Queering Social Atonement
Queering Social Atonement
Queering Social Atonement
Jose Valdivia
Ms. Manchester
English 3 AP 2°
16 May 2018
Replete with complacency and intrinsic exclusion, the hegemony perpetuates social
conformity as the most efficacious means of achieving socio-economic, -political, and -cultural
mobility. For those who do not fit the dominant narrative, living amid perverse homogeneity
remains virtually impossible: these social dissidents are pushed into the interstices of social
queerness and are forced to assimilate; socially die; or, in the most unlikely case, live peacefully
yet ostracized from a popular culture. For both the sexually and socially queer, the act of
self-atonement and forgiveness from others; given queer intersectionality1, dissonant outcomes
This essay intends to posit three characters from distinct novels: Charlotte Brontë’s Jane
Eyre—Jane Eyre; Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis—Gregor Samsa; William Faulkner’s As I
Lay Dying—Darl Bundren as, if not sexually at least socially, queer. The three social
Rather than arguing for a universal non-conforming narrative, this essay’s paradoxical nature
1
For more on intersectionality, reference: Crenshaw, Kimberlé. "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex:
A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics." University of
Chicago Legal Forum: Vol. 1989: Iss. 1, Article 8. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1/8
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socially queer2. In Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre (1847), the protagonist, Jane Eyre, recounts the
story of her life from abused and orphaned child to seemingly content heiress. Prior to her
adventure into the unknown world of Lowood and beyond, Jane Eyre lived with her widowed
aunt, Mrs. Reed. The cruel woman claimed that she lacked a “sociable and childlike disposition”
(Brontë 3). Jane’s defiant and queer spirit clashed with the Reeds’ conservative family-values,
many times driving Mrs. Reed to hope that “God [would] punish [Jane]... [striking] her dead in
the midst of her tantrums” (Brontë 13). The naïve Jane was apt to cause “discord in Gateshead
the (un)purportedly rebellious Jane, Mrs. Reed sent the orphan to the boarding school, Lowood.
There—at least upon her arrival—Jane’s negative queer experience continued, resulting in
virtual loneliness, as she noted that the other girls did not “seem to take notice of [her],”
reminding her of the familiar “feeling of isolation [to which she] was accustomed” (Brontë 67).
Clearly, the socially queer Jane was excluded from popular culture just as a sexually queer
individual in society. Her only friend was an equally strange student, Helen Burns3. The
inherently dissenting Jane continued to live her life marginalized as a result of her social
2
Due to a lack of literature in social queerness, an ‘anecdotal’ definition must be given: an ‘identity’ which relies on
non-conforming social attributes; rather than being sexual defectors, social queers behave in ways which threaten
traditional family-values or institutions created for social comfortability
3
For a homoerotic interpretation of Jane Eyre, reference: Mclean Hasty, Sayler. “The Love that Dares to Speak its
Name: Queer Language and Female Homoeroticism in Oroonoko, Jane Eyre, and Aurora Leigh.” University of
Georgia Master’s Thesis. https://getd.libs.uga.edu/pdfs/hasty_sayler_m_201405_ma.pdf
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Similarly to Jane Eyre, Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis (1915) presents the story of an
abnormal man, Gregor Samsa, who awakes transformed into a huge beetle. Accordant with
various readings of the novella, the beetle is a symbol of Gregor’s self-abhorrence. In his case,
the act of becoming a beetle establishes his queerness, for even his mother believed that “[there
was] certainly something wrong with him” (Kafka 10). As others became aware of his ‘queer
conversion,’ one of his managers noticed his “[flauntingly] strange whims,” which, in his world
of patriarchal capitalism, “[could not] be tolerated” (Kafka 11). The socially queered Gregor had
begun to come to terms with his glaring differences, as he realized that his entire family knew
“there was something the matter with him” (Kafka 13), some oddity which would forever
Finally, in William Faulkner’s As I Lay Dying (1930), the Bundren family attempts to
reach a promised land of Jefferson in order to bury their deceased matriarch, Anne Bundren. One
of the elder sons, Darl Bundren, experiences unique episodes of telepathy, for, on multiple
occasions, it is noted that he “looks at [one] with… queer eyes… like he had got into the inside
of [one]” (Faulkner 125). As a result, the “queer” boy was often ostracized by the family and
ridiculed by his larger community (Faulkner 24). According to various readings of the text, Darl
was afflicted by mental illness4, which geo-psychically alienated him from society. This essay
argues that, rather than the mental illness causing his exclusion, Darl’s telepathy serves as a
symbol of his social queerness5, which, in turn, ‘obligated’ the Bundrens to actively prohibit Darl
from serving as a functional unit of the family. Nevertheless, the mentally preoccupied and aloof
4
For more on telepathy and mental illness, reference: Kleinbard, David. "As I Lay Dying: Literary Imagination, the
Child's Mind, and Mental Illness." Southern Review, vol. 22, no. 1, Winter1986, p. 51. EBSCOhost,
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aqh&AN=15795016&site=ehost-live.
