Getting Started With Comptia Linux+ Training Course

Getting Started with
CompTIA Linux+
Training Course
CompTIA Linux+ Training

Instructor: Veronica Henry
Getting Started with CompTIA Linux+ Training Course

In This Lesson:
 Who is Your Instructor?
 What We Will Be Doing
 How to Use This Course

Who is Your Instructor?

• Veronica Henry
• Over 20 years of IT experience
• MCP, MCSE, MCSE +Internet, GIAC (GSEC), PMP, Linux+,
Novell CLA, LPIC-1
• Volunteer in local community
• Sci-fi & Fantasy writer
1
What We Will Be Doing

• 2 part course covering:
– LX0-101 exam objectives
– LX0-102 exam objectives
• CompTIA suggests:
– At least a year of network administration experience
(Windows or Linux)
– Recommended CompTIA A+ and CompTIA Network+
certifications

What We Will Be Doing (cont’d)

• Topics covered in LX0-101 part:
– Linux Hardware Settings
– The Boot Process
– Runlevels and System Shutdown and Reboot
– Linux Installation Planning
– Package Management
– GNU and Unix Commands
– Linux Filesystems
– Managing User Resources with Quotas and Permissions
– Linux Links and System Files

How to Use This Course

• Start with the “Lab Setup” and “The Course Scenario” lessons
• Watch lessons in order
• Pause
– Take notes
– Practice the demonstrations
• Watch lessons again…and again
• Watch the Transcender lessons
• Watch “Preparing for Your CompTIA Linux+ Certification Exam”
lessons
• Watch the “Next Steps” lesson
2
Lab Setup

Getting Started with CompTIA Linux+ Training

In This Lesson:
 The Lab Environment
 VirtualBox Setup
 Creating a Linux Virtual Machine

The Lab Environment

• Toshiba Satellite
• Intel core 2 duo - 2.10 Ghz
• 4 GB memory
• 250 GB hard disk
• DVD drive
• Dual-boot: Windows Vista and Ubuntu 10.04
• Oracle VirtualBox 3.2.8 (3.2.10 most current)
3
VirtualBox Setup
• Oracle VirtualBox
– Download from Oracle: www.virtualbox.org
• VirtualBox OSE
– Download from Oracle: www.virtualbox.org
– Install with Linux package manager
• Guest additions
– More seamless mouse pointer integration
– Video support (screen resizing)
– File sharing
– Shared clipboard

Creating a Linux Virtual Machine

4

• Fedora 13
– www.fedoraproject.org
• Launch VirtualBox
• Click New
– Enter virtual machine name
– Allocate memory
– Allocate virtual hard disk space
– Start & select .iso image
– Follow prompts to install product
– Install guest additions
– Reboot & login
Linux Hardware Settings

What We Covered

 The Lab Environment

 VirtualBox Setup

 Installing a Linux Virtual Machine
The Course Scenario

5
The Course Scenario
In This Lesson:
 The Globomantics Scenario
 The Globomantics Network
The Course Scenario

The Globomantics Scenario

• Globomantics, Inc. is a national application development
company, specializing in business software and headquartered in
Dallas, TX.
– Dallas, TX headquarters
– Establishing New York, NY satellite office
• There are currently 500 employees, with one employee soon to
launch the New York satellite office. They have a mobile
salesforce of 10 employees. There are about 100 other
employees who telecommute from home, mostly in Texas, but a
few scattered across the United States.
• New CIO is a Linux enthusiast, so his first task is to convert all
their Windows servers to Linux. Existing Windows admins will
need to be retrained and prepared for certification.
The Course Scenario

The Globomantics Network

Telecommuters Dallas, TX
New York, NY Internet
Road Warriors
6
Linux Hardware
Settings


In This Lesson:
 IRQs
 I/O Addresses
 DMA Addresses
 Boot Disks and Geometry
 Coldplug vs. Hotplug Devices
 Expansion Card Configuration
 Kernel Modules
 Configuring USB Devices
 Configuring Hard Disks

IRQs
• What is an IRQ
– An interrupt request sent to the CPU
• How does the system use IRQs?
– Keyboard control
– Timer control
– Open for new hardware additions
• Displaying IRQs in use
– /proc virtual filesystem
– cat /proc/interrupts
7
IRQs (cont’d)
IRQ Typical Use Notes
0 System timer Reserved for internal use

1 Keyboard Reserved for keyboard use
2 Cascade for IRQs 8-15 Original x86 architecture only
allowed for 8 IRQs, 2 is used
to handle IRQs 8-15
3 Second RS-232 serial port Can also be shared with a 4th
(Windows COM2) RS-232 port
4 First RS-232 serial port Can also be shared by a 3rd
(Windows COM1) RS-232 port
5 Sound card or 2nd parallel port
(Windows LPT2)

