Studies in Higher Education, 2017

Vol. 42, No. 5, 851–868, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1293874

Internationalization of Canadian higher education: discrepancies

between policies and international student experiences
Yan Guo* and Shibao Guo

Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4

The internationalization of higher education in Canada is happening at a rapid pace.

One manifestation of internationalization is the increasing enrolment of
international students in Canadian institutions. There is little research on
international undergraduate students’ experiences from their own perspectives as
they adapt to a new educational system in Canada. This research examines how
internationalization policies at a university in Western Canada were interpreted
and experienced by international undergraduates. Based on interviews with 26
such students from 9 countries, this study shows that students have multiple
understandings of internationalization and view internationalization as a positive
experience for academic and personal growth. Findings also indicated several
persistent problems, including a neoliberal approach that treats
internationalization as a marketing strategy, limited internationalization of the
curriculum, and gaps between the internationalization policy and the experience
of international students. The findings have important implications for providing
appropriate support for international students and for internationalization policy
in higher education.
Keywords: internationalization; higher education; international undergraduate
students; policy and practice; adjustment and adaptation

Introduction
One manifestation of the recent development of internationalization is the increasing
enrolment of international students in Canadian institutions of higher education. A
study of internationalization conducted by Canadian universities showed that the
number of international students reached 336,497 in Canada in 2014, representing
11% of the student population (CBIE 2015, 26). International students play an impor-
tant role in producing and disseminating knowledge in Canadian universities, not to
mention their role as remitters of substantial higher tuition fees than domestic students
in some institutions. International graduate students in Canada have been well studied
(Lyakhovetska 2004; Myles and Cheng 2003). However, there is little research on
international undergraduate students’ experiences from their own perspectives as
they adapt to a new educational system in Canada, particularly for students who
came from Asia (see Chen 2006). Inclusion of international undergraduate students’
voices will provide policy-makers and educators with a nuanced understanding of inter-
national students’ lived experiences in Canadian universities, inform policy decisions,

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

© 2017 Society for Research into Higher Education

852 Y. Guo and S. Guo

and also challenge the deficit-centred perspective of Western narratives of international

students. In particular, Asian international students were perceived via discourses of
‘lack’ of English proficiency, of specialized academic writing skills, and of critical
thinking ability (Kettle 2007; Madge, Raghuram, and Noxolo 2014). This article
aims to address a gap in scholarship by investigating international undergraduate stu-
dents’ experiences in Canadian academic environments. Two research questions
guided the study: (1) What does internationalization mean to international students?
and (2) How do international students view their experiences of internationalization
at the participating university?

Review of literature
Defining internationalization
Internationalization is a contested term. For some, it means a series of international activi-
ties (e.g. academic mobility of students and faculty), international linkages and partner-
ships, and new international academic programmes and research initiatives (Knight
2004). Critical scholars see internationalization as a reflection of ‘a complex, chaotic
and unpredictable edubusiness, whose prioritization of the financial “bottom line” has
supplanted clear normative educational and, indeed, overtly ideological intents’ (Luke
2010, 44). The literature on the internationalization of higher education presents two
major discourses: market-driven (i.e. related to fostering economic performance and
competiveness) and ethically driven (i.e. related to charitable concerns for enhancing
the quality of life of disadvantaged students) discourses (Khoo 2011). Financial crises
are driving profit-seeking policies of internationalization in higher education. As a
result, international students are at risk of exploitation for being treated like ‘cash
cows’ (CAUT 2016, A9). Ethically driven discourses of internationalization engage
with alternative agendas such as human rights and building a global civil society
(Kaldor 2003). Recent literature, driven by critical scholars such as Abdi and Shultz
(2008) and Andreotti (2013), also indicates that concepts expressed in internationaliza-
tion policies and initiatives such as governments’ and institutions’ social responsibility,
transnational mobility of students, and students’ interculturality that are associated with
global citizenship have come to combine both market and ethical influences.
Knight defines internationalization of higher education as ‘the process of integrating
an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or deliv-
ery of post-secondary education’ (Knight 2004, 11). This definition recognizes interna-
tionalization being carried out at the national as well as the institutional level. It
acknowledges the relationship between and among nations, cultures, or countries and
conveys that internationalization is an ongoing effort by government to make univer-
sities ‘more responsive to the challenges of the globalization of the economy and
society’ (Elliott 1998, 32). The three concepts – purpose, function, and delivery –
are carefully chosen to describe the overall role and objectives of institutional interna-
tionalization around teaching, research and scholarly activities, service, and provision
of education courses and programmes. A recent study published by the European Par-
liament (de Wit et al. 2015, 29) revised Knight’s widely cited definition of internatio-
nalization (Knight 2004). The new definition reads as follows, with modifications
shown in bold:

[Internationalization is ] the intentional process of integrating an international, intercul-

tural or global dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary
 Studies in Higher Education 853

education, in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students
and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution to society.

