.

 Water Quality – open channel systems are often open to the atmosphere. This creates the
possibility of accidental, intentional, or natural contamination of the water.

 Erosion Control – earthen canals must be protected from erosion by limiting velocity and
turbulence of water.

 Seepage and Evaporation Losses – canals may often be routed through arid areas and/or
through areas with soil of high permeability.

 Pressure Conduit – the importance design considerations for pressure systems are the
control of air and the control of transient pressure waves.

Air control – typically, pressure pipelines follow the ground terrain. As a result, there are
numerous hills and valleys in the pipeline. Any air trapped in the pipeline will tend to
accumulate at the high points, and if not removed, will increase the fiction losses in the pipe
line at that point. If air bubbles become entrained in the water, they may restrict the flow or
 release explosively at the exit point. Air is best controlled by installing automatic air relief
valves designed to allow air to escape at high point in a pipeline.

Transient Pressure Wave – when the velocity changes in an enclosed conduit, the kinetic
energy of the water is transformed into pressure waves that move rapidly through the
pipeline system. These waves are often called water hammer, surge waves, or transient
pressure. They can exert pressure of high magnitude, oscillating between positive (higher
pressure) and negative (lower pressure). These waves are generally caused by a sudden
change in velocity or direction of water flow caused by fast-opening or –closing valves or by
rapid starting or stopping of pumps.

Hydraulic Considerations for Conveyance Systems

The hydraulic analysis and design of a water transport system is carried out by using the basic
principles of open-channel and pressure-conduit hydraulics.

Open Channel Systems – open channel flow occurs under gravity. The hydraulic grade line coincides
with the water surface and is generally parallel to the bottom of the conduit. Equations proposed by
Manning, Chezy are used to predict the hydraulic gradient of gravity systems. These equations will
predict the flow characteristics (velocity, depth of flow, hydraulic slope, and dimensions) of a gravity
system.

Pressure Conduits – are enclosed pipes. Water flows at a pressure higher than the atmospheric
pressure. In other words, the hydraulic grade line is above the crown of the conduit; pressure pipes
can follow the natural ground surface, provided the ground surface is below the hydraulic grade line.
The velocity in the conduit is flow divided by the area. The friction losses in the pipe are typically
calculated by from Darcy-Weisbach.

Flow Measurement

Flow measurement is a critical element of a water supply. These measurements are essential to
control process operations such as filtration and backwash rates, chemical feed, and operation of the
distribution system and to maintain records for building and future expansions. Flow meters are
provided at raw water intakes, treatment plant influent pipes, flow-division pipes, filter controls,
pump stations, and various critical points in the distribution system.

Pumping

Pumping is needed to transport water, chemicals, and residuals streams. Pumping involves imparting
energy to water to raise its head, causing it to flow from a lower elevation to a higher elevation.

 Head – describes hydraulic energy, expressed as the height of a column of liquid above the
v2
datum. The minor losses, kinetic energy or velocity head are expressed by: hm  .
2g
Potential energy or static head is expressed by: Hstat = HD + HS.
  Capacity – is the volumetric rate of flow of a liquid through a pump. The capacity of a pump
is dependent on the total dynamic head and the pump characteristics.

 Power and Efficiency – the output power of a pump is often referred to as its water power.
The input is the power applied to the pump by a driver and always exceeds the output
power. This is also called break power. Input power and output power are related by the
pump efficiency.

 Net positive suction head (NPSH) – is the absolute pressure of the fluid at the pump
centerline. Two values of NPSH are NPSH req (required) and NPSHava (available) in pump
selection.

 Cavitation – is a phenomenon that occurs when the absolute pressure of a fluid reaches the
fluid vapor pressure. When this occurs, a cavity is formed in the fluid and the liquid literally
boils.

 Specific speed – is a term that applied to centrifugal pumps and is defined as the rotational
speed at which the pump discharges a unit flow at a unit head and at maximum efficiency.

 Types of pumps – pumps are generally classified as either kinetic energy (centrifugal,
peripheral or recessed impeller) or positive displacement pumps (plunger or piston,
diaphragm, rotary, screw, airlift).

