Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399

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Government Information Quarterly

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g o v i n f

e-Government readiness: Does national culture matter?☆

Omar E.M. Khalil ⁎
College of Business Administration, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5486 Safat, 13055, Kuwait

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online 14 May 2011 e-Government readiness varies significantly across nations. This research explored the relationship of
national culture values and practice to e-Government readiness. Eighteen hypotheses were formulated and
Keywords: tested. With the exception of performance orientation and assertiveness, national culture values and practices
e-Government readiness correlated negatively and positively with e-Government readiness. In addition, gender egalitarianism,
National culture values institutional collectivism, performance orientation, and uncertainty avoidance values were found to be key
National culture practices
determinants of e-Government readiness. The findings of this research provide a foundation for culturally-
Information technology
Gross domestic product
based policies and strategies aiming at enhancing e-Government readiness across nations.
© 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction nations and attempts to put forward culturally-based implications for

policies and strategies pertinent to e-Government diffusion.
e-Government readiness varies significantly across nations (UN, The remainder of this paper is organized accordingly. The research
2008). A nation's e-Government readiness depends on factors such as background is described next, followed by the research model and
the availability of economic, human, and technological resources, a hypotheses, research methodology, research results, discussion of
government's willingness and/or interest in understanding and research results, research implications, and conclusions.
catering to the needs of the people, the sufficiency of infrastructure
and adequacy of services delivery, content accessibility, usefulness 2. Background
and accuracy of digital information and e-Services, languages, trust,
and confidentiality (UN, 2008, p.13; Holliday & Yep, 2005). Many of e-Government describes governments' use of information and
these factors, however, are deeply rooted in the cultural character- communication Technologies (ICTs) to deliver public service to their
istics of a nation. stakeholders (Welch, Hinnant, & Moon, 2005). The quality of the
Recently, the area of e-Government has been of interest to delivered service and the stakeholders' satisfaction with such service
researchers studying Information Systems (IS) (e.g., Grant, 2005; depend on the maturity of the e-Government systems. Due to their
Gronlund & Horan, 2005; Heeks & Bailur, 2006; Srivastava & Teo, cultural characteristics, different nations may experience different
2006; Irani, Love, & Montazemi, 2007; Zhang, Guo, Chen, & Chau, levels of e-Government scope and density (i.e., e-Government
2009). However, the influence that culture may have on e-Govern- readiness). This section provides a review of the literature on e-
ment readiness has yet to be thoroughly examined (Gallivan & Srite, Government and the influence that national culture may have on e-
2005). The literature falls short when it comes to presenting a Government readiness.
culturally-based interpretation of the disparity in e-Government
readiness across nations. Nevertheless, the reasons behind nations 2.1. e-Government readiness
either lagging behind or leading the way in e-Government should be
revealed in order to guide the development of sound e-Government There has recently been a rise of globalization in the form of neo-
strategies and policies. liberalism and neoclassical market philosophies. New schools of
This investigation is an extension to the culture-based IS research thought – e.g., the new public management (NPM) school (Savas,
that has focused on information technology (IT) adoption and 1987) and the public governance school (Heywood, 2002) – are
diffusion (Leidner & Kayworth, 2006; Evaristo, 2003). It seeks a founded on the belief that the market is more efficient than
cultural interpretation of e-Government readiness variation among governments in allocating and distributing society's resources. One
of the consequences of this trend is the adoption of business
management techniques in the public sector and the deployment of
☆ An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Second International
advanced information technology tools in order to enhance govern-
Conference on Engineering Systems Management and its Applications, Sharjah, March
30–31, and April 1, 2010.
ment service and improve governance processes (Garson, 2006).
⁎ Fax: + 965 24835728. Although researchers have yet to agree on a common definition for
E-mail address: [email protected]. e-Government (e.g., Burn & Robins, 2003; Abie et al., 2004; Allan et al.,

0740-624X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.giq.2010.06.011
 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399 389

2006; Yildiz, 2007; Lee et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2009), e-Government IT adoption rates across countries can also be explained by differences
can be viewed as a government's efforts to provide constituencies – in their cultural characteristics such as power distance and uncer-
citizens, business, and public administration – with the information tainty avoidance (Erumban & de Jong, 2006; Straub, Keil, & Brenner,
and services they need using a range of information and communi- 1997, 2001; Straub, Loch, & Hill, 2001). In addition, IT adoption
cation technologies including the internet. e-Government plays a barriers such as IT accessibility and IT skills may vary based on culture
significant role not only in improving services to customers, (e.g., Carter & Weerakkody, 2008; Lippert & Volkmar, 2007; Mao &
developing businesses, the economy, and society, but also in renewing Palvia, 2006).
the role of government itself (Lee et al., 2008). User barriers are related to user culture, attitude towards e-
Nevertheless, the maturity of e-Government systems is a major Service, lack of information, lack of trust (e.g., privacy), multi-lingual
determinant of citizens' satisfaction, as the expected services would and multi-cultural issues, service costs, technological competence,
be different for different maturity levels of e-Government (Lee et al., and lack of accessibility. Tertiary education may also influence IT and
2008). e-Government maturity models define the sophistication e-Government diffusion (Kiiski & Pohjola, 2002; Boyer-Wright &
levels of e-Governments (Singh, Das, & Joseph, 2007; Andersen & Kottemann, 2009). In addition, Gilbert, Balestrini and Littleboy (2004)
Henriksen, 2006; Layne & Lee, 2001). These models are mainly found the adoption barriers of trust, financial security, and informa-
concerned with the technological perspective of e-Government such tion quality, and the adoption benefits of time and money to be
as the level of integration of data and applications, extensibility, and predictors of potential e-Government usage.
flexibility (Lee et al., 2008). Lastly, social barriers are associated with the public authority (PA)
Layne and Lee (2001), for instance, introduced a four-step in a country and include shift of power, change of duties and roles, fear
framework for understanding the e-Government development pro- of job loss, and resistance to change (Vassilakis et al., 2005). Driven by
cess: the catalog stage, the transaction stage, the vertical integration their cultural values and practices, different government leaders may
(e.g., local systems are linked to higher levels) stage, and the use IT both to accelerate decentralized public administration and/or
horizontal integration (e.g., systems are integrated across different enhance government's ability to oversee key activities (Ma, Chung &
functions) stage. In addition, the UN's Department of Economic and Thorson, 2005). Carter and Weerakkody (2008) found cultural
Social Affairs (UNDESA) adopts an e-Government readiness concep- differences in e-Government adoption between the UK and U.S. and
tual framework to assess e-Government preparedness in the UN stressed that IT adoption barriers may be culturally related.
member states. The framework is based on a holistic view of Since e-Government systems are considered to be new IT
development that incorporates human capacity, IT infrastructure applications, one may draw on the IS adoption literature in order to
development, and access to information and knowledge (UN, 2008, identify and investigate factors that are believed to influence e-
pp. 12–13). Government adoption such as culture. Kumar and Best (2006) argue
The UN's framework describes a five-phase, e-Government that e-Government programs may fail to be politically and institu-
evolution process, which includes emerging, enhanced, interactive, tionally sustainable due to people, management, cultural, and
transactional, and connected phases (UN, 2008, p. 16). The ‘emerging’ structural factors. Boyer-Wright and Kottemann (2009, p. 57) add
phase is the least sophisticated form of e-Government. In this phase, a that “…while national economic prosperity is an important economic
government's online presence mainly comprised a webpage and/or an characteristic, it does not appear to be a limiting factor. Thus nations
official website; much of the information is static, and links to other have the capacity to leverage other socio-economic national charac-
official websites may not exist. The ‘connected’ phase is the most teristics to advance [information and communication technology] ICT
sophisticated level of an e-Government initiative. In this phase, global competitiveness.” Therefore, the cultural characteristics of e-
governments transform themselves into an inter-connected entity Government providers (e.g., governments) and users (e.g., citizens)
that responds to the needs of its citizens by developing an integrated are likely to influence the extent to which e-Government services are
back office infrastructure. diffused and accepted in a society.
Different nations experience different levels of e-Government scope
and density. Vassilakis, Lepouras, Fraser, Haston, and Georgiadis (2005) 2.2. National culture
identify five potential barriers for offering governments' e-Service
including legislative, administrative, technological, cultural, and social Culture is a set of beliefs and shared values (Javidan & House, 2001).
barriers. The legislative barriers are related to the existence of It is a collective programming of the mind that discerns the members of
appropriate laws, regulations, and directives that facilitate the deploy- one group of people from another (Hofstede, 1991, p. 5) and shapes
ment of e-Government service. The existence of an enabling legal values, beliefs, assumptions, expectations, perceptions, and behaviors.
framework is indispensible to successful e-Government because it Cultural values are the people's reported preferred practices, and cultural
impacts IT adoption across government organizations (Gasco, 2005). practices represent the people's perceptions of how things are done in
Boyer-Wright and Kottemann (2009) add that e-Government is affected their countries (House et al., 2002).
by law as it is often motivated or even mandated by legislation. House and his colleagues (2004) carried out a ten-year research
The administrative barriers include factors such as lack of appropriate program, known as GLOBE, to examine culture in terms of values and
business models, unjustifiable e-Government costs, complex policies, lack practices. The GLOBE data yielded reliable and valid estimates of nine
of methods for productivity and progress monitoring and accountability, cultural dimensions (Javidan et al., 2004). Heales, Cockcroft and
unavailability of skilled personnel, and lack of cooperation (Vassilakis et Raduescu (2004) posit that the GLOBE project will set the standard for
al., 2005). Highly bureaucratic systems based on strict hierarchy could be national cultural research well into the future because all aspects have
a deterrent factor in the development of e-Government (Lee et al., 2008). been thoroughly researched, and the scope of the project is immense.
Traditional organizational culture often hinders any efforts made to Table 1 presents the nine cultural dimensions along with a brief
decrease hierarchy in public institutions (Ozturk & Swiss, 2008). The size explanation of each (House et al., 2004).
of governments can also be a determinant of IT investment in developing Each of the nine dimensions was measured in terms of cultural
countries (Shih, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2007). values and cultural practices. The correlations between cultural values
IT barriers to e-Government are associated with the availability of and practices were found to be positive for gender egalitarianism,
suitable tools, standards, and infrastructure that are needed to positive but insignificant for in-group collectivism, and negative for the
develop, deploy, and use e-Services. Openness to trade, the size of other seven cultural dimensions (Javidan et al., 2004, 2006). However,
government, and education level were found to be determinants of IT the significant consequence of the distinction between cultural values
investment in developing countries (Shih et al., 2007). Differences in and practices is that each is related to distinct phenomena. Cultural
390 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399