This revised definition places a focus on intentionality and broadens internationaliza-

tion from mobility to include curriculum and learning outcomes. Internationalization
of the curriculum aims to incorporate ‘international, intercultural, and/or global dimen-
sions into the content of the curriculum as well as the learning outcomes, assessment
tasks, teaching methods, and support services of a program of study’ (Leask 2009, 209).
De Wit et al. (2015, 27) named four key rationales for internationalization: (1) pol-
itical, (2), economic, (3) socio-cultural, and (4) academic. In the twentieth century, and
in particular after the World War II, there was an increased focus on international
cooperation and exchange in higher education. Although peace and mutual understand-
ing were the declared driving rationales, ‘national security and foreign policy were the
real reasons’ behind the expansion of internationalization (de Wit and Merkx 2012, 49).
From the second half of the 1990s onwards, the principle driving force for internatio-
nalization has shifted from political to economic. International students and inter-
national activities were used by many institutions in the United Kingdom, Australia,
and in the United States as revenue generation (Kelly 2000; Teichler 2010). In addition
to international student recruitment, preparing graduates for the global competitive
labour market and attracting top talent for the knowledge economy have become impor-
tant pillars of the internationalization of higher education over the past decade (de Wit
et al. 2015). Socio-culturally, internationalization was based on the hope that inter-
national mobility could enhance mutual understanding (Khoo 2011). Academically,
internationalization was perceived as a means to improve ‘the quality of teaching
and learning and prepare students to live and work in a globalized world’ (de Wit
et al. 2015, 28).
Unlike European priorities that were driven by economic and political consider-
ations (Elliott 1998), the rationales for the internationalization of Canadian higher edu-
cation focused on socio-cultural and academic aspects: preparing graduates who are
internationally knowledgeable and interculturally competent global citizens and enhan-
cing scholarship for interdependence between Canadian and international students in
addition to generating income for universities (Knight 2000). Knight also found the
three rationales for having international students at Canadian institutions were to ‘inte-
grate domestic and international students in and out of the classroom, to increase the
institutions’ profiles and contacts in target countries, and third, to generate revenue
for the institution’ (2000, 53). Reflecting on the internationalization over the last
decade, Knight (2014, 76) lamented, ‘internationalization has become a catch-all
phrase used to describe anything and everything remotely linked to the global, intercul-
tural or international dimensions of higher education and is thus losing its way’. In
response to this identity crisis of internationalization, Knight calls for an examination
of the fundamental values underpinning internationalization. In this article, we
respond to Knight’s call for scholars and institutions to rethink the fundamental
values of internationalization by examining one institution’s internationalization
policy and international students’ experiences of internationalization at the institution.

International students in Canada

Internationalization has become a key focus area for many Canadian institutions. A
2014 survey of Canadian universities reported that 95% of responding institutions
854 Y. Guo and S. Guo

identify internationalization as part of their strategic plan, and 82% consider it among
one of their top five priorities (UNIVCAN 2014). Canada’s federal policy on interna-
tionalization has a strong focus on international students as a market. Since the 1980s,
Canadian universities have been utilizing the revenue from international student tuition
to ameliorate financial shortfalls resulting from marked declines in government funding
for higher education (Cudmore 2005; Knight 2008). In 2014, the Department of
Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (DFATD) released Canada’s first federal
international education strategy. The strategy endorses the narrative of international stu-
dents as a source of ‘cash’ for universities and for the country (Stein and Oliveira de
Andreotti 2015), stating that ‘international students in Canada provide immediate
and significant economic benefits to Canadians in every region of the country’
(DFATD 2014, 7). Citing the DFATD-commissioned study, Kunin (2012) reported
that in 2012, international students’ tuition, books, accommodation, meals, transpor-
tation, and discretionary spending was estimated to be about $8.4 billion per year,
which in turn generated more than $455 million in government tax revenues. At the
national level, international students are also seen as ‘a future source of skilled
labour’ (DFATD 2014, 4, 12). They are critical to ensuring Canada’s national prosper-
ity in an increasingly competitive global environment. International education is per-
ceived as one of 22 priority sectors for strengthening Canada’s economy (DFATD
2013). It is evident that internationalization is primarily seen in terms of its economic
benefits to Canada. As Shultz (2007) explains, this demonstrates clearly how the neo-
liberal approach is solely focused on increasing the transnational mobility of knowl-
edge and skills. Yet, when international students arrive on Canadian campuses, they
face a number of challenges including isolation (Chen 2006), alienation, marginaliza-
tion, and low self-esteem. Similar problems are also reported in Australia (Marginson
et al. 2010; Ryan and Viete 2009), New Zealand (Campbell and Li 2007), Singapore
(McClure 2007), the United Kingdom (Gu and Maley 2008; Lillyman and Bennett
2014), and the United States (Heng 2016; Lee and Rice 2007). We hope that this
article addresses an important gap in scholarship by examining how undergraduate stu-
dents themselves interpret and experience the internationalization of higher education.