5
For a gendered interpretation of Darl, reference: Southard, Marybeth. "‘Aint None of Us Pure Crazy’: Queering
Madness in As I Lay Dying." Faulkner Journal, vol. 27, no. 1, Spring2013, p. 47. EBSCOhost,
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aqh&AN=98992017&site=ehost-live.
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Darl remained virtually unaware of his exclusion and hardly self-reflected on his abnormality,
queer narrative, this essay will present varied outcomes of (non-)atonement in socially queered
lives; the conflicting stories will pluralize and ‘intersectionalize’ the lived experiences of socially
queer individuals from day-to-day. To commence, there is a story of hardship and triumph, trial
and resistance: Jane Eyre—self-atoner. At the start of her life/narrative, Jane’s main antagonist
was the Reed family, especially Mrs. Reed. She was bullied and persecuted for her social
queerness, marginalized and discriminated as an outcast in Gateshead Hall. Faced with constant
feelings, attitudes, and representations of [queerness]” (Pistella et al.). She was forced to view
herself in a negative light, believing herself to be truly abnormal and repulsive; these internalized
stigmas contributed to the idea of her social queerness as a transgression against society.
Furthering this self-hatred was Mrs. Reed’s treatment of Jane as a monster: when Reed “[feared
her] culture [was] under attack [by Jane], [she made] use of a vampire motif” (Heidenreich). In
other words, Reed’s deeming of Jane as a vampire/monster “[called] for [her] elimination from…
it poses a threat to conservative family-values; as a result, Jane was “[taken] away to the
red-room,” a room which “oppressed” and “suffocated” Jane, symbolically forcing her to be
(Brontë 10 and 19). Mentally shattered by these attacks, Jane was reduced to a self-conscious
At this point, Jane is well aware of her social queerness; moreover, she internalizes the
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idea that it is immoral to live as such. The indoctrination of this idea is centered around a single
object/person—Mrs. Reed (‘home’)—and, “as the locus of social reproduction, the home…
perpetuates gender and sexual normativity… [becoming] a site of oppression, violence and/or
resistance” (Schroeder). Taken in this context, Jane’s homelife teaches her that her condition is
one about which she ought to be ashamed—one for which she must atone. Consequently, Jane’s
existence. These feelings of self-hatred destroy Jane’s social life, for “forgiveness of oneself…
accounts for… social loneliness” (Day and Maltby): Jane’s failure to self-atone for her ‘sinful
nature’ causes her to self-isolate and retreat from popular culture, a common course of action for
the socially marginalized individual. Once again, at Lowood school, one of Jane’s few friends,
Helen Burns, kept her company, reversing her previous isolation. Unfortunately, “disease had
thus become an inhabitant of Lowood, and death its frequent visitor” (Brontë 110). Jane’s object
of newfound hope, Helen, had abruptly been taken from her, forcing her to “pass a space of eight
years almost in silence” or mental alienation (Brontë 120). For many years after, as a result of ire
against Mrs. Reed and life, Jane felt “depressed, stressed and [with] ‘no sense of peace’” (Akhtar
et al.). This continuous cycle of enmity and isolation existed in Jane’s life for many years, until
she moved to Thornfield Hall, where she became the mistress of a French ward, Adèle. There,
she fell in love with her master, Mr. Rochester, for, when he had left on a business trip, she
exclaimed with a desperate howl of romantic longing, “‘I wish he would come! I wish he would
come!’” (Brontë 415). Having lived her life in social silence and suppressed rancor, Jane’s
newfound feelings of love transformed her previous hatred into blossoming compassion. Her
dedication to Mr. Rochester led Jane to gradually learn to forgive and forget, no longer storing a
burning animosity towards Mrs. Reed, her previous antagonist. As contended by Akhtar et al.,
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those who forgive others’ transgressions “experience intimacy with their partners, empathy,
open-mindedness and acceptance” (Akhtar et al.). Rather than focusing energy on rousing the
flames of resentment, she was able to give herself over to Rochester, whilst maintaining her
queer, feminine resistance and independence. While living happily with Mr. Rochester at
Thornfield Hall, a man from her past hearkened news of Mrs. Reed’s imminent death due to
disease. Forgetting all her altercations with Reed, Jane left “‘a hundred miles to see an old lady
who… [had] cast [Jane] off’” (Brontë 333). This illustrates that Jane no longer stores “any
negative mental reaction to [Mrs. Reed]. [She] just [had] an accepting and compassionate view
of [her]” (Akhtar et al.). Upon speaking to Mrs. Reed and discussing their past feuds, Mrs. Reed
disclosed that she “‘[had] twice done [Jane] a wrong which [she regrets] now’” (Brontë 355).