Table 1
The national cultural dimensions of House et al. (2004).

Dimension Definition

Power distance The extent to which the members of a society expect power to be distributed equally. It reflects the degree to which a community
maintains inequality among its members by the stratification of individuals and groups with respect to power, authority, prestige,
status, wealth, and material possessions (Hofstede, 1980, 1991; House et al., 2004).
Uncertainty avoidance The extent to which individuals in a society rely on social norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events.
It reflects the attempts of people to avoid vague situations by providing norms, values, and beliefs in a form of rules, laws and regulations.
Future orientation The extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning and investing in the future. It
reflects the degree to which a community places a higher priority on long term success, have a strong capability and willingness to imagine
future contingencies, formulate future goals, and seek to achieve goals and develop
strategies for meeting their future aspirations (Javidan & House, 2001; Ashkanasy et al., 2004).
Institutional collectivism The degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and
collective action. It reflects the degree to which people in a community are integrated into strong cohesive groups, group goals take
precedence over individual goals, people emphasize relatedness with a group, and individuals are likely to engage in group activities and
make greater distinctions between in-groups and out-groups (Gelfand et al., 2004).
In-group collectivism The extent to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. It reflects the degree to which
emphasis is on the family and pride for and loyalty to the organization (House et al., 2004, p. xvii).
Humane orientation The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others (House et al.,
2002). It reflects the extent to which people are tolerant of mistakes (Heales et al., 2004), friendly, sensitive, and value harmony
(Javidan & House, 2001).
Performance orientation The extent to which a collective encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence. It reflects the extent
to which a society encourages and rewards innovation, high standard, and performance improvement (Javidan, 2004).
Gender egalitarianism The extent to which a collective minimizes gender inequality. It reflects the extent to which a society seeks to minimize differences between
the roles of females and males in homes, organizations, and communities (Emrich et al., 2004).
Assertiveness The degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationships with others. It refers to the degree to which
individuals in a society are assertive, tough, dominant, and aggressive in social relationships (den Hartog, 2004, p. 403).

practices were found to associate with a number of societal phenomena infrastructure, and internet penetration (Johnson & Lenartowicz,
such as economic health, national competitiveness, societal health, life 1998; Hofstede & Bond, 1988). GDP was also found to correlate with
expectancy, and the Human Development Index (Javidan et al., 2006). e-Business and e-Government levels in societies (Boyer-Wright &
Therefore, compared to cultural values, cultural practices could be more Kottemann, 2009). Eighteen hypotheses are formulated to describe
appropriate predictors of societal phenomena such as the variation in e- the predicted relationships of the national culture values and practices
Government readiness across nations. to e-Government readiness. Given the purpose of this research, no
Societies differ in their cultural values and practices along hypotheses relating GDP to e-Government readiness have been
multiple, complex cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1983; House et al., formulated.
2004). National culture may enable or impede the adoption of e-
Government and its requisite IT infrastructure, and the provision of a 3.1. Power distance and e-Government readiness
political, social, and economic environment that is conducive to
government transformation (Boyer-Wright & Kottemann, 2009; In high power distance societies, information is controlled, few
Gibbs, Kraemer & Dedrick, 2003). National culture may affect policy people have access to resources, and different groups have different
formulation since it derives from assumptions regarding relationships involvement levels in the society (Carl et al., 2004). People are reluctant
with the environment and relationships with the people (Schneider,
1989). It affects leadership and decision making in public organiza-
tions through its influence on organizational cultures (Ott, 1989;
Terpstra & David;, 1991; Heales et al., 2004), which may also influence
governments' strategies regarding the offering of e-Service to citizens.
National culture may influence e-Government readiness and
explain the variation in e-Government preparedness across nations.
Much of e-Government research, however, has focused mostly on the
technological component of e-Government initiatives without asses-
sing environmental factors of the vast differences in government
resources. Such a research suffers from fundamental limitations and a
shortage of cross-national analysis (Boyer-Wright & Kottemann,
2009). The present study adopts the culture taxonomy of House et
al. (2004) to explore a culturally-based interpretation of e-Govern-
ment readiness variation across nations.