Methodology
Context
Forest University (pseudonym) is located in Canada’s fourth largest destination city for
immigrants. Forest launched the International Strategy in March 2013. Internationaliza-
tion formed one of the priorities in the university’s long-term strategic policy visions.
The internationalization strategy document points to several rationales that can be
summarized in three overarching themes: impact the world; leverage and legitimize
the work of the university; and raise the institution’s reputation (Forest University
2013, 1). Another stated rationale for internationalization was to produce ‘graduates,
both domestic and international, who have a global orientation, are competitive in a
global marketplace, and who can adapt to diverse cultural, economic, and governmental
environments’ (Forest University 2013, 1). The province where Forest University is
located also suffers from a shortage of professionals and skilled labour and the recruit-
ment of international students is used as one of the strategies to attract skilled workers.
Internationalization is framed in narrowly instrumental terms in the institutional
 Studies in Higher Education 855

policies (Rhoads and Szelényi 2011), thus representing the neoliberal market impera-
tives of employability, mobility, and competitiveness (Stein et al. 2016).
A key target of internationalization goals was to increase the number of inter-
national students on campus to 10% of the undergraduate population by 2016. Forest
University places value on the creation of a more diverse campus culture by increasing
international representation among the student body, seeing this as a benefit to all.
There were about 7.6% international undergraduate students at Forest University in
the academic year of 2014–2015. The five countries from which the university received
the largest number of international students in descending order of number were: China,
Iran, India, the United States, and Saudi Arabia.

Research design and data source

Data for this study were collected from two sources: (a) policy analyses of public docu-
ments related to internationalization in Canada and at the university; and (b) individual
interviews with 26 international undergraduate students studying at Forest University.
The students were recruited for this study through the Centre for International Students
and Study Abroad, the Faculty of Education’s undergraduate listserv, personal contacts
of the graduate research assistants via WeChat (a mobile phone APP), and snowball
samplings. The students comprised a range of academic fields and cultural back-
grounds. Students were from academic fields such as Arts, Education, Engineering,
and Science. They came from China, Brazil, El Salvador, Hong Kong, Iran, Japan,
Kuwait, South Korea, Taiwan, and the United States, aged from 18 to 49 years old,
with even gender ratio (Table 1).
Semi-structured interviews were conducted. The interviews focused on what inter-
nationalization meant to students, how internationalization was reflected in their course
content and learning materials, what the benefits and challenges of studying at Forest
University were, and students’ own suggestions for better student services. Twenty-
six interviews were conducted and each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes.
The interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed, and then analysed by developing a
list of thematic codes (Patton 2015). We employed an inductive analysis strategy to
analyse the interviews and policy documents (McMillan and Schumacher 2001) by
searching for domains that emerged from the data rather than imposing them on data
prior to collection. Domains are large cultural categories that contain smaller sub-cat-
egories and whose relationships are linked by a semantic relationship (Spradley 1980).
A four-stage process was developed for data analysis: identifying main points, search-
ing for salient themes and recurring patterns, grouping common themes and patterns
into related categories, and comparing all major categories with reference to the
major theories in the field to form new perspectives (Guba and Lincoln 2005).
Policy documents and interviews were initially coded and analysed separately. After
major themes from interviews were identified, we brought in policy document analysis
for comparisons with the experience of international students. Discrepancies between
internationalization policies and international students’ experiences of studying at
Forest University were then identified and analysed.

Findings
Three major themes emerged from the data: (a) international students held multiple
understandings of internationalization, consistent with the literature; (b) international
856 Y. Guo and S. Guo

Table 1. Participant profile (all students’ names are pseudonyms).

No. Name Gender Age Country Major
1 Jane Female 20–29 China Education
2 Mike Male 20–29 China Chemistry
3 Leo Male 20–29 China Math
4 Heather Female 20–29 China Civil engineering
5 Yumi Female 20–29 China Electrical engineering
6 Reggie Male 20–29 China Chemical engineering
7 Tony Male 17–20 China Engineering
8 Alex Male 20–29 China Engineering
9 Monica Female 20–29 China Geophysics
10 James Male 20–29 China Geophysics
11 Liea Female 20–29 China Computer science
12 Peter Male 20–29 China Computer science
13 Ming Male 17–20 China Computer science
14 Krystal Female 17–20 China Computer science
15 Bruce Male 20–29 China Geomatics
16 Kimo Female 20–29 China Geology
17 Takuyu Male 20–29 Japan Political science
18 Cheer Female 20–29 Japan Open study/arts
19 Alice Female 20–29 Brazil Film
20 WX. Male 20–29 Hong Kong Economics
21 Sandy Female 20–29 Taiwan International relations
22 Amy Female 20–29 South Korea English
23 Dragon Male 17–20 Kuwait Health science
24 Tyler Male 17–20 United State English education/arts
25 Ana Female 40–49 El Salvador Education
26 Mery Female 40–49 Iran History

students identified positive aspects of internationalization; and (c) international students

faced challenges in transitioning to student life in Canada.