This seeming apology from Mrs. Reed was enough for Jane to truly discover an inner-peace with
herself, completely allowing childhood abuses to die—she was free from the haunting demons of
her memories. This forgiveness of—and from—Mrs. Reed was the final chapter of her isolated
life, for, Jane would now be able to live in complete harmony with Mr. Rochester—or so she
believed. An ephemeral legal-trouble with their marriage would prevent the two from uniting by
ring, which reminded Jane of her (familial) loneliness and social queerness.
Once again, lost in a strange world, without any belongings to her name, Jane escaped
Thornfield Hall, venturing into an immense and fleeting world. Little did Jane know that, by
embarking on this journey, she would discover that which she most desired—family. Before
finding the source of her avunculate6 wealth, Jane lived homeless in nature, feeling “loved…
outcast as [she] was… [she] who from man could anticipate only mistrust, rejection, [and] insult”
(Brontë 485). After, on multiple occasions, almost experiencing death, Jane was taken in by a
6
Definition transcends uncle-nephew relationships to all extended-family.
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clergyman, St. John Rivers, and his sisters. Having recuperated under their nurture, she was
given a job as a school teacher in a small town. Her elusive background concerned St. John
Rivers, so he ‘searched’ for more information about her, lest she were hiding a ‘dark past.’ Once
he confronted Jane about her time at Thornfield Hall, he informed her that she was not only an
heiress of superfluous wealth but also his cousin. Elated by the fact that she did have
blood-relations, Jane thought to herself that it was a “glorious discovery to a lonely wretch!”
(Brontë 579). As previously stated, prior to the establishment of Jane as their cousin7, the
Rivers/Eyres took-in and accepted Jane with her queerness; as stated by Schroeder, “coming out
to family members [as socially queer] can be a positive experience,” when one is faced with
acceptance and appreciation (Schroeder). In this case, with her new family adoring and accepting
her, Jane is able to feel respected, reverting any internalized socio-sexual stigma which she may
have been carrying: this allows her to self-atone, and, for the first time ever, truly love herself.
The once-ostracized Jane Eyre is able to live peacefully amid the constraining laws of
heteronormativity—she is able to create a socially queer space, in which she can reside with
self-acceptance.
Unlike Jane, not all (socially) queer experiences can be of trial and tribulation with an
almost idyllic ending; in Gregor Samsa’s case, a queer individual is unable to overcome the
the primary provider of his family, Gregor is forced to take up the job of traveling salesman, one
which he exclaims is “a grueling job” proceeding to screech, “to the devil with it all!” (Kafka 3
and 4). As a result of conforming to a job which he obviously despised, Gregor awoke one
morning “and found himself changed in his bed into a monstrous vermin”: an emblem of his
7
Jane thought of her three cousins—St. John, Mary, and Diana—as brother and sisters.
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self-disgust (Kafka 3). Lest his family discover his queerness and be ashamed of him, Gregor
attempted to suppress his metamorphosis, where his “identity… [took] the form of a secret”;
Ryan et al. claim that “secrets perpetuate shame and guilt, and come with costs to mental and
physical health” (Ryan et al.). In Gregor’s case, his social queerness and alienation from the
family literally deteriorates his physical well-being, gradually killing him both psychologically
and physically. Believing his queerness to be a transgression against his nuclear family-unit,
Gregor must self-atone but is unable to do so because of a haunting self-abhorrence. His feeling
depression, and self-hatred. Once his family discovers Gregor’s transformation, they are
horrified: this represents a negative coming-out experience, one in which “parental rejection is a
primary risk factor” for non-atonement (Ryan et al.). His original concerns of rejection
hides himself from his family, accepting the role of queer outcast, which non-atonement pushes
on the queer individual. Consequently, Gregor’s inability to ‘forgive’ himself leads to a “lack of
self confidence”—a common result of unforgiveness (Akhtar et al.). This lack of self-confidence,
as described by Akhtar et al., is emblematized by Gregor’s transformation into a beetle, for, the
Gregor is thereby consumed by socio-sexual stigma, failing to realize his own socially queer
resistance. He falls hostage to the ensnaring prejudices of the hegemony and further isolates
representative of his inability to forgive himself for a perceived transgression against his family.