3. Research model and hypotheses

Fig. 1 depicts the research model, which is grounded in the

national culture framework of House et al. (2004). The model includes
nine cultural dimensions as well as the hypothesized relationships
between the cultural dimensions and e-Government readiness.
In addition, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been added to the
research model as a control variable. GDP is believed to influence
macro-socioeconomic phenomena such as human development, ICT Fig. 1. The research model.
 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399 391

to accept empowering initiatives with respect to both physical and capacity (Khalil & Seleim, 2010b). In addition, societies with high
information-based activities. IT adoption and e-Government initiatives uncertainty practices perceive a need for rules and regulations, and,
could be perceived as a threat to the hierarchy (Islam, 2004). Such therefore, tend to be information-intensive. They are expected to
societies are more likely to maintain the status quo and resist IT develop and maintain a sophisticated communication infrastructure,
implementation and application, which, consequently, hold back including e-Government interfaces, that is capable of supporting the
government modernization efforts. Zhang et al. (2009) found that the growing need for information through risk-avoiding behaviors.
reasons for failures in e-Government systems application in China Given that uncertainty avoidance values and practices correlate
largely lie with the elongated decision making processes rooted in the negatively (Javidan et al., 2006), e-Government readiness is expected
power distance characteristic of the Far Eastern culture. to correlate negatively with uncertainty avoidance values and
In societies with a low power distance culture, individuals would positively with uncertainty avoidance practices. This prediction is
be more favorable to IT, since it does not contradict their perception of formalized in the following two hypotheses:
power distribution (Bandura, 1986; Compeau & Higgins, 1995).
People in a low power distance culture are likely to be more inventive H2a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher
(Shane, 1992), and IT is likely to be more nurtured where a balance of uncertainty avoidance values (UA-V).
power exists between management and workers (Hasan & Ditsa,
H2b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher
1999). With the penetration of IT in a society, traditional distribution
uncertainty avoidance practices (UA-P).
of hierarchical power tends to disappear, teams and network
structures emerge, the need for information increases, and the
3.3. Future orientation and e-Government readiness
government would be inclined to offer e-Service to its citizens.
Khalil and Seleim (2009, 2010a) found no relationship between
Societies with a high future orientation culture have organizations
power distance (values and practices) and societal information
with a longer strategic orientation, have flexible and adoptive organiza-
capacity. Societies with low power distance culture are expected to
tions and managers, place a higher priority on long term success, have a
more readily adopt and invest in e-Government initiatives than
strong capability and willingness to imagine future contingencies,
societies with high power distance culture. Given that power distance
formulate future goals, and seek to achieve goals and develop strategies
values and practices correlate negatively (Javidan et al., 2006), this
for meeting their future aspirations (Ashkanasy et al., 2004). Such
expectation is formulated in the following two hypotheses:
societies are expected to have a high demand for information and
H1a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher government service in order to support their social and economic
power distance values (PD-V). development programs. Their governments are likely to make decisions
and allocate sufficient resources in order to enhance and strengthen their
H1b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher IT capabilities (Heales et al., 2004), and therefore, provide a strong
power distance practices (PD-P). technological foundation for offering e-Service to citizens.
Cultures with low future orientation, on the other hand, may show
incapability or unwillingness to make plans to realize their desired
3.2. Uncertainty avoidance and e-Government readiness
goals and may not appreciate the warning signals that their current
behavior is negatively influencing the realization of their future goals
Individual feedback-seeking behavior with formal sources such as
(Ashkanasy et al., 2004). In such societies, change that is brought about
public authorities and government websites is beneficial to reducing
by IT adoption can be problematic since IT adoption emphasizes long-
uncertainties. In addition, people use IT products (e.g., e-Mails,
term planning (Hasan & Ditsa, 1999). Therefore, low future orientation
telephones, fax machines, and cell phones) to reduce uncertainties
societies are expected to experience low e-Government readiness.
in communication (Bagchi et al., 2004). Uncertainty avoidance was
Societies that have stronger future orientation practices tend to
found to affect people's preferences for certain communication media
show better economic and societal health, more scientific advance-
(Straub, 1994). However, Bagchi et al. (2004) found uncertainty
ment, more democratic political ideals, more empowered gender
avoidance to be the cultural dimension whose relationship to IT
status, and greater domestic savings than those that have lower future
adoption was the least evident in their investigation of thirty-one
orientation practices (House et al., 2004, p. 333). Khalil and Seleim
countries.
(2009, 2010a) found that societal information dissemination capacity
People in high uncertainty avoidance cultures are more likely to
correlates negatively with future orientation values and correlates
avoid learning new technologies because of the uncertainty and
positively with future orientation practices. Similarly, Khalil and
ambiguity involved (Veiga et al., 2001). Danowitz et al. (1995) found
Seleim (2010b) found societal knowledge transfer capacity to
high uncertainty avoidance culture in the Middle Eastern countries to
negatively correlate with future orientation values and positively
be a significant factor for low IT adoption. Likewise, governments in
with future orientation practices.
high uncertainty avoidance culture may not be eager to endorse high
Politicians in high future orientation societies are expected to have
risk e-Government initiatives.
a strong will to modernize their governments and present their
On the other hand, societies with low uncertainty avoidance
citizens with e-Service. Given that future orientation values and
culture tend to take more risks and are more tolerant of deviant
practices correlate negatively (Javidan et al., 2006), this prediction is
behavior and innovative ideas (Hofstede, 1980). IT tends to flourish in
formalized in the following two hypotheses:
such a culture (Hasan & Ditsa, 1999) whereas decision makers,
including government officials, are willing to take risk. Lim (2004) H3a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher
found countries with low uncertainty avoidance and individualist future orientation values (FO-V).
cultures have higher internet shopping rates than collectivist cultures.
As to uncertainty avoidance practices, societies that are high in H3b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher
uncertainty avoidance practices are more prosperous, enjoy more future orientation practices (FO-P).
government support for economic development, are more competitive
in the global market, and tend to be successful in basic science research 3.4. Institutional collectivism and e-Government readiness
(de Luque & Javidan, 2004). Uncertainty avoidance practices were
found to correlate positively with societal information dissemination The design, implementation, and use of successful e-Government
capacity (Khalil & Seleim, 2010b) and societal knowledge transfer systems require the cooperation of many people and team members.
392 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399