Multiple understandings of internationalization among international students

In the interviews, most participants referred to internationalization as the increasing
enrolment of international students in Canadian institutions of higher education and
their international experiences. One student equated internationalization directly with
her own experience:

I think internationalization has something to do with me because I went to the United

States for one year when I was in high school. Now I’m in Canada. I think if it weren’t
internationalization, it wouldn’t have happened. (Amy, English major, South Korea)

Many of the participants shared a similar view. For example, Yumi, a Chinese student
said: ‘Even when I was in China, I heard about internationalization. To me, it means
coming to Canada to study.’

Unlike Amy and Yumi, other students understood internationalization differently. For
instance, Heather equated internationalization with developing a global vision:

To me internationalization means to have an international vision. It is when you come

across a problem, you do not simply look at it from the Chinese perspective. After you
have traveled around the world and have been in contact with different cultures, you
 Studies in Higher Education 857

develop a broader understanding of all issues, and you become more open-minded.
(Heather, Engineering, China)

In response to the question about why the Forest University emphasized internationa-
lization, Leo, a Chinese student commented that China is leading in petroleum geology
‘because of its complex geographic conditions and the shortage of petroleum
resources’. He felt that was why Forest University is ‘willing to collaborate with us’.
Some participants were more critical about how the university used international
students for revenue generation and branding purposes.

First, the university can make more money. Second, they can have a higher rank.
(Heather, Engineering, China)

International students pay three times tuition fee. Local students pay six hundred dollars
per course, but I have to pay two thousand dollars. (Reggie, Engineering, China)

Money … more Chinese students may bring more revenues. (Tony, Engineering, China)

Other students noted that the university wants to capitalize on their talents:

Most international students are really outstanding and smart in their country. I think the
university wants these students, so they can increase the university’s status. (Amy,
English, South Korea)

One student perceived equated internationalization to Westernization:

Internationalization is not necessarily worldwide, but may become Westernized … For
example, McDonald first appeared in the US, and now it is all over the world. I think
this should count as internationalization. (Sandy, International Relations, Taiwan)

Positive aspects of internationalization: strong sense of independence in learning

and life experiences
Most participants reported that they enjoyed the academic freedom in Canada. For
example, all four Chinese students in computer science said they had more choices
in their course selection from software, hardware, and network, three parts that were
separated in China. Mike was one of the talented undergraduate students sponsored
by the China Scholarship Council (CSC). As a fourth-year student, he was doing a
required final project and noted that studying in Canada, particularly learning how to
do a literature review, helped him develop his research interest.
The development of independence in learning was illustrated in Peter’s comments:

The biggest achievement is that I learned how to work independently. When working on a
project, I will start to gather data, then code step by step, and finally implement the whole
program. Now I am familiar with the whole process. When I was in China, I was a bit
confused … and I was not a good team leader [among classmates]. But after I came
here, I worked on my own first and then communicated with others. (Peter, Computer
Science, China)

Other students commented on the development of their hands-on ability by having

more opportunities to conduct experiments in the lab and making equipment
858 Y. Guo and S. Guo

themselves. For example, Kimo noted: ‘If we need to use tubes [in the lab], we need to
buy pipes, cut and assemble them.’
Most Asian students reported that they not only developed a strong sense of indepen-
dence in learning but also increased their self-confidence and developed stronger com-
munication skills. For example, James, a Chinese student in Geophysics noted his
positive character change from being shy to not being afraid to talk to new people.
Other students commented they matured as a result of their independent life experiences
in another culture, such as learning how to budget for grocery shopping and learning
how to cook. Similarly Krystal noted her growing maturity and her open-mindedness:

I used to be more competitive … For example, I didn’t tell other people which teacher I
worked with or what project I worked on. I was afraid that they would become my com-
petitor if they knew the information. But, here, if you ask your classmates about their pro-
jects, they will tell you all they know. Then I become more open-minded, more willing to
help others, and more relaxed. (Krystal, Computer Science, China)

Challenges international students faced

Despite the benefits of internationalization, international students also reported numer-
ous challenges in academic and life environments, including (1) difficulty in making
friends with local students, (2) problematic relationships with instructors and supervi-
sors, (3) little internationalization of the curriculum, and (4) dealing with stereotypes
and racism.