 Pump drivers – convert electrical or thermal energy into kinetic energy required to drive a
pump. They include electric motor, internal combustion engines, gas turbines, and steam
turbines.

 Pump station – can be classified as wet-pit or dry-pit. These classifications are based on the
location of the pumps relative to the wet well or dry pit.

Information Checklist for Design of Raw Water Conveyance, Pump Stations, and Flow Meter

1. Information to be obtained from the pre-design report:

 Design flow: peak, average and minimum

 Location of the proposed pump station and water treatment plant

 Minimum and maximum water surface elevation of the raw water source

 Water surface elevation of the first treatment unit at the water treatment plant

 Route of the raw water pipeline

2. Information to be obtained from the preliminary design

 Preliminary site plan of the raw water pump station

 Preliminary layout of the pump station

  Type of pumps and valves

 Size of the raw water pipeline

3. Information to be obtained from the plant owners and operator

 Preferences with regards to the type of pumping and flow measuring equipment, and
the manufacturer

 Preferences with regards to any existing pump stations and flow measuring devices in
operation at the facility

4. Information to be developed by the design engineer

 Minimum design parameters and design criteria established by the concerned regulatory
authorities

 Manufacturers’ catalogs containing information on types, sizes, and limitations of

available equipment

 Site plan, piping schematic, and hydraulic profile from the reservoir to the treatment
plant. A great deal of engineering judgment and experience is required in establishing
these elevations

 Type of pumping station and suction conditions. This may include limits of submergence,
suction head, suction lift, and available NPSH

 System head-capacity curve

 Initial pumping-unit selection, to include types and number of pumps, constant- or

variable-speed drive, specific speed, and so forth

 Drive unit (electrical motor or engine) and expected power requirements

Coagulation, Flocculation, and Precipitation

Water from a natural source usually contains many dissolved and suspending solids. Large suspended
particles, such as sand, behave as “discrete” particles and can be readily be removed by
sedimentation and/or filtration processes. Suspended particles at the lower end of the size spectrum
do not readily settle. These are colloidal particles and can be removed by sedimentation and
filtration only after physical and chemical conditioning. Chemical conditioning of colloids is known as
coagulation and involves the addition of chemicals that modify the physical properties of colloids to
enhance their removal. Physical conditioning is known as flocculation. This process involves gently
mixing the suspension to accelerate interparticle contact, thus promoting agglomeration of colloidal
particles into larger floc for enhanced settling.
Some dissolved minerals or solids in water can be precipitated as suspended solids by chemically or
physically modifying the solution. Examples of such minerals are calcium and magnesium, which can
be converted into an insoluble state by addition of lime and soda ash, thus forming a precipitate of
the mineral. The resulting precipitate can then be removed by conventional coagulation,
sedimentation, and filtration processes. This process of removal is known as precipitation.

Suspended Solids – include sand, soil, organic material, bacteria, virus, and other particulate
material. Particles at the higher end of the spectrum (greater than 1 micron) will usually settle in
quiescent water. A suspension of particles that will not settle is known as a stable suspension. The
particles that make up these suspension are known as colloid.

Characteristics of Colloids – colloid particles are defined by size, from 0.001 micron (10 -6mm) to one
micron (10-3mm). Particles found within this size range are (1) inorganic particles, such as asbestos
fibers, clays, and silts, (2) coagulant precipitates, and (3) organic particles, such as humic substances,
viruses, bacteria, and plankton. The property of scattering light is generally measured in turbidity
units. The principal phenomena controlling the behavior of colloids are electrostatic forces, van der
Waals forces, and Brownian motion.

Electrostatic Force – is the principal force contributing to the stability of the colloidal
suspensions. Most colloids are electrically charged. Metallic oxides are generally positively charged,
while nonmetallic oxides and metallic sulfides are generally negatively charged. The result of this
electrical charge is that colloids of similar charge will repel each other.