Compared to individualistic cultures, institutional collective cultures to adopt IT applications developed in Western societies and tend to
tend to provide environments that are conducive to the adoption of have more devices such as PCs, phones, and internet services at homes
tools and means that facilitate interactions among individuals and than do their counterparts in high in-group collectivism societies
groups and between individuals and public institutions. The sharing of (Bagchi et al., 2004). In addition, perception about the usefulness of IT
knowledge and information deems necessary for teamwork and is likely to be based on beliefs about its effect on the individual's job
collaboration. performance rather than on its effect on the group's performance
Collective culture is a contributing factor to successful IT projects (Veiga et al., 2001).
where concern for the common good overcomes the lack of resources Furthermore, both in-group collectivism practices and values were
and expertise (Hasan & Ditsa, 1999). In highly collectivist societies, found to correlate negatively with economic prosperity, the World
groups rather than individuals are seen as responsible for accom- Competitiveness Index, and success in basic science (Gelfand et al.,
plishing tasks. As such, a judgment about the usefulness of IT is made 2004). Also, Khalil and Seleim (2009, 2010a) found no relationship
based on the extent to which the system is seen to enhance the between societal information dissemination capacity and in-group
performance of the groups (Veiga et al., 2001). Chung and Adams collectivism values and practices. However, people in individualist
(1997) found that countries with more collectivist tenancies (e.g., societies are more economically prosperous, enjoy higher purchasing
China and Korea) might actually adopt collectivist software, such as power, and are more likely to adopt IT tools and applications than
enterprise resources planning (ERP) systems, more effectively than people in collectivist societies (Bagchi et al., 2004). Therefore,
countries with individualistic cultures (e.g., U.S. and Australia). In governments in individualist societies are more likely to adopt IT for
addition, Haythornthwaite and Wellman (1998) found e-Mail providing people with e-Services. This prediction is formalized in the
communications to come as a supplement to face-to-face communi- following two hypotheses:
cations in collectivist countries.
Societal institutional collectivism practices were found to correlate H5a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher
positively with economic wealth, public sector support for economic in-group collectivism values (IGC-V).
prosperity, competitiveness index indicators, and success in basic
H5b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher
science research (Gelfand et al., 2004). Economic development and
in-group collectivism practices (IGC-P).
science advancement activities not only require the exchange of
voluminous information among groups but also result in the growth
3.6. Humane orientation and e-Government readiness
of the information and knowledge available in a society. This, in turn,
broadens the need to acquire information exchange tools and means.
Societies with high humane orientation culture are likely to have
Khalil and Seleim (2009, 2010a) found that societal information
projects that allow people to be tolerant of mistakes (Heales et al.,
dissemination capacity correlated negatively with institutional col-
2004), friendly, sensitive, and value harmony (Javidan & House,
lectivism values and positively with institutional collectivism practice.
2001). Low humane orientation culture, on the other hand, involves
Also, Khalil and Seleim (2010b) found societal knowledge transfer
self-interest promotion and lack of human consideration.
capacity to correlate negatively with institutional collectivism values
Societies with severe physical conditions and climate have higher
and positively with institutional collectivism practices.
humane orientation culture (Kabasakal & Bodur, 2004). In such
Drawing on the finding of prior research, collectivist societies are
societies, people care for others and they need information and
expected to encourage e-Government initiatives and allocate suffi-
knowledge in order to survive and grow in such bleak circumstances.
cient resources to building web-based interfaces that facilitate
They also need strong government presence in providing them with
collaboration across governmental institutions and between govern-
the needed information and service. Therefore, governments in
ments and the different groups and institutions in these societies.
humane-oriented societies are more inclined to adopt e-Service
Given that institutional collectivism values and practices correlate
initiatives that enable citizens to have a convenient access to
negatively (Javidan et al., 2006), e-Government readiness is expected
government services and information.
to correlate positively with institutional collectivism practices. This
In low humane-oriented societies, it is difficult to successfully adopt
prediction is formalized in the following two hypotheses:
participative management in organizations, which is considered an
H4a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher important factor contributing to IT adoption and use (e.g., Gyampah &
institutional collectivism values (IC-V). White, 1993; Torkzadeh & Doll, 1994; Seliem et al, 2003). Khalil and
Seleim (2009, 2010a) found no relationship between humane
H4b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher orientation values and practices and societal information dissemination
institutional collectivism practices (IC-P). capacity. However, low humane orientation practices are observed in
societies that are economically developed, modern, and urbanized
(Kabasakal & Bodur, 2004). In addition, humane orientation practices
3.5. In-group collectivism and e-Government readiness
were found to negatively correlate with per capita GNP (Kabasakal &
Bodur, 2004). Consequently, low humane-oriented societies are likely
Given that people in collectivist societies tend to be linked to
to be more flourish, IT knowledgeable, and governments are more
fewer, stronger, and longer lasting groups, IT tools can be used to
inclined to adopt and use the web and the other IT means to provide
promote continuing contact between the members of different groups
citizens with e-Service and digital information.
(Bagchi et al., 2004). However, it can be argued that the opportunity
On balance, and given that humane orientation values and
for face-to-face interactions is greater in collectivistic societies, and
practices correlate negatively (Javidan et al., 2006), less humane
the necessity for IT enabled communication for maintaining relation-
oriented societies are expected to experience higher e-Government
ships tends to be lower.
readiness. This expectation is formalized in the following two
In societies with low in-group collectivism, ties between in-
hypotheses:
dividuals are loose and people are expected to look after themselves
or their intermediate family (Hofstede, 1980). In addition, individual H6a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher
goals take precedence over group goals, people emphasize rationality, humane orientation values (HO-V).
individuals are likely to engage in activities alone, and individuals
make fewer distinctions between in-group and out-groups (Gelfand H6b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher
et al., 2004). In such societies, people are expected to be more inclined humane orientation practices (HO-P).
 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399 393

3.7. Performance orientation and e-Government readiness moderating effect on the relationship between subjective norms and
intention to use PCs.
High performance-oriented societies tend to value those in- Khalil and Seleim (2009, 2010a) found that societal information
dividuals and groups who produce results and accomplish their dissemination capacity correlated positively with gender egalitarian-
assignments (Javidan, 2004). They tend to believe that schooling and ism values and practices. The human capital in gender egalitarian
education are critical for success, value training and development, societies is likely to be properly developed, which positively affects a
emphasize results more than people, value competitiveness, and government's willingness to provide e-Service and the individual's
value taking initiative (Javidan, 2004). They are expected to be rich in efficacy to adopt such services. Given that gender egalitarianism
human capital and have individuals that are better educated and values and practices correlate positively (Javidan et al., 2006), e-
developed than do low performance-oriented societies. Government readiness is predicted to correlate positively with gender
In addition, societies with high performance orientation practices egalitarianism values and practices. This prediction is formalized in
are economically more successful and globally more competitive than the following two hypotheses:
their counterparts with low performance orientation practices. People
enjoy more positive attitudes toward life, prefer a strong role for the H8a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher
private ownership of business, and prefer individual accountability for gender egalitarianism values (GE-V).
their own well-being (Javidan, 2004). Since innovations are rewarded
H8b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher
in such societies, adoption of IT tools and means will be encouraged
gender egalitarianism practices (GE-P).
(Boyer-Wright & Kottemann, 2009).
Governments and organizations will be more inclined to adopt and
3.9. Assertiveness and e-Government readiness
use up-to-date technologies to produce and disseminate information
that support performance and productivity improvement. Also,
Assertiveness is related to the nature of the relationship of
people who are better educated and more technologically competent
individuals, groups, and societies with the outside world (Den Hartog,
will value time and adopt IT tools such as e-Government systems that
2004, p. 404). House et al. (2004, p. xvi) assert that societies with high
help them to be more efficient.
assertiveness culture do well in global competitiveness, but exhibit
Khalil and Seleim (2009, 2010a) found no relationship between
low levels of psychological health.
performance orientation values and practices and societal information
Assertiveness values were found to positively correlate with
dissemination capacity. However, societies with higher performance
success in science and technology (House, 2004, p. 432). Societies
orientation practices are expected to have higher readiness level of e-
with high assertiveness tend to be more focused on accomplishment
Government than societies with low performance orientation prac-
and success as well as on the usefulness of IT tools and other means
tices. Given that future orientation values and practices correlate
that help them to be successful. Consequently, a culture that values
negatively (Javidan et al., 2006), this prediction is formalized in the
assertiveness, performance, success, and competition is likely to
following two hypotheses:
encourage and reward the adoption and use of tools and means by
H7a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher governments to facilitate the exchange of information and access to
performance orientation values (PO-V). government service.
Although Khalil and Seleim (2009, 2010a) found no relationship
H7b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher between societal information dissemination capacity and assertive-
performance orientation practices (PO-P). ness values and practices, it is postulated that governments in
societies that are high in assertiveness commit more resources to
establish and encourage the use of e-Service in order to support
3.8. Gender egalitarianism and e-Government readiness
people's resolve and drive for achievement. This prediction is
formalized in the following two hypotheses:
Higher gender egalitarian societies tend to afford women a greater
role in community decision-making, have a higher percentage of H9a. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is lower in nations with higher
women participating in the labor force, have higher female literacy assertiveness values (AS-V).
rates, and have similar levels of education for females and males
(Emrich et al., 2004). Such societies are expected to be rich in human
capital and have individuals that are more educated and developed Table 2
than low gender egalitarian societies. More information will be Descriptive statistics for national culture values and practices.
needed and more tools and means for information access and
Cultural dimensions N Min Max Mean Std. dev.
exchange for personal use will be expected to be adopted (Bagchi et
al., 2004). Power distance values (PD-V) 61 2.04 4.35 2.7715 .4048
Power distance practices (PD-P) 61 3.59 5.80 5.1387 .4537
On the other hand, a lower gender egalitarian (e.g., high
Uncertainty avoidance values (UA-V) 61 3.16 5.61 4.5938 .6105
masculinity) culture emphasizes power, assertiveness, and individual Uncertainty avoidance practices (UA-P) 61 3.88 5.37 4.1748 .6020
achievement (Watson et al., 1994). Masculine emphasis on tasks Future orientation values (FO-V) 61 2.95 6.20 5.4377 .5166
suggests that people with high masculine values are more concerned Future orientation practices (FO-P) 61 2.88 5.07 3.8446 .4629
with the usefulness of a given technology, regardless of whether it's Institutional collectivism values (IC-V) 61 3.83 5.65 4.6997 .4907
Institutional collectivism practices (IC-P) 61 3.25 5.22 4.2434 .4294
easy or difficult to use (Srite, 2000). Assertiveness, performance,
In-group collectivism values (IGC-V) 61 4.06 6.52 5.6330 .4083
success, and competition are likely to increase the depth and breadth In-group collectivism practices (IGC-P) 61 3.18 6.36 5.0833 .7620
of IT adoption for work purposes (Bagchi et al., 2004), which is a Human orientation values (HO-V) 61 3.39 6.09 5.3864 .3614
requirement for e-Government readiness. Human orientation practices (HO-P) 61 3.18 5.23 4.0851 .4668
Performance orientation values (PO-V) 61 2.35 6.58 5.8782 .5683
While gender egalitarianism practices correlate with none of the
Performance orientation practices (PO-P) 61 3.20 4.94 4.0902 .4040
three economic health indicators (e.g., economic prosperity, economic Gender egalitarian values (GE-V) 61 3.18 5.17 4.5080 .4804
productivity, and per capita GNP), gender egalitarian values do Gender egalitarian practices (GE-P) 61 2.50 4.08 3.3828 .3690
(Emrich et al., 2004). In addition, IT adoption was found to be Assertiveness values (AS-V) 61 2.66 5.56 3.8093 .6297
compatible with the egalitarian workplace (Hasan & Ditsa, 1999). Assertiveness practices (AS-P) 61 3.38 4.89 4.1318 .3760