IRQs (cont’d)
6 Floppy disk controller Reserved for 1st floppy

controller.
7 First parallel port Windows LPT1
8 Real-time clock Reserved for system clock use
9 Open interrupt
10 Open interrupt
11 Open interrupt
12 PS/2 mouse

IRQs (cont’d)
13 Math coprocessor Reserved for internal use

14 Primary ATA controller The controller for ATA devices
like hard drives; usually
/dev/hda and /dev/hdb
15 Secondary ATA controller Controller for additional ATA
devices; usually /dev/hdc and
/dev/hdd
8
I/O Addresses
• I/O (Input/Output) addresses - Unique memory locations reserved
for communications between CPU and hardware devices
• Typical Linux Device Matrix
Linux Device Typical IRQ I/O Address
/dev/ttyS0 4 0x03f8
/dev/ttyS1 3 0x02f8
/dev/ttyS2 4 0x03e8
/dev/ttyS3 3 0x02e8
/dev/lp0 7 0x0378-0x037f
/dev/lp1 5 0x03f0-0x027f
/dev/fd0 6 0x03f0-0x03f7
/dev/fd1 6 0x0370-0x0377

I/O Addresses (cont’d)

• Determining which I/O ports are used on a system
– Contents are stored in the /proc/ioports file
– cat /proc/ioports

DMA Addresses
• Direct memory addressing
– Alternative method of communicating with I/O ports
– No CPU intervention
– Performance improvements
• Display DMAs in use on your system
– cat /proc/dma
9
Boot Disks and Geometry

• Boot device order
– Hard disk
– CD-ROM
– USB
• Removable disk considerations
– Security
• CHS geometry
– The history
– CHS challenges
• Logical block addressing
– Uses a single unique number for each sector on hard disk

Coldplug and Hotplug Devices

• Coldplug vs. hotplug
– Coldplug devices can only be attached/detached when
computer is turned off.
– Hotplug devices can be attached/detached while the
computer is on.
• Devices
– Coldplug: memory, cpu, hard disks
– Hotplug: USB drives or video cameras

Coldplug and Hotplug Devices

• Managing hotplug devices – 4 utilities
– D-Bus – desktop bus runs as a daemon (a program that
runs in the background at all times) and enables
communication between processes
– HAL Daemon (hald) – hardware abstraction layer daemon,
provides user space programs information about available
hardware
– Sysfs – virtual filesystem, mounted at /sys, that exports
information about devices
– udev – virtual filesystem mounted at /dev, that dynamically
creates device files as drivers are loaded and unloaded;
Configured via /etc/udev file
10
Expansion Card Configuration

• PCI devices
– Expansion cards added to the PCI bus
– Sound & video cards, firewire, etc.
• PCI configuration
– BIOS
– MMConfig
– Direct
– Any
• setpci
– Query and modify PCI device
configurations: setpci [options] devices operations
• lspci

Expansion Card Configuration (cont’d)

• Examining current PCI configuration lspci –option
Option Result
–v Increases verbosity, or depth of output; may also
include –vv or –vvv options
–n Displays results in number codes rather than
manufacturer or device name
–nn Displays manufacturer and device name, along with
numeric code
–x An advanced option that displays PCI configuration
space as a hexadecimal dump; may be tripled (–xxx) or
quadrupled (–xxxx)

Option Result
–b Shows IRQ's and other data as
seen by devices instead of the
kernel
–t Displays a tree view showing
device relationships
–s [[[[domain]:]bus]:][slot][.[func]] Displays only devices that
match the listed specification.
Useful for limiting output
–d [vendor]:[device] Shows data for the specified
device
11

Option Result
–i file Uses the specified file to map vendor and device IDs to
names; default is /usr/share/misc/pci.ids
–m Dumps data in a machine-readable format, for use by
scripts; single –m uses a backward compatible format, while
--m uses a newer format
–D Displays PCI domain numbers
–M Used only by root to perform a scan in bus-mapping mode,
which can reveal devices hidden behind a misconfigured PCI
bridge
–version Displays version information

Kernel Modules
• Linux drivers
– /lib/modules
• Determining the current configuration
– lsmod
• Loading modules
– insmod
• insmod /lib/modules/2.6.33/kernel/drivers/vhost/vhost.ko

Kernel Modules (cont’d)