Van der Waals Forces – a force of attraction exists between any two masses. The magnitude
of this attraction is a function of the mass of the two bodies and the distance between them. In
colloidal chemistry, van der Waals forces are the antithesis of electrostatic forces.

Brownian motion – colloids have a sufficient small mass that collision with molecular-size
particles will cause movement of the colloid. This molecular motion causes random collisions with
colloids, resulting in what appears to be the random movement of the colloid. The phenomena is
known as Brownian motion.

Coagulation Process Design Considerations

The design of a coagulation process involves (1) selection of proper coagulant chemicals and their
dosages and (2) design of rapid-mix and flocculation basin.

Selection of proper coagulants and their dosages are best determined experimentally for
each raw water source. Operating experience from other treatment plants treating similar waters is a
second common method of developing design parameters. It may be noted that the chemical make-
up of any water may vary to such a degree that the design of a coagulation facility cannot be rigidly
established. The most important consideration in coagulant process design is to provide a flexibility
in chemical feed equipment and types of chemicals. Such flexibility provides the operator an ability
to adjust proper dosages as the chemical make-up of raw water changes with time. In conventional
coagulation, the Fe3+ dose is in the range of 2 to 4 mg/L; the Fe 3+ dose may reach as high as 11 mg/L
in enhanced coagulation.
Dissolved Solids – include ions of such dissolved minerals as calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, and
manganese, in combination with such anions as bicarbonates, carbonates, chlorides, sulfates,
nitrates, phosphates, and fluorides. Most of these compounds are beneficial; others may be harmful
in higher concentrations.

Dissolved solids in water may be either ionic compounds, such as calcium bicarbonate
(Ca(HCO3)2), or molecular compounds, such as sucrose (C 12H22O11). Dissolved ionic compounds in
water form a strong electrolyte; molecular compounds typically form a non-electrolyte solution.

Many ionic compounds such as those of iron, manganese, calcium and magnesium, are
removed from raw water mostly by chemical precipitation; molecular compounds, on the other
hand, are not removed by precipitation.

Precipitation of Dissolved Solids – in the precipitation process, the physical or chemical properties of
a solution are modified to the point that the solution becomes supersaturated. In water treatment,
the precipitation process is used for softening (removal of the hardness caused by calcium and
magnesium) and for removal of iron and manganese.

Rapid Mix

Coagulation and precipitation processes both require the addition of chemicals to the water stream.
The success of these processes depends on rapid and thorough dispersion of the chemicals. The
process of dispersing chemicals is known as rapid mix or flash mix.

Types of Mixers – rapid mixing units can be classified according to the method of agitation
(mechanical or static) and type of flow pattern (plug-flow or complete-mixed). A mechanically
agitated rapid mixer utilizes a mechanical mixer with an impeller or propeller to create turbulence in
the mixing chamber. These impellers and propellers are generally classified in accordance with the
type of flow produced. Impellers that force water outward at right angles to the axis of rotation, in a
manner similar to that of a radial-flow pump, are called radial-flow impellers or turbine impellers.
The impellers tend to force water parallel to the axis of rotation, much as an axial-flow pump does,
they are called axial-flow pitched-blade impeller.

Agitation Requirements

Rapid mixers should provide sufficient agitation to disperse the chemicals thoroughly in the water
stream. Reactions of coagulation chemicals are rapid; softening reactions occur more slowly. In either
case, it is desirable to disperse the chemicals quickly, before the reactions are complete. In order to
quickly and completely homogenize the coagulant or softening the chemicals, the rapid mixer should
be designed to provide a short period of violent agitation, with the chemicals being added at the
point of the greatest turbulence. Traditionally, in water treatment, the degree of agitation in a mixing
unit is measured by velocity gradient.