Srite and Karahanna (2006) found femininity to have a significant Adopted from Khalil and Seleim (2010).
394 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399

H9b. e-Government readiness (EG-R) is higher in nations with higher Table 4

Pearson correlations: national culture values, GDP, and e-Government indexes
assertiveness practices (AS-P).
(N = 56).

GDP WI TII HCI EGRI

4. Research methodology GDP 1 .532⁎⁎ .819⁎⁎ .584⁎⁎ .735⁎⁎
WI .532⁎⁎ 1 .760⁎⁎ .631⁎⁎ .909⁎⁎
The independent variables are national culture values and TII .819⁎⁎ .760⁎⁎ 1 .724⁎⁎ .945⁎⁎
HCI .584⁎⁎ .631⁎⁎ .724⁎⁎ 1 .817⁎⁎
practices. They include the nine cultural dimensions of House et al.
EGRI .735⁎⁎ .909⁎⁎ .945⁎⁎ .817⁎⁎ 1
(2004) — namely, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, future PD-V
orientation, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, humane UA-V −.709⁎⁎ −.552⁎⁎ −.829⁎⁎ −.570⁎⁎ −.745⁎⁎
orientation, performance orientation, gender differentiation, and FO-V −.413⁎⁎ −.449⁎⁎ −.531⁎⁎ −.486⁎⁎ −.542⁎⁎
assertiveness. Two sets of scores were identified for each of the nine IC-V −.292⁎ −.439⁎⁎ −.398⁎⁎ −.415⁎⁎
IGC-V −.288⁎ −.283⁎
cultural dimensions based on a 7-point bipolar scale describing the
HO-V
two extremes of each cultural dimension (high/low); one set PO-V
represents the cultural values, and the other set represents the GE-V .406⁎⁎ .432⁎⁎ .437⁎⁎ .467⁎⁎
cultural practices in the investigated countries. AS-V
Table 2 includes the minimum, maximum, mean, and standard ⁎ Significant at P = .05 (two-tailed).
deviation values for the nine national culture variables (values and ⁎⁎ Significant at P = .01 (two-tailed).
practices). The reliability of the nine national culture scores are
documented in House et al. (2004, p. xv, 725), and the survey data
yielded reliable and valid estimates of the cultural-level constructs minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation values for the
(Javidan et al., 2004). 2008 e-Government index and its sub-indexes. The average e-
The dependent variable for the study was e-Government readi- Government index in the sample (N = 56) is approximately 0.597
ness. This research utilizes the reported survey results of the United with a maximum of 0.916, a minimum of 0.227, and a standard
Nations' Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) on e- deviation of 0.168. The higher the index values the higher the e-
Government readiness across the world to measure the dependent Government readiness level in a country.
variable. The 2008 e-Government Survey presents a comparative, The control variable (GDP). This research uses the per capita GDP
objective assessment of the 192 United Nations Member States' e- data reported by the World Bank (2008). The average per capita GDP
Government readiness in order to respond to the ever-pressing in the sample countries (N = 56) is $23,311 with a maximum of
demands of citizens and businesses for quality government services $93,204, a minimum of $401, and a standard deviation of $22,026.
and products (UN, 2008, pp. 12–17). The e-Government readiness
index (EGRI) is a composite index comprising (1) a web measure 5. Results
index (WI), (2) a telecommunication infrastructure index (TII), and
(3) a human capital index (HCI). Pearson correlations were computed in order to test the eighteen
The web measure index provides a comparative ranking of research hypotheses (Tables 4 and 5). Table 4 presents the correlation
countries based on their ability to deliver online services to their coefficients for the national culture values, GDP, and e-Government
citizens using a five-stage model representing the levels of sophisti- index and its sub-indexes. GDP has significant positive correlation
cation of a country's online presence. These levels include, from coefficients with e-Government index (r= 0.735, p b = 0.01) and its
bottom up: emerging, enhanced, interactive, transactional, and sub-indexes including web index (r= 0.532, p b = 0.01), telecommu-
connected. As a country migrates upwards through the various nication infrastructure index (r= 0.819, p b = 0.01), and human capital
stages, it is ranked higher in the web measure index. As countries index (r= 0.584, p b = 0.01). GDP also has negative relationships with
move upwards toward the stage of connected government, they pass the national culture values of uncertainty avoidance (r= −0.709,
through many thresholds in terms of infrastructure development, p b = 0.01), future orientation (r = −0.413, p b = 0.01), and in-group
content delivery, business re-engineering, data management, security collectivism (r= −0.288, p b = 0.05).
and customer management (UN, 2008, p 15–16). As to the relationships of e-Government readiness index and
The telecommunication infrastructure index is a composite national culture values, Table 4 shows significant negative correlations
weighted average index of five primary indexes relating to a country's between e-Government index and the national culture values of
infrastructure capacity for delivering e-Government services. The
indexes include (per 100 persons) the number of internet users, PCs, Table 5
main telephones lines, cellular telephones, and broad banding. The Pearson correlations: national culture practices, GDP, and e-Government indexes
(N = 56).
human capital index, on the other hand, is a composite of the adult
literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross GDP WI TII HCI EGRI
enrolment ratios (UN, 2008, p. 17). GDP 1 .532⁎⁎ .819⁎⁎ .584⁎⁎ .735⁎⁎
Only 56 countries have been included in this investigation because WI .532⁎⁎ 1 .760⁎⁎ .631⁎⁎ .909⁎⁎
they have matching cultural value and practice scores and e- TII .819⁎⁎ .760⁎⁎ 1 .724⁎⁎ .945⁎⁎
Government readiness scores (Appendix A). Table 3 depicts the HCI .584⁎⁎ .631⁎⁎ .724⁎⁎ 1 .817⁎⁎
EGRI .735⁎⁎ .909⁎⁎ .945⁎⁎ .817⁎⁎ 1
PD-P −.457⁎⁎ −.440⁎⁎ −.457⁎⁎ −.395⁎⁎ −.484⁎⁎
UA-P .522⁎⁎ .381⁎⁎ .550⁎⁎ .468⁎⁎
Table 3 FO-P .420⁎⁎ .442⁎⁎ .503⁎⁎ .455⁎⁎
Descriptive statistics for e-Government index and sub-indices (N = 56). IC-P .282⁎ .267⁎
Indexes Min Max Mean Std. dev. IGC-P −.656⁎⁎ −.560⁎⁎ −.754⁎⁎ −.509⁎⁎ −.699⁎⁎
HO-P −.334⁎ −.323⁎ −.321⁎
Web index (WI) .0000 1.0000 .548229 .2034714 PO-P .263⁎ .293⁎
Telecommunication infrastructure index .0316 .8140 .354945 .2442525 GE-P .428⁎⁎
(TII) AS-P
Human capital index (HCI) .5437 .9933 .887113 .1064151
⁎ Significant at P = .05 (two-tailed).
e-Government readiness index (EGRI) .227 .916 .59627 .167801
⁎⁎ Significant at P = .01 (two-tailed).
 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399 395