As argued by Schroeder, “both the bedroom and closet can conceal protectively or trap
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is especially telling of Gregor, for his bedroom8 (socially queer closet) separates him from his
persecuting family-unit, both isolating him and protecting him from denigration. The
oppressively protecting room shields Gregor from the reality of the hegemony, whilst
perpetuating his decadence and social death. His room, which lay with “streaks of dirt… along
the walls, [filled with] fluffs of dust and filth” represents both the declining—mental and
physical—health of Gregor and his ongoing inability to self-atone (Kafka 41). His geo-psychic
socio-heteronormative macro- (world) and micro-society (family). Murray argues that (socially)
queer individuals are taught “to compromise who they are… [in order to] enter the center”
(Murray). For Gregor, the center is living alongside his family, conforming to their expectations
desire to join the hegemony forces him to divide himself—a dichotomy between human
(conformist) and beetle (queer). This paradox of existence or inability to atone and accept lead to
the moment when, “without [Gregor’s] consent, his head sank down to the floor, and from his
nostrils streamed his last weak breath” (Kafka 51). Sent into an emotionally ricocheting duel
between conflicting identities and wishes, Gregor’s dangerous non-atoning ‘nature’ symbolically
kills him, resulting in a complete ostracization from all society. His death is a symbol of his
conformity, for, by dying, Gregor allows his family to live normally—a ‘luxury’ which they
could not afford in Gregor’s beetle-form. This action taken for the ‘amelioration’ of the
family-unit is one which is representative of Gregor’s assimilation into the hegemony and the
8
For more on Gregor’s geo-psychic isolation, reference: Dow Webster, Peter. “Franz Kafka’s ‘Metamorphosis’ as
Death and Resurrection Fantasy.” American Imago, XVI (1959). Pp. 349-65. Reprinted by permission of the editor,
Dr. George B. Wilbur.
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Dracula, whose “body… represents the perfect dual fear of penetration” and whose death
preserves the values of “both the middle class white family and its empire,” Gregor’s monstrous
body’s destruction upholds the values of his family-unit (Heidenreich). This idea is backed by
the family’s subsequent discussion about “their prospects for the time to come… [which] weren’t
bad at all” (Kafka 55). In other words, Gregor’s sacrifice allows the family to return to their
previous state of satisfaction, one in which they can, once again, live amid the hegemony,
conforming to the social laws of the dominant culture. Gregor’s consequent attempt to conform
rather than self-atone, results in his death, representing the narrative of a socially queer
demise.
Unaccordant with the previous two characters and other popular minority narratives of
social queerness is Darl Bundren. Arguably, Darl is unaware of his social queerness, for, on
multiple occasions, he openly and entertainingly congregates with his family-unit, while being
criticized by the larger world. Rather than experiencing a monstrous transformation, Darl’s
symbol of queerness is his telepathic ability, one which allows “the land [to run] out of [his
eyes]; [eyes which] swim to pin points,” psychically undressing even the darkest of the Bundren
family’s secrets (Faulkner 121). This unique and strange feature sets Darl apart from his family,
unawaringly ostracized from his Southern society because he poses a threat to personal
autonomy. Ironically, Darl is an object of ignominy, and therefore, his family controls his life;
according to Ryan et al. “parents who thwart autonomy have children who behave in less
autonomous ways and develop psychopathology” (Ryan et al.). This is apparent in Darl, whose
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actions of social queerness reflect tinges of possible mental illness. Nevertheless, unaware of his
queerness, Darl “[rejects his queer] reality—a reality often defined by fear and compromise”
differences, Darl does not feel an obligation to atone or forgive, contributing to the diverse
rely on the norms of society to live his life, defying the idea that non-forgiveness causes
individuals to “develop chronic emotions of anger or hostility, which can result in the
development of physical and mental health problems” (Akhtar et al.). Darl represents the queer
individual who lives relatively freely in an otherwise socio-heteronormative society. In fact, save
at the end of his liberty, Darl is given a minor role in the family, as he joins the Bundren family
on their journey to Jefferson; en route à Jefferson, Darl works to protect and save the family
from various ‘bumps in the road.’ However, a dangerous action of social queerness results in his
confinement to a mental asylum: while staying at another family’s home, Darl ignites their barn
in order to burn his mother’s coffin, thereby ending a trying and fruitless adventure to Jefferson.
The ‘monstrous’ action confirms Heidenreich’s claim that, for (socially) queer individuals, “even
their friends seek to contain them” (Heidenreich). In context of his life, Darl’s family wishes to
“‘catch him and tie him,’” a course of action which would later lead to his internment in a mental
institution (Faulkner 233). His family constrains Darl’s social queerness, suppressing it via the
represented his inability to self-atone, Darl’s prison does not represent an inability to forgive but
rather, an unforgiving society which could not allow Darl’s queerness to freely exist.
Undermining the personal, queer decision to atone and survive or assimilate and die, Darl’s
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unique experience dismally yet positively pluralizes queer narratives of (non-)atonement and
social mobility.
family-units and ‘greater societies’ interlace with social queerness, perpetuating varied results of
minority culture offer insight into the (in)tolerances of the dominant society, dissecting even the
most substantial realities of the hegemony and deconstructing preconceived notions of normalcy.
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