Chapter 5: Incompressible Flow Over Finite Wings
Chapter 5: Incompressible Flow Over Finite Wings
Chapter 5: Incompressible Flow Over Finite Wings
Finite Wings
5.1 Introduction finite wings, downwash, induced drag
5.2 Vortex Theory principle: the vortex filament
Biot-Savart law
Helmholtz’s vortex theorems
5.3 The Classical Lifting-Line Theory
elliptical and general lift distribution
the effect of Aspect Ratio
5.4-5 Extensions: numerical implementation
lifting-surface/vortex-lattice
Results:
trailing vortices (tip vortices)
and downwash
(vertical flow component) downwash
For subsonic 2-D airfoil: Df: skin friction drag, Cf=Df /(1/2V2S)
Dp: prssure darg (Df >> Dp in small angle of
attack)
Profile drag coefficient Cd = (Df + Dp) /(1/2V2S)
d
• lift coefficient
• sectional lift L’
• circulation
Aerodynamic twist is defined as "the angle between the zero-lift angle of an airfoil and
the zero-lift angle of the root airfoil." In essence, this means that the airfoil of the wing
would actually change shape as it moved farther away from the fuselage.
Twisted wing (geometry twist) & different airfoil cross
sections along the span (aerodynamic twist)
Distribution of lift (2)
Helmholtz Vortex
Theorem
• Consider the motion of an
inviscid fluid under the action
of conservative body force
(e.g. gravity, for which G=gz)
D
0
Dt
HELMHOTZ VORTEX THEOREM for Curved Vortex Filament
Vortex tube
Variable defintion:
Reference: “Low Speed Aerodynamics From Wing Theory to
Panel method” by Katz aand Plotkin Chapter 2.9 V - volume; q - velocity; - vorticity
3-D Vortex Theory: the vortex filament
V
r P
induced velocity V
2r
3-D Vortex Theory: Helmholtz’s vortex theorems
(compare the velocity induced by the vortex filament
to the magnetic field induced by an electrical current)
consequence: 1 2
1
2
3-D Vortex Theory: The Biot-Savart Law
The contribution dV of a filament section dl
to the induced velocity in P:
dl r
dV θ
4 | r |3
The Biot-Savart Law
Magnitude: sin
| dV | dl
4 r 2
Properties of a straight vortex filament segment (1)
B
Finite segment AB, constant
sin
B
V
4
A
r 2
dl
A
B h
r
θ sin
r h h
l dl
l -θ tan sin 2
P
h
sin
B
A V
4
A
h
d
4h
(cos A cos B )
Properties of a straight vortex filament segment (2)
B
θB V (cos A cos B ) (cos A cos B )
4h 4h
B B
Note: A and B are the internal angles of ABP
h P
θA
A A A Special cases:
• infinite vortex filament :
V (1 1)
A = B = 0: 4h 2h
(same as 2D vortex)
• semi-infinite filament:
A V (0 1)
A =90º; B = 0:
4h 4h
P
5.3 The Lifting-Line Theory
left tip vortex right tip vortex left tip vortex
b
w( y )
4 (b / 2) 2 y 2
Remarks:
• w < 0 when > 0: the induced flow is indeed downwards for positive lift
• Problems with the simple horseshoe-vortex model of a wing:
(y) = constant lift distribution
|w| at the tips not realistic!
Extension of the horseshoe vortex model
towards the lifting-line model
+ d
d
• The wing is replaced by a bound vortex with (continuously) varying circulation (y)
• The trailing vortices create a ‘vortex wake’ in the form of a continuous vortex sheet
– local strength of the trailing vortex at position y is given by
the change in (y): d = (d/dy) dy
– the vortex sheet is assumed to remain flat (no deformation)
• Validity: good approximation for straight, slender wings at moderate lift
Determining the downwash of the lifting line (I)
w
Strength of the trailing vortex at position y (y)
y0
along the wing span:
y0 - y
• Take small segment of the lifting line, dy, dy
at position y y d = (d/dy) dy
• Over this segment the change in circulation of
the lifting line is: d = (d/dy) dy
• This is equal to the strength of the trailing vortex
d
• The contribution dw to the induced velocity at position y0 : dw
4 ( y0 y )
b/2
1 (d / dy )
w( y0 )
4
b / 2
( y0 y )
dy
Determining the induced angle of attack of the lifting line
a0
b/2
2 ( y 0 ) 1 (d / dy )
( y0 )
a0V c( y0 )
L 0 ( y0 )
4V
b / 2
( y0 y )
dy
= const
Prandtl’s lifting-line equation (the wing equation)
b/2
2 ( y 0 ) 1 (d / dy )
( y0 ) L 0 ( y0 )
a0 ( y0 ) V c( y0 ) 4V
b / 2
( y0 y )
dy
Some remarks:
1. This equation describes the relation between circulation and wing properties
2. It is linear in
3. The circulation is proportional to V (Lift ~ V ~ V2 )
4. For a wing without twist ( and L=0 are constant):
• circulation is proportional to – L=0
• for every value of the lift distribution has the same form
(which depends on a0(y), c(y) and b, therefore, on the wing shape)
• the total lift is zero when = L=0 and then: 0 along the spanwise yo
direction
5. For a wing with twist ( and L=0 are not constant): THIS IS NOT SO
• in particular: total zero lift is in general not accompanied by: 0 along
the spanwise yo direction
Wing properties for given circulation (y)
1. Lift distribution: L' ( y ) V ( y )
b/2
1 (d / dy )
3. Induced angle of attack: i ( y0 )
4V
b / 2
( y0 y )
dy
b/2
D 2
C Di i
q S V S ( y) ( y)dy
b / 2
i
The elliptical lift distribution (1)
Consider the following “elliptical” lift distribution:
(y) 0 = max.circulation
y 2
( y ) 0 1 ( )
b/2
Compute the downwash velocity from:
b/2
1 d / dy y
w( y0 )
4 y y
dy -b/2 b/2
b / 2 0 ( 0) ( )
coordinate b b
transformation:
y cos
2
dy
2
sin d ( ) 0 sin
1 d / d 0 cos 0
2 b 0 cos cos 0 2 b 0 cos cos 0
w( 0 ) d d
2b
w =
i 0 Downwash and induced angle of attack
V 2bV
are constant over the span of the wing!