uncertainty avoidance (r = −0.745, p b = 0.01), future orientation (r= in-group collectivism practice, power distance practice, and humane
− 0.542, p b = 0.01), and institutional-collectivism (r = − 0.415, orientation practice.
p b = 0.01). However, e-Government readiness index has a significant A series of regression analyses was performed to identify the
positive relationship only with gender egalitarianism value (r= 0.467, determinants that best explain the variance in e-Government
p b = 0.01). Accordingly, the results reported in Table 4 support the readiness across countries. Table 6 provides a summary of the
acceptance of H2a, H3a, H4a, and H8a, and the rejection of H1a, H5a, outcomes of the different regression models for each of the dependent
H6a, H7a, and H9a. variables. GDP alone explains 53%, 67%, 27%, and 33% of the variance in
In addition, Table 4 shows that the national culture values of e-Government readiness index (EGRI), telecommunication infrastruc-
uncertainty avoidance, future orientation, and institutional-collectivism ture index (TII), web applications index (WI), and human capital
have significant negative relationships with each of the e-Government index (HCI), respectively. In addition, GDP and the national culture
sub-indexes (web index, telecommunication infrastructure index, and values of gender egalitarianism (GE-V), institutional collectivism (IC-
human capital index). Also, gender egalitarianism value has significant V), and performance orientation collectively (PO-V) explain 71% of
positive relationships with each of the e-Government readiness sub- the variance in e-Government readiness index, while GDP and in-
indexes. However, in-group collectivism value has a significant negative group collectivism practice (IGC-P) explain 61% of the variance in the
relationship only with the infrastructure index. same index.
Table 5 presents the correlation coefficients for the national culture As to the e-Government readiness sub-indexes, GDP and the
practices, GDP, and e-Government index and its sub-indexes. There are national culture values of uncertainty avoidance (UA-V), institutional
significant positive correlations between the e-Government index and collectivism (IC-V), and gender egalitarianism (GE-V) explain
the national culture practices of uncertainty avoidance (r= 0.468, approximately 82% of the variance in the telecommunication
p b = 0.01), future orientation (r= 0.455, p b = 0.01), and institutional- infrastructure index (TII), while GDP and the national culture
collectivism (r= 0.267, p b = 0.05). In addition, e-Government index practices of in-group collectivism (IGC-P), performance orientation
has significant negative relationships with in-group collectivism (PO-P) and humane orientation (HO-P) explain approximately 80% of
practice (r = − 0.699, p b = 0.01), power distance practice (r = the same index. However, only uncertainty avoidance values (UA-V)
−0.484, p b = 0.01), and humane orientation practice (r= −0.321, explain 29% of the variance in the web index, while in-group
p b = 0.05). Accordingly, the results reported in Table 4 support the collectivism practice (IGC-P) and future orientation practice (FO-P)
acceptance of H2b, H3b, H4b, H5b, and H6b, and the rejection of H1b, explain approximately 35% of the same index. Lastly, GDP and the
H7b, H8b, and H9b. national culture values of gender egalitarianism (GE-V) and institu-
As to the relationship between the national culture practices and tional collectivism (IC-V) explain 50% of the variance in the human
the sub-indices of e-Government, Table 5 shows that the web index capital index (HCI), while GDP and gender egalitarianism practice
has significant positive relationships with uncertainty avoidance (GE-P) explain 47% of the same index.
practice, future orientation practice, and performance orientation
practice; and negative relationships with in-group collectivism
practice and power distance practice. The infrastructure index has 6. Discussion
significant positive relationships with uncertainty avoidance practice,
future orientation practice, institutional collectivism practice, and This research explored the influence of national culture on e-
performance orientation practice; but has significant negative re- Government readiness and tested eighteen hypotheses relating nine
lationships with humane orientation practice, in-group collectivism cultural values and practices to e-Government readiness measures.
practice, and power distance practice. The human capital index, on the The results suggest that, with the exception of performance
other hand, has a significant positive relationship with gender orientation and assertiveness, national culture values and practices
egalitarianism practice and significant negative relationships with correlate negatively and positively with societies' e-Government
readiness. e-Government readiness correlates negatively with the
cultural dimension values of uncertainty avoidance, future orienta-
tion, and institutional collectivism. However, e-Government readiness
correlates positively with gender egalitarianism values. Therefore, a
Table 6
Summary of the influence of national culture values, practices and GDP on e-Government higher e-Government preparedness in a society is associated with
index and its sub-indexes. lower uncertainty avoidance values, lower future orientation values,
lower institutional collectivism values, and higher gender egalitari-
e-Government Regression model Regression model Regression model
readiness indexes (national culture (national culture (GDP only)
anism values.
values and GDP) practices and These findings are consistent with those reported by Khalil and
GDP) Seleim (2009), as national information dissemination capacity was
Predictors R2 Predictors R2 R2 found to correlate negatively with uncertainty avoidance values,
future orientation values, and institutional collectivism values and
EGRI 0.711 0.608 0.532
GDP(+) GDP(+) positively with gender egalitarianism values. The consistency of these
GE-V(+) IGC-P(−) findings is logical since Khalil and Seleim's (2009) measure of societal
IC-V(−) information dissemination capacity includes items that are similar to
PO-V(−) the ones that are used in the calculation of telecommunication
TII 0.822 0.803 0.665
UA-V(−) GDP(+)
infrastructure index, which is one of the three sub-indexes of the e-
GDP(+) IGC-P(−) Government readiness index employed in this investigation.
IC-V(−) PO-P(+) Likewise, the results suggest that higher levels of web applications
GE-V(+) HO-P(−) and citizens' skills and knowledge (e.g., human capital) associate with
WI 0.292 0.346 0.270
lower levels of uncertainty avoidance values, future orientation
UA-V(−) IGC-P(−)
FO-P(+) values, and institutional collectivism values, and higher gender
HCI 0.499 0.465 0.329 egalitarianism values. Again, these findings are not a surprise since
GDP(+) GDP(+) the human capital index and web index correlate highly with the
GE-V(+) GE(+) infrastructure index, and the three indexes contribute collectively and
IC-V(−)
positively to e-Government preparedness.
396 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399