G ( P / V )

Where G = velocity gradient, 1/s (G = 700 to 1000 /s)

 P = power imparted to the water, N-m/s or Watt,

V = volume of the basin, m3

μ = absolute viscosity of the fluid, N-s/m 2

The motor power of the mixer is the power to drive the speed reduction gears. The power
imparted to the water by a mixer is calculated:

P  2nT

Where n = impeller speed, rpm

T = impeller shaft torque, N-m

Detention Time in Rapid-Mix Basin

The detention time in rapid mixers should provide sufficient time for complete homogenization of
the chemicals with the water and also provide sufficient time for floc to reach particle-size
equilibrium. Particle-size equilibrium refers to the condition where on additional rapid mixing will
result in any further turbidity removal by settling alone. Such rapid mixing time can be determined
only through laboratory tests or through experience with an existing treatment plant treating water
with a similar chemistry and utilizing the same coagulant chemicals. Typical detention time for rapid
mixers ranges from 10 s to 5 min.

The average detention time in a rapid mixer is determined:

t=V/Q

where t = average detention time, min

Q = flow rate, m3/min

V = volume of tank, m3

Geometry of Rapid-Mix Basin

The geometry of the rapid mixer is the most important aspect of its design. The primary concern in
the geometric design is to provide uniform mixing for the water passing through the mixer and to
minimize dead areas and short-circuiting.

Rapid mixers utilizing mechanical mixers are usually square and have a depth-to width ratio
of approximately 2. The size and shape of the mixer impeller should be matched to the flow desired
through the mixer. Mixing units with vertical flow patterns utilizing radial-flow mixers tend to
minimize short-circuiting effects. A channel with fully turbulent flow of sufficient length to yield the
desired detention time, followed by a hydraulic jump, has been used successfully.

Flocculation

The coagulation process chemically modifies the colloidal particles so that stabilizing forces are
reduced. To insure that a maximum amount of turbidity is removed, mixing condition and energy
input must be properly provided after rapid mixing, to allow the aggregation of destabilized particles.
The coagulated water must be gently stirred to promote the growth of the floc. This process is known
as flocculation. Flocculation is also important in precipitation processes. The precipitate initially
forms into small particles that cannot readily be settled or filtered. In the flocculation process, the
mixture is gently stirred to promote the growth of the floc to a size that can be removed by
sedimentation and filtration. The typical floc size is in the range from 0.1 to 2.0 mm.

The terms parakinetic and orthokinetic are often used in describing the coagulation
flocculation process. Parakinetic refers to the growth of particles as a result of interparticle contacts
due to Brownian motion. Orthokinetic refers to particle growth as a result of interparticle contacts
due to fluid motion.

Types of Flocculators – are often divided into two general groups: (1) hydraulic flocculators,
and (2) mechanical flocculators.

Agitation Requirements – the degree of agitation employed in flocculators is much less than
that used for rapid mixing. The purpose of flocculation is to cause particle contact, while not creating
sufficient turbulence to break up the floc particles already formed. Typical velocity gradients (G) for
flocculators range from 15 to 60/s. flocculation basins are normally designed with multiple mixing
compartments in a series, with velocity gradients successively lower in each compartment.

Detention Time in Flocculation Basin – is much higher than that in rapid-mix basins.
Detention times from 20 to 60 min are common. The key design factor in a flocculation basin is the
value of Gt (velocity gradient x detention time), because the number of particle collisions within the
basin is directly proportional to the value of Gt. Typical Gt values range from 10,000 to 150,000.

Geometry of Flocculation Basin – short-circuiting in a flocculation basin should be

minimized. In order to achieve this, multiple compartments are used in a series. When properly
designed, three or four compartments have been found enough to minimize short circuiting
effectively. Proper design dictates that each flocculation compartment be separated by a by a baffle
wall. Square compartments with maximum dimensions of 6 m x 6 m (20’ x 20’) and a depth of 3 to 5
m are usually used for vertical flocculators. When horizontal-shaft reel or paddle flocculators are
used, the compartments are typically 6 to 30 m long and 3 to 5 m wide. Openings on baffle wall shall
be designed to create a velocity gradient no greater than that in the preceding basin.