Challenge 1: difficulty in developing friendships with local students

The international students in this study reported that it was difficult for them to make
friends with local students. Lily, who spent four years in Canada pursuing her under-
graduate degree, and was pursuing another undergraduate degree at Forest University,
said that while she could develop working relationships with her classmates over one
semester, it was difficult to become friends with them. She explained that university
students in China stay in the same cohort for four years, attending the same courses
together each semester, making it easier to become friends with her classmates. In
Canada, however, as the students are different in each class, she noted it was difficult
to be in touch with the same classmates consistently, making it difficult to develop
friendships with local students. Lily added another reason, explaining that ‘local stu-
dents don’t have patience. They don’t want to understand international students’.
Liwang similarly noted a lack of understanding among local students in that they
‘never experience what we experience, learning a different culture and language’. A
few students identified their low English language proficiency the main reason for dif-
ficulties in becoming friends with local students.
Other students indicated that even though they did not have language issues, it was
still difficult for them to make friends with local students. One student who studied in
English major noted the lack of opportunity for her to interact with local students: ‘I
don’t even see any Canadian around me except in class … after class they just leave,
not much opportunity to talk to them’ (Amy, English, South Korea). Many students
mentioned that they did not share the same interests. For example, Tyler, a native
American from Alaska, reported that he enjoys going to the Native Centre in the uni-
versity whereas his Canadian peers like to play hockey. Alex, a Chinese student in
Engineering, said some local students like to go to the bar and he does not like the
pub environment.
 Studies in Higher Education 859

Another reason why it was difficult for them to make friends with host university
students was related to dealing with different life styles:

I feel there are some conflicts in life styles. My roommates love partying. I can’t stand
their midnight parties. I often feel sleepy at 12. But their parties start from 1 am and it
last until 6 am. Sometimes I asked them to stop. They said: ‘easy brother, this is Saturday.’
They will go crazy on Saturdays. (James, Geophysics, China)

James was surprised by the amount of partying and drinking involved in undergraduate
life. He did not partake in his roommates’ usual activities and suggested this could be
one of the reasons he felt excluded from friendship. He further expressed discontent
dealing with a roommate who did not clean up, which was another barrier to friendship.
The students from Brazil, El Salvador, and Iran did not raise these issues of dealing with
different life styles.

Challenge 2: relationship with instructors and supervisors

Many students indicated that language was another major challenge they faced in their tran-
sition to the Canadian environment. Jane, an international student from China perceived
there were tensions between students’ and teachers’ expectations of teaching and learning:

One of the instructors gave me C on my paper. I never got that in my entire life. I don’t
think my writing is so bad … I emailed the instructor, ‘as an international student, I came
here to learn academic content as well as to learn English, you are the instructor, it is your
responsibility to help me with English, but not to punish the student with a very low
grade.’ I went to see the director of student services. Although the director raised my
mark to B, she told me my email message is unprofessional.

Jane felt devastated. In addition to language issues, other students felt helpless when
they were mistreated by their supervisors as perceived by Monica:
I was so eager to learn when I first came here because I never studied construction before.
But I felt my supervisor was not responsible. He did not involve me in his current research
projects. He gave me a book published in the 1970s to read. I found more updated papers
by myself. The more I read, the more I found the topic he gave me was outdated. I felt
helpless. (Monica, Geophysics, China)

Challenge 3: little internationalization of the curriculum

At the policy level, the university emphasized the internationalization of the curriculum
and enhanced ‘teaching and learning resources to optimize the educational experiences
of international students’ (Forest University 2013, 8). In practice, however, inter-
national students reported that they felt there were few teaching and learning resources
that were related to their experiences:

It is more like I need to adapt myself to fit into the program. I feel like there is less under-
standing. (Liwang, Education, China)

I don’t see there are many materials on my international experience. They [instructors]
seldom talk about things happening in China. I think only in X course I experienced a
lot because the instructor is from the similar background. (Jane, Education, China)

Similarly, Alice, an international student from Brazil who studied film commented that
in the courses mostly American and European film history was taught, but Brazil was
860 Y. Guo and S. Guo

only mentioned in passing. Even when there were some teaching and learning resources
that were related to their experiences, these resources appeared to portray their countries
as backward:

Westerners believe that China may be very backward. I remember I read in online discus-
sions, it said ‘can China’s bullet train reach 275 kilometers per hour?’ They thought we
are so backward, but in fact, we are not. (Mike, Chemistry, China)

Amy mentioned that in her drama course, she was shocked to see how Korean surgery
was portrayed in a video shown by the instructor:
One of the videos she [the instructor] showed last week is about Korean surgery … It said
that Koreans want plastic surgery because they want to be Caucasian, they want to look
like White people. It is not true … Because everyone wants to be pretty in Korea, not look
like Caucasian. (Amy, English, South Korea)