e-Government readiness was also found to correlate with six of the In addition, GDP alone explained 67% of the variance in
national culture practices. It correlates positively with uncertainty telecommunication infrastructure as an element of e-Government
avoidance practices, future orientation practices, and institutional readiness. The explained variance has increased to 82% and 80% when
collectivism practices. e-Government readiness index also correlates national culture values and practices entered the regression models,
negatively with in-group collectivism practices, power distance respectively. This finding partially supports that of Boyer-Wright and
practices, and humane orientation practices. In addition, the web Kottemann (2009) who found national economic prosperity, mea-
and telecommunication infrastructure indexes correlate positively sured by the proxy GDP, to correlate with e-Government but didn't
with uncertainty avoidance practices, future orientation practices, and influence the extent of e-Government (in their regression model).
performance orientation practices. The human capital index corre- Similarly, GDP alone explained 27% of the variance in Web
lates positively with only gender egalitarianism practices. However, applications, as an element of e-Government readiness, and the
in-group collectivism practices and power distance practices correlate explained variance increased to 29% and 35% when the national
negatively with the three sub-indexes of the e-Government index; culture values and practice entered the regression model, respective-
and humane orientation practices correlate negatively with the two ly. In addition, GDP alone explains 33% of the variance in the human
sub-indexes of technological infrastructure and human capital. capital index, and the percentage increased to 50% and 47% when the
These findings agree to a large extent with the finding of Khalil and national culture values and practices entered the regression model,
Seleim (2010a), who found a measure of information dissemination respectively (Table 6).
capacity to correlate positively with uncertainty avoidance practices, GDP is an important determinant of e-Government readiness. The
future orientation practices and institutional collectivism practices. higher the GDP of a country, the higher the percentage of resources that
They also found information dissemination capacity to correlate are expected to be allocated to the development of telecommunication
negatively with in-group collectivism practices and power distance infrastructure, Web applications, and human capital. However, IT
practices. Similarly, these findings are consistent with those of Khalil investment, as a percentage of GDP, may vary from one country to
and Seleim (2010b), who found a measure of knowledge transfer another. For example, Pohjola (2003) noted that in countries with
capacity to correlate positively with uncertainty avoidance practices remarkable IT and e-Government initiatives and investment (e.g.
and future orientation practices, and negatively with in-group Canada, Singapore, and Sweden), the percentage of the GDP allocated
collectivism practices, humane orientation practices, and power for expenditures on IT is comparatively higher than in their counterpart
distance practices. countries (e.g. Indonesia, Saudi Arabia/Gulf States, Egypt, and Roma-
The detected relationships that cultural values and practices have nia). This variation depends on other factors such as human capital and
with e-Government readiness can be best interpreted in light of the openness to trade (Pohjola, 2003) as well as on cultural profiles.
relationships between cultural values and practices themselves. The influence that national culture has on e-Government readiness
Cultural values and practices are positive for gender egalitarianism, and its elements confirms the conclusions made in a number of prior
positive but insignificant for in-group collectivism, and negative for research that national culture explains socioeconomic phenomena such
the other seven dimensions (Javidan et al., 2004, 2006). Given the as economic health (e.g., economic prosperity, economic productivity,
reported relationships between cultural values and practices and the government support for economic prosperity, and societal support for
detected relationships that e-Government readiness has with the economic competitiveness), success with science and technology, and
cultural values and practices, one may argue that societies that the human condition (e.g., societal health, human health, life
comprise higher uncertainty avoidance practices, future orientation expectancy, general satisfaction, and psychological health) (House et
practices, institutional collectivism practices, and gender egalitarian- al., 2004, pp. 37–40). However, and contrary to the assertion that
ism values also exhibit a higher level of e-Government readiness. cultural practices are better predictors of these socioeconomic in-
In addition, societies that value and practice gender egalitarianism dicators than cultural values (Javidan et al., 2006), cultural values were
tend to be better prepared for adopting and using e-Government found to better explain and predict e-Government readiness and two of
services. In addition, societies that exhibit higher levels of uncertainty its elements – telecommunication infrastructure and human capital –
avoidance and future orientation behavior and practice tend to realize than cultural practices.
and value the e-Service that their governments may offer and make the The variation in e-Government readiness across societies can be
necessary investment for Web development and IT acquisition. explained in terms of cultural values. In addition to GDP, gender
Furthermore, high institutional collectivist societies tend to enjoy egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, and performance orientation
proper levels of IT infrastructure as well as high levels of e-Government explain 71% of the variance in e-Government readiness. It should be
readiness. noted that although performance orientation value has an insignificant
Also, societies that comprise lower levels of in-group collectivism negative relationship with e-Government readiness (r = − 0.228,
practices, power distance practices, and human orientation practices p=0.091), its effect on e-Government readiness is significant and,
tend to demonstrate a higher level of e-Government readiness. therefore, is included in the regression model. One reason for this
Societies that practice less power distance and practice less in-group observation is that performance orientation and GDP are orthogonal,
collectivism tend to have higher levels of e-Government readiness independent variables. In addition, although uncertainty avoidance value
enablers, including sophisticated Web applications, effective tele- had a strong negative relationship with e-Government readiness (r=
communication infrastructure, and skilled and knowledgeable human −0.745, p=0.01), it is excluded from the regression model because it
resources. In addition, less humane orientation practicing societies has a strong negative relationship with GDP (r=−0.709, p=0.01) and
tend to be more task-oriented and have higher investments in IT its effect on e-Government readiness is masked by such a relationship.
infrastructure and human capital and, consequently, tend to be better Nevertheless, the findings of this research suggest that gender
prepared for delivering online government service. egalitarianism and institutional collectivism values are important
In the pursuit of identifying the possible determinants of e- determinants not only of e-Government readiness but also of
Government readiness, GDP, the control variable, was found to telecommunication infrastructure, Web applications, and human
explain approximately 53% of the e-Government readiness variance capital components. In addition, performance orientation values are a
across nations. When national culture values and practices entered determinant of e-Government readiness, and uncertainty avoidance
the regression model, the percentage of the explained variance in e- values are a determinant of the e-Government readiness subcompo-
Government readiness increased to 71% and 61%, respectively. This nent of telecommunication infrastructure. However, in-group collec-
finding suggests that national culture explains a significantly higher tivism practices and future orientation practices appear to be better
portion of e-Government readiness variance than does GDP alone. determinants of Web applications than uncertainty avoidance values.
 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399 397