The elliptical lift distribution (2)
b
• Calculation of the total lift: dy sin d ( ) 0 sin
2
b/2
b b b
L V ( y ) dy V ( ) sin d V 0 sin 2 d V 0
b / 2
20 20 4
4 (C L 12 V S ) 2V S
2
4L
• Relation between 0 CL
0 and CL: Vb Vb b
0 CL CL
• The induced angle of attack i
2bV (b 2 / S ) A
CL
Note that i is constant here
A
Conclusions:
2
CL
C Di i C L • The inducd drag is the “drag due to lift”
cl a0 [ i L 0 ] constant C L
b/2 b/2
cl C L 1 1
Remark: Proof: CL
S b / 2
cl c dy cl
S b / 2
c dy cl
1/4-chord line
dC L a0
a
d 1 a0 / A
a0 d i
1 1
d
The elliptical lift distribution - summary
CL
• Constant downwash along the span i
A
2
C
• Induced drag: C Di i C L L
A
dC L a0
• Lift slope: a
d 1 a 0 / A
N
2b 2 b2 N
S 0
n 1
An sin n sin d 2
S
A sin n sin d
n 1
n
0
2 A. A1.
2
Standard integrals:
A = 0 when n 1
b/2
1 (d / dy )
Calculation of the induced angle of attack: i ( y0 )
4V
b / 2
( y0 y )
dy
1 d / d 2bV N
cos n
i ( 0 )
2 bV 0 cos cos 0
d
2 bV
nAn
n 1 cos cos 0
d
0
sin n 0
Standard integrals:
sin 0
sin n 0
N
i ( 0 ) nAn
n 1 sin 0
General lift distribution: induced drag
N N
sin n
( ) 2bV An sin n
n 1
i ( ) nAn sin
n 1
2b 2 N N sin n
An sin n nAn sin d
S 0 n 1 n 1 sin
2b 2 N N
S
nA A sin n sin m d
n 1 m 1
n m
0
N
C Di A nAn
2
= 0 when n m
= /2 when n = m
n 1
General lift distribution: summary and conclusions
N N
An
2
n 1 n2 A1
2
CL
2
An
N
CDi (1 ) where n 0
A n 2 A1
2
C 1
or : C Di L where e 1 the " span efficiency factor"
Ae (1 )
Conclusion:
• the elliptic wing ( = 0, e = 1) gives the lowest possible induced drag
(for given lift and aspect ratio)
The relation between the An and the wing geometry
Solve Prandtl’s wing equation: cl 2
L 0 i
a0 a0V c
• substitute: N N
sin n
( ) 2bV An sin n i ( ) nA
n 1
n
sin
n 1
4b N N
sin n
n
a0 c n 1
A sin n
n 1
nAn
sin
L 0
– i=1, 1 = /6,
4A 1 4A 3 4A 5
A1 sin( / 6) A3 sin(3 / 6) A5 sin(5 / 6)
a0 sin( / 6) a0 sin( / 6) a0 sin( / 6)
– i=2, 2 = /3,
4A 1 4A 3 4A 5
A1 sin( / 3) A3 sin(3 / 3) A5 sin(5 / 3)
0
a sin( / 3) 0
a sin( / 3) 0
a sin( / 3)
– i=3, 3 = /2
4A 1 4A 3 4A 5
A1 sin( / 2) A3 sin(3 / 2) A5 sin(5 / 2)
0
a sin( / 2 ) 0
a sin( / 2 ) 0
a sin( / 2 )
Numerical example of the wing equation (3)
N
4A n
n 1 a0
An sin n i
sin i
i 1, 2, ... N
– i=1, 1 = /6,
4 2A1 (0.5) 4 6A3 (1) 4 10A5 (0.5)
3 A1 10 A3 7 A5
– i=2, 2 = /3,
2 3 2 2
4 A1 4 3( ) A3 (0) 4 5( ) A5 (0.866)
3 2 3 3
4.464 A1 8.464 A5
– i=3, 3 = /2
4 1A1 4 3A3 4 5A5
5 A1 7 A3 9 A5
Numerical example: the rectangular wing (N=3)
• The set of equations becomes: with solution:
3 10 7 A1 1 A1 0.2316
4.464 0 8.464 A3 1 A3 0.0277
5 7 9 A5 1 A 0.0040
5
A 10
A6
A2
2
2
CL N
An
CDi (1 ) where n 0
A n 2 A1
Effect of wing planform and aspect ratio
2
CL a0
C Di (1 ) a
A 1 (a0 / A)(1 )
• Values of depend on planform and aspect ratio of the wing
example
( y )
wing
wake
(streamwise
vorticity)
Lifting line:
Lifting surface:
wing represented by a vortex filament
wing represented by a vortex sheet with
(only spanwise vorticity)
distributed spanwise and chordwise