Mery was critical that Iran was portrayed as both backward and violent in students’ dis-
cussion in class:
They are so afraid to come to Iran. They said, ‘oh everyday people kill you or arrest
you.’ No, many people live there and many of them have very luxury life. We have
poor people as well. In many aspects, they are even more progressive than here.
(Mery, History, Iran)

Challenge 4: dealing with stereotypes and racism

Feelings of hurt were exacerbated in classrooms where international students felt
excluded or ignored by other students, illustrated in the following quote by Liwang
who felt she was left out of students’ study groups:

The instructor was passing the paper to let us sign up. Everybody was taking turns accord-
ing to where they sat. They put their names down, … Nobody knew each other at that
time. A student sitting beside me got the paper first. He signed his name on the paper
and he knew that if he passed the paper to me, I would be in the same group. There
was only one spot left in that group … He passed the paper to another person … I was
so hurt. (Liwang, Education, China)

Lily, on the other hand, felt even though she was physically included by other students
in study groups, her ideas were ignored due to her accent:
Maybe before you start talking with them, they already have assumptions in their mind
that you couldn’t speak good English. They don’t pay attention to what you say …
even you see something more important. They just think because of your accent, your
English, they don’t take me seriously. (Lily, Education, China)

Lily felt that her classmates were ignoring her due to her language level.
To Krystal, people in Canada appear to be friendly, but may discriminate against
other people based on race:

I actually feel that on the surface, people here will not discriminate against you; they are
very friendly. If you have any difficulty, they will help you. But there is deep-rooted
racism. One of my Chinese classmates was dating a White young man. When she pro-
posed, he rejected her and told her that his parents will not accept a non-white girl.
(Krystal, Computer Science, China)
 Studies in Higher Education 861

Mery, an international student from Iran, had to deal with racism in the local
community.
I worked as a cashier in MacDonald … Some customers made fun of me. For example,
they asked me, ‘Do you have a cold, so that you get this scarf [her hijab]?’ I said, ‘No,
it’s my belief.’ Sometimes I am so offended.

The students from Brazil, El Salvador, and the United States did not raise the issue of
discrimination. For instance, Ana, an international student from El Salvador said she
never experienced discrimination or bullying in the university.

Discussion
The results of the study demonstrate international students’ multiple understandings of
internationalization. Most participants felt internationalization had a positive effect on
them in offering opportunities for development of research interests, independence in
learning, and personal growth. The participants enjoyed acquiring information,
research training, hands-on experience, and analytical skill. Despite such positive out-
comes, the results of the study also reveal discrepancies between internationalization
policy and the experience of international students.

Internationalization: student mobility, revenue generation, and branding

International students reported the challenge and difficulty of defining internationaliza-
tion. The fact that they had mixed understandings of internationalization is not necess-
arily a problem, considering that the literature applies different definitions. In general,
they referred to internationalization as student mobility and research collaborations
between institutions. For many participants, there was a direct link between their under-
standing of internationalization and their personal experiences of studying in Canada.
For some participants, internationalization offered an opportunity for them to develop a
global vision. These aspects of internationalization identified by the participants were
similar to academic and socio-cultural principles of internationalization discussed by
Knight (2004) and de Wit et al. (2015). But for others, internationalization was
about particular ways of thinking about the world or about Westernization. They cri-
tiqued that internationalization at Forest University is dominated by the global advan-
tage of English and Anglo-Canadian culture. Marginson (2006, 25) made a similar
point that ‘the English-language universities exercise a special power, expressed as cul-
tural colonization’ and the displacement of the intellectual traditions other language
support.
Most participants in this study represent two groups of elites in the source country
the socio-economic elite (e.g. mostly self-funded students) and the educated elite (e.g.
students funded by scholarships) (Wang and Miao 2013). Access to international mobi-
lity is often limited to students who have earned scholarships. Participants in this study
reported that in the 2014–2015 academic year, the average international student at
Forest University paid $21,932 CAD in tuition fees – a number that was three times
higher than what domestic students paid. On average, international students spent
about $40,000 on tuition and living expenses together annually. In light of this, most
participants perceived that the university used international students for revenue gener-
ation, an ‘internationalization as marketization model’ critiqued by Luke (2010, 49).
This is in part due to declining government funding for higher education that has
862 Y. Guo and S. Guo

form the context for the internationalization of universities in many Western countries
(Marginson 2006; OECD 2016). For example, between 2000/2001 and 2012/2013 the
proportion of university revenues from provincial governments was decreased from
43% to 40% in Canada (CAUT 2015). Many of the Chinese students in the study rep-
resented the educated elite, receiving scholarships from the CSC. They had, on average,
a grade point average above 85%, and passed the interview in English. In some cases,
they represented the brightest students from their home universities. Given this context,
some participants perceived the university wanted to capitalize on their talents and used
international students to raise its profile nationally and internationally. This aligns with
one of Forest University’s rationales for internationalization: to ‘position [the univer-
sity] … as a global intellectual hub’ and to ‘increase international presence and
impact’ (2013, 1, 16). Khoo (2011) suggests financial pressures push universities
towards marketized, competitive, and unethical interpretations of internationalization,
whereas ethical development policies and programmes for mutual learning and
benefit are eroded. Most participants in this study were critical about the university’s
tendency to view international students as ‘cash cows’ (Stein and Oliveira de Andreotti
2015), and its emphasis on raising revenue and branding purposes ahead of the care and
education of international students.