The manipulation of the influential cultural values and practices in and should, affect and change the cultural values, and consequently,
the right direction according to each society's cultural profile seems change the future cultural practices of people and their governments
crucial to enhancing e-Government readiness. Since gender egalitar- in the right direction. The policies must be comprehensive, and cover
ianism values and practices are positively correlated (Javidan et al., the economic, social, political, and educational activities of a nation.
2004, 2006), a society that has high gender egalitarianism values also They also should leverage the rapid development of IT, increasing
has high gender egalitarianism practices, which, in turn, positively trend of globalization and international trade, and extended
affects its e-Government readiness. economic development plans in order to stimulate the requisite
In addition, since institutional collectivism and performance cultural change.
orientation values and practices are negatively correlated (Javidan As to researchers, the findings of this exploratory research should
et al., 2004, 2006), a society that has low institutional collectivism and be interpreted in the context of its limitations. A surrogate measure
performance orientation values has also high institutional collectiv- was adopted for e-Government readiness because of the lack of direct,
ism and performance orientation practices, which, in turn, negatively objective measures. The underlying assumption for using the e-
affect its e-Government readiness. Enhancing e-Government readi- Government readiness index and its components is that the adoption
ness in a society requires increasing its GDP and changing its cultural of effective telecommunication infrastructure, building of more
values to be more gender egalitarian, less institutional collectivist, and government websites, and enhancement of citizens' skills and
less performance oriented. Alternatively, enhancing a society's e- knowledge should contribute positively to governments' prepared-
Government readiness requires strengthening its practices of gender ness to offer e-Service. Future research that attempt to investigate
egalitarianism, institution collectivism, and performance orientation, determinants of e-Government systems, such as national culture,
as well as increasing its GDP. should consider validating such an assumption and adopting direct
and objective measures of e-Government practices. In addition, future
7. Research implications cross-nation research should consider exploring other individual,
social, and economic factors that may explain more variance in the e-
The findings of this research suggest that, besides GDP, the Government readiness phenomenon.
national cultural values of gender egalitarianism, institution collec- Myers and Tan (2002) have argued for a departure from the use of
tivism, uncertainty avoidance, and performance orientation influence models of national culture as a tool to explain information systems
nations' preparedness for e-Government programs. These cultural phenomena. The heterogeneity of culture within nations makes the
characteristics influence e-Government readiness directly and/or use of culture as a means of differentiating one group of people from
indirectly through influencing the e-Government readiness compo- another outdated concept. Individual differences that exist in cultural
nents of telecommunication infrastructure, Web applications, and dimension measurement cannot be assumed to reflect the scores of
human capital. Nations that are better prepared for offering the decision makers in government offices (McCoy, 2003). Future
governmental e-Services have a pattern of high gender egalitarianism research designs should attempt to measure the espoused cultures of
values, low institutional collectivism values, low uncertainty avoid- decision makers in governmental organizations and investigate the
ance values, and low performance orientation values. influence of such cultures on e-Government readiness.
These findings offer insights for government officials, policy-
makers, and researchers. They contribute to decision makers' quest for
a better understanding of the multifaceted challenges of e-Govern- 8. Conclusions
ment and the pursuit of building a framework for connected
governance as the most advanced phase in e-Government programs. e-Government is a trend that is driven by the advances in IT as well
It is essential to view national cultures as malleable rather than as the aspirations of citizens, who are placing increasing demands on
static or stable (Li & Karakowsky, 2002). National cultures can change governments' service. However, governments' responses to these
partially in a relatively short time (Li & Karakowsky, 2002; Ralston et demands vary across nations. This research utilized secondary data on
al., 1993; McGrath et al., 1992). However, if cultures shift rather national culture and e-Government readiness to explore the influence
slowly in the short run (Gelfand et al., 2004), the policies that can be that national culture might have on e-Government readiness.
formulated to enhance e-Government preparedness in a nation must The findings of this research suggest that e-Government readiness
depend on its specific cultural profile. correlates negatively with the cultural values of uncertainty avoid-
The short term policies should leverage the cultural values of high ance, future orientation, and institutional collectivism; and correlates
gender egalitarianism, low institutional collectivism, low uncertainty positively with gender egalitarianism. Also, e-Government readiness
avoidance, and low performance orientation, which are considered correlates positively with the cultural practices of uncertainty
favorable to the acquisition of adequate telecommunication infra- avoidance, future orientation, and institutional collectivism; and
structure, development of effective Web applications, and provision of correlates negatively with in-group collectivism, power distance,
skilled and knowledgeable human resources. Culturally-driven and human orientation. In addition, whereas GDP explains 53% of the
government policies, laws, and regulations are necessary for facili- variance in e-Government readiness, the cultural values and practices
tating and using governmental e-Service. One effective policy is to increase that percentage to 71% and 61%, respectively.
establish central institutions that lead e-Government development National culture explains a significant portion of the variance in e-
efforts, set up e-Government strategies, and oversee the implemen- Government readiness, and cultural values are better predictors of e-
tation of e-Government projects. The development and execution of Government readiness than are cultural practices. In particular,
e-Government strategies should take into consideration the cultural gender egalitarianism values, institutional collectivism values, and
profile of a society, citizens' willingness to use e-Service, and citizens' performance orientation values are important determinants of e-
level of comfort with the available online service. Government readiness. The manipulation of these specific cultural
In the long run, cultural shifts should take place, especially in the values in the right direction deems crucial to the enhancement of e-
cultural dimensions that influence e-Government readiness such as Government readiness. Long and short term policies that can be
gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, performance ori- formulated to enhance e-Government preparedness in a nation
entation and uncertainty avoidance. Although the dominant view in should depend on its specific cultural profile. Future research designs,
the literature is that government policies reflect national cultures, however, should be adopted in order to verify the findings of this
governments' actions are an important source of influence on research and explore other determinants that can further explain the
cultural change (Li & Karakowsky, 2002). National policies can, varying levels of e-Government readiness among nations.
398 O.E.M. Khalil / Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011) 388–399

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Albania Japan fragmentary and holistic perspectives of culture. Information & Organization, 15(2),
Argentina Kazakhstan 295–338.
Australia Kuwait Garson, D. G. (2006). Public information technology and e-governance. Sudbury, MA:
Austria Malaysia Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Bolivia Mexico Gasco, M. (2005). Exploring the e-Government gap in South America. International
Brazil Morocco Journal of Public Administration, 28(1), 15–30.
Canada Namibia Gelfand, M. J., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Nishii, L. H., & Bechtold, D. J. (2004). Individualism and
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China Netherlands
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Costa Rica Nigeria
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Czech Republic Philippines global e-commerce diffusion: A cross-country comparison. Information Society, 19
Denmark Poland (1), 5–18.
Ecuador Portugal Gilbert, D., Balestrini, P., & Littleboy, D. (2004). Barriers and benefits in the adoption of
Egypt Qatar e-Government. The International Journal of Public Sector Management, 17(4/5),
El Salvador Russia 286–301.
England Singapore Grant, G. (2005). Realizing the promise of electronic government. Journal of Global
Finland Slovenia Information Management, 13(1), 1–4.
France South AFRICA White sample Gronlund, A., & Horan, T. A. (2005). Introducing e-Government: History, definitions,
Georgia South Korea and issues. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 15(3),
Germany West Spain 713–729.
Greece Sweden Gyampah, K., & White, K. (1993). User involvement and user satisfaction: An
exploratory contingency model. Information & Management, 25, 1–10.
Guatemala Switzerland
Hasan, H., & Ditsa, G. (1999). The impact of culture on the adoption of IT: An
Hungary Thailand
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India Turkey Haythornthwaite, C., & Wellman, B. (1998). Work, friendship, and media use for
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Ireland Venezuela for Information Science, 49(12), 1101–1114.
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managerial values: A study of U.S., Hong Kong, and PRC managers. Journal of Systems (QMIS) Department, College of Business Administration, Kuwait University.
International Business Studies, 24(2), 249–275. He has a PhD in Information Systems from the University of North Texas. Before his
Savas, E. S. (1987). Privatization: The key to better government. New Delhi: Tata McGraw- current appointment, he held academic and administrative positions at a number of
Hill. higher education institutions such as Alexandria University (Egypt), Virginia
Schneider, S. C. (1989). Strategy formulation: The impact of national culture. Commonwealth University (U.S.A.), and the University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth
Organization Studies, 10(2), 149–168. (U.S.A.). His publications have appeared in journals such as the Journal of Global
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organizational factors to information system effectiveness: Egyptian data and Information Resources management Journal, International Journal of Production and
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Shane, S. (1992). Why do some societies invent more than others? Journal of Business Journal of Informing Science, and Arab Journal of Administrative Sciences. His research
Venturing, 7, 29–46. interest includes information systems effectiveness, global information systems,
Shih, E., Kraemer, K. L., & Dedrick, J. (2007). Determinants of country-level investment information quality, knowledge management, and information technology adoption
in information technology. Management Science, 53(3), 521–528. and culture.