Information Checklist for Design of Coagulation and Flocculation Facilities

1. Information to be obtained from the predesign report

Design flow – peak, average, minimum

Chemicals to be used and dosage rates

Rapid-mix time and velocity gradients

Flocculation time and velocity gradients

2. Information to be obtained from the preliminary design

 Preliminary plant layout, showing existing facilities and the general size, location, and
geometry of the proposed facilities

Number of proposed units:

Chemical feeders

Rapid mixers

Flocculators

Type and location of other chemical-treatment units that are used in conjunction with
coagulation – examples include powdered carbon, oxidant feed (potassium permanganate),
chemicals for partial softening, and disinfectant:

Application point

Dosage rate

Chemical handling and storage requirements

Preliminary hydraulic profile of the proposed unit illustrating head loss through the various
treatment units being designed

Type of rapid-mixing equipment

Type of flocculation equipment

3. Information to be obtained from the plant owner and operator

Preferences with regard to the equipment type and manufacturer

Preferences with regard to the design of any coagulation and flocculation facility in operation
at the plant

4. Information to be developed by the design engineer

Minimum design parameters established by the regulatory authorities concerned

Types, sizes, and limitations of available chemical-feed, coagulation, and flocculation

equipment

Sedimentation
Sedimentation is physical treatment process that utilizes gravity to separate suspended solids from
water. This process is widely used as the first stage in surface water treatment to remove turbidity-
causing particles after coagulation and flocculation. Sedimentation is also used (1) to recover water
in filter backwash water recovery systems and (2) to increase sludge solids concentration in sludge
thickening. Presedimentation is also used in some cases to remove settleable solids such as gravel,
grit, and sand from river water before it is pumped to the treatment plant.
Theory of Sedimentation

The design of a sedimentation basin is dependent upon the concentration, size, and behavior of the
solid suspension. In general, there are four types or classes of sedimentation.

Type I sedimentation, known as discrete settling, describes the sedimentation of low

concentrations of particles that settle as individual entities. Examples of Type I settling in water
treatment plants are the settling of silt from river water before coagulation, the settling of water
softening precipitates, and the settling of sand in filters after backwash.

Type II sedimentation, known as flocculant settling, describes sedimentation of larger

concentrations of solids that agglomerate as they settle. Sedimentation of coagulated surface water
is example of flocculant settle.

Type III sedimentation, known as hindered settling or zone settling, describes sedimentation
of a suspension with solid concentration sufficiently high to cause the particles to settle as a mass. An
example of hindered settling is the upper portion of the sludge blanket in sludge thickeners.

Type IV sedimentation, known as compression settling, describes sedimentation of

suspensions with solids concentration so high that particles are in contact with one another and
further sedimentation can occur only by compression of the mass. The lower portion of a gravity
sludge thickener is an example of compression settling.

Discrete Settling, Type I

Settling Behavior – the theory is based on the physics that applies to a particle settling unhindered at
a constant velocity through water. The forces acting on such a particle are limited to the gravitational
and drag forces. In such suspensions, a particle will begin to settle and will accelerate until a constant
velocity is reached. At this time the drag force and the gravitational force are equal and cancel each
other. This terminal velocity is calculated:

4 dg (  s   ) 4 dg
Vs  x x or  x x( S g  1)
3 CD  3 CD

Where Vs = settling velocity, m/s

d = diameter of particle, m

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

CD = drag coefficient, depending on Reynolds number

Sg = specific gravity of the particle

ρ = density of water, kg/m3

This equation was originally developed for spherical particle falling through a fluid. If a particle has a
non-spherical shape, CD will increase. Consequently, the settling velocity will also decrease. A simple
method of correcting for non-spherical particle is to utilize a shape factors:
 24 Vd
CD  and N R  s
NR 

Where φ = shape factor

NR = Reynolds number

Ƴ = kinematic viscosity, m2/s

Ideal Sedimentation Basin

An ideal horizontal- flow sedimentation basin exhibits the following characteristics, which are
commonly used to describe the settling behavior of discrete particles: (1) the flow through the basin
is evenly distributed across section of the basin; (2) the particles are evenly dispersed in water; and
(3) the settling of the particles is predominantly Type I.

An ideal sedimentation basin is divided into four distinct zones: the inlet, settling, sluge, and
outlet zones.