Discrepancies between internationalization policy and practice

The results of the study indicate several gaps in internationalization policy at the insti-
tutional level and the experience of international students. One of the goals of the inter-
nationalization policy at the Forest University is to increase international representation
among the study body on campus. For some time it was a commonly held belief that
increasing the diversity of the student body would lead to understanding and friend-
ships between international and local students (Leask 2015). However, this is some-
thing that does not just happen. Consistent with previous studies (Khawaja and
Stallman 2011; Zhang and Brunton 2007), the international students in this study
reported having difficulties in connecting with local students. There are many factors
that influence engagement between international and domestic students, including lin-
guistic, academic, and social factors. The participants in our study reported English
language and communication challenges as major obstacles to forming meaningful
relationships with students of the host society. Difficulty with English language is
also reported in other studies (Aune, Hendreickson, and Rosen 2011; Scott et al.
2015). In addition to the language barrier, many international students felt there is a
lack of common interests or different life styles between them and local students.
For example, some international students did not want to partake in a social drinking
culture among some young Canadian students. The international students in this
study also reported there is a lack of opportunities for interaction between these two
groups. Similarly, in Zhang and Brunton’s (2007) study, they found that 55% of the
140 Chinese students they surveyed in New Zealand ‘were dissatisfied with the avail-
ability of opportunities to make New Zealand friends’ (132). Sometimes, the inter-
national students in this study also sensed unwillingness from local students to
connect. This study shows that the mere presence of international students on
campus does not necessarily lead to interactions and intercultural understanding
between local and international students.
Another gap lies in the lukewarm reception of the local community. Many partici-
pants articulated that internationalization generates income by the recruitment of
 Studies in Higher Education 863

fee-paying international students. This strategy has obvious economic benefits for the
institution and national economies. However, after they came to the Canadian campus,
the international students from Asia and Middle East felt that they were not well
received and often felt alienated. In addition to the difficulty in making friends with
local students, the international students in this study dealt with biases and outright dis-
crimination from their classmates, instructors, supervisors, and the local community.
Some reported that their supervisors excluded them from research projects and pro-
vided them with outdated information. International students who speak English with
an accent, different from the so-called standard Canadian accent, felt they were per-
ceived as unintelligent. Similarly, in Guo’s (2009) study, participants were discrimi-
nated based on their accent, while Leask’s (2009, 215) study corroborated the
finding of alienation and discrimination as international students felt that ‘domestic stu-
dents often avoided working with them in class and interacted with them very rarely it
at all outside class’.
At the policy level, most institutional internationalization efforts tend neutralize
existing racial hierarchies in the realm of education and beyond (Stein et al. 2016).
In reality, some international students in this study had to deal with deep-rooted
racism from their peers and people in the local community in the form of verbal
attacks, including swearing and being told to return to their home country. Mery was
ridiculed because of the hijab she was wearing in part-time employment. From her per-
spective, the choice to wear a hijab remains poorly understood in Canada, partly due to
Islamophobia, dislike of or prejudice against Islam or Muslims. Mery stated that it is
important to guard against equating difference in dress with cultural backwardness,
similar to Zine’s argument (2000). This finding is consistent with results of Lee and
Rice’s (2007) and Brown and Jones (2013) studies. Lee and Rice, in their study of
the experiences of international students at a US university, found that students from
Asia, Africa, South America, and the Middle East experienced neo-racism in the
form of verbal insults and direct confrontation. Brown and Jones, in their study of inter-
national graduate students at a university in the United Kingdom, found that one-third
of 153 surveyed experienced racism, including verbal assaults. The limited receptive-
ness of the local community may contribute to the sense of alienation among inter-
national students. de Wit et al. (2015, 29) identified the main purpose for
internationalization is ‘to enhance the quality of education and research for all students
and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution to society’. It seems that from our find-
ings, the university is not doing enough to enhance the quality of education and
research for all students. Universities appear as unprepared as international students
in handling the current cross-cultural encounters.
The third gap shows the contradictions between the internationalization of the cur-
riculum across policy and practice. At the policy level, internationalization of the cur-
riculum aims for ‘the incorporation of international, intercultural, and/or global
dimensions into the content of the curriculum as well as the learning outcomes, assess-
ment tasks, teaching methods, and support services of a program of study’ (Leask 2009,
209). In practice, from the international students’ perspectives, the internationalization
of the curriculum is limited. For example, our findings revealed that students rarely
encountered materials that reflected their experiences, and when they did, the materials
tended to be dated or skewed. As Haigh (2009) argues, ‘today, although many classes
emerge as a cosmopolitan mix, curricula remain Western’ (272). Some students felt that
the effect of this lack of international content may be negative, in that it reinforces
prejudices and stereotypes. For instance, Mike reported how China was perceived as
864 Y. Guo and S. Guo

backward. Amy was critical about how Korean cosmetic surgery was misinterpreted.
Mery commented how Iran was portrayed as backward and violent in the class
discussion. These findings provide evidence for Leask’s (2015) critique that ‘one
common misconception about internationalization of the curriculum is that the recruit-
ment of international students will result in an internationalized curriculum for all
students’ (11).

Conclusion
Twenty-six international students at Forest University participated in the study and 16
of them were from China. No students from India and Saudi Arabia participated. Future
studies could include more international students from different countries. The findings
from this study are not intended to generalize the experience of all international students
in Canada, since Canadian international students do not constitute a monolithic bloc,
but rather to provide insights into the complex integration issues that were salient for
these particular participants.
Many international students in the study have viewed internationalization as a posi-
tive experience for academic and personal growth. In its current approach to internaliz-
ing Canadian higher education, however, several problems persist. One pertains to
treating internationalization as business opportunities and marketing strategies.
Second, in internationalization of the curriculum, the current practice privileges Euro-
centric perspectives as some international students did not see teaching materials that
reflected their experiences. Third, despite the claim that internationalization is now
an integral part of institutional strategies at Canadian universities, there has been a
gap between the rhetoric and the reality. Although there is an interest in bringing in
international students to internationalize Canadian campuses, in reality there has
been a lack of support to help international students successfully integrate into Cana-
dian academic environments.
This study suggests that host institutions need to be cognizant of how they put the
internationalized curriculum into action. An internationalized curriculum with a cross-
cultural focus helps students develop respect for cultural diversity and increase their
awareness and capacity to analyse and see the world from different perspectives
(Andreotti 2013). Its move toward such a goal enables students to move between
two or more worldviews and enact a shift in the way that students understand the
world. An internationalized curriculum demands that educators view international stu-
dents not only as knowledge consumers but also as knowledge producers. This means
that the knowledge and linguistic resources that international students bring need to be
valued, and the internationalized curriculum needs to connect to international students’
lived experiences. An internationalized curriculum is intended to address the new goals
of internationalization suggested by de Wit et al. (2015, 29): ‘the intentional process of
integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, func-
tions and delivery of post-secondary education … ’
The study also has important implications for host institutions in providing appro-
priate levels of support to help international students with their transition and adap-
tation. Support for international students has to move beyond the usual one-time
welcome orientation. It is important to combine students’ academic needs with their
social and cultural needs. Furthermore, integrating international students should not
only require the participation of international students themselves but involve all
faculty members, staff and host university students. ‘Addressing issues of stereotyping
 Studies in Higher Education 865

and discrimination’ and racism should be the priority of such efforts (Myles and Cheng
2003, 260). As Otten (2003, 13) notes, ‘the opportunities offered by a diverse context
are not self-evident and self-fulfilling in terms of the expected educational outcome of
intercultural competence’. Hence, it requires collective efforts of university administra-
tors, faculty, staff, and students in building an internationally inclusive campus, where
cross-cultural learning is encouraged. Practical strategies include increased opportu-
nities for interaction across different groups and establishing buddy systems (Heng
2016).
This research addresses knowledge gaps related to internationalization policy as
undergraduate international students’ voices are not often heard in internationalization
initiatives. The results of the research will provide useful insights into universities’
internationalization practices. The results will also further the discussions on ethical
protocols for international engagement and inform internationalization policy in
higher education. The findings suggest that educators of higher education must
make more purposeful attempts at the internationalization of research, curricula,
and pedagogy that would accommodate diverse needs of local and international
students.
In sum, this research argues for more ethically oriented policies and practices of
internationalization in higher education as opposed to profit-seeking policies. Like
Canada, many countries in the world are experiencing increasing enrolment of inter-
national undergraduate students who also encounter numerous challenges in adjusting
to new academic environments. While many universities and colleges are searching for
solutions to help international undergraduate students with their adaptation, it is hoped
that this study will make a solid contribution to this ongoing collective effort. If insti-
tutions of higher education are serious about internationalizing their campuses, it is
essential that they provide necessary support to assist international students with
their transition and integration.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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