– modprobe
• modprobe –C /etc/my.conf floppy
– –v or --verbose - displays extra information
– –C filename - modifies /etc/madprobe.conf config file
– –n or --dry-run - performs checks but not module
insertion
– –r or --remove - reverses modprobe
– –f or --force - forces module load even if kernel versions
don‟t match
– --show-depends - shows all modules on which the
specified module depends
– –l or --list - displays list of available options whose name
matches the specified wildcard
12
Kernel Modules (cont’d)

• Removing kernel modules
– rmmod
• rmmod vhost
– Options:
• –v or --verbose - displays extra information
• –f or --force - forces removal of a module, if its being
used (CONFIG_MODULE_FORCE_UNLOAD kernel option
must be enabled)
• –w or --wait - causes rmmod to wait for module to
become unused
– Consult man page for other options

Configuring USB Devices

• usbmgr - runs in the background and detects changes to the
USB bus
– /etc/usbmgr - for specific devices
– /etc/usbmgr/usbmgr.conf - for overall configuration
• hotplug
– /etc/hotplug
– /etc/hotplug/usb.usermap - contains a database of USB
device id‟s and pointers to scripts in /etc/hotplug/usb

Configuring USB Devices (cont’d)

• USB drivers
– lsusb command will tell you which USB devices are in use on
your system
• Options
– –v - verbose option, extended information
– –s[[bus]:[devnum] - restricts output to specified bus and
device numbers
– –d [vendor]:[product] - limits output to a vendor and
product
– –D filename - displays information about the device
accessible via indicated filename located in /proc/bus/usb
– –t - displays device list as a tree
– –V or --version - displays version of lsusb utility
13
Configuring Hard Disks

• PATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment) disks – uses
parallel interface
– /dev/hda & /dev/hdb
• SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) disks - on most
modern computers; connects to the motherboard controllers on a
1-1 basis
• SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) disks - found on high end
systems; supports up to 8 or 16 devices per bus
– Hard drives: /dev/sdx
– Tapes: /dev/stx and /dev/nstx
– CD-ROM & DVD-ROM: /dev/scdx, /dev/srx
• External disks – USB thumb drives, firewire, SCSI device
– /dev/sdx device node

What We Covered
 IRQs
 I/O Addresses
 DMA Addresses
 Boot Disks and Geometry
 Coldplug vs. Hotplug Devices
 Expansion Card Configuration
 Kernel Modules
 Configuring USB Devices
 Configuring Hard Disks
The Boot Process

14
The Boot Process
In This Lesson:
 The BIOS
 The Boot Loader
 The Boot Sequence
 The Boot Process and the Kernel
 Interpreting Log Files
The Boot Process

The BIOS
• Basic Input Output System (BIOS) – located on your computer‟s
motherboard in ROM or flash memory
– Power on self test (POST), which tests system components
– Initializes hardware
– Loads the boot loader
– Hands off control to the boot loader
• BIOS functionality
– The role in the boot process
• BIOS configuration
– Function key access
• F1 or F2
– Save, ext and reboot
• F10
The Boot Process

The Boot Loader

• Master Boot Record (MBR) - sits in boot sector of your hard drive
• Boot Loader - software program read by the BIOS at bootup
• Two boot loaders
– GRUB - Grand Unified Boot Loader
– LILO - Linux Loader
• MBR vs. boot sector
15
The Boot Process
The Boot Sequence

• Outlining the boot process
– Power on the system
– The BIOS
– The boot loader
– Loading the kernel
– Initializing devices
– Mounting root partition
– Loading and executing system‟s initial program
• /sbin/init
• /etc/inittab
The Boot Process

The Boot Process and the Kernel

• Boot messages
– Stored in kernel ring buffer
– /var/log/dmesg
• dsmesg command
– Navigating output
– Hardware names
– Hardware chipsets
The Boot Process

Interpreting Log Files

• The system logger
– Sylogd
• /var/log/messages
• /var/log/syslog
• /var/log
• Onscreen viewing
16
The Boot Process
What We Covered

 The BIOS
The Boot Loader


 The Boot Sequence
The Boot Process and the Kernel


 Interpreting Log Files
Runlevels, System
Shutdown and Reboot

Runlevels, System Shutdown and Reboot

In This Lesson:
 Defining Runlevels
 Runlevel Services
 Managing Runlevels
 Checking and Changing Runlevels
 Managing Runlevels - Utilities
17
Defining Runlevels
• What is a runlevel?
– An alternative mode of operation
– 7 runlevels, 0-6
Runlevel Description
0 Halts the system; since it switches
runlevel to another mode, this is a
transitional mode
1, s, or S Runs in single-user mode; services vary,
used primarily for maintenance
2 Debian: runs in multi-user mode with X
and a graphical login; undefined in other
distributions

Defining Runlevels (cont’d)
Runlevel Description
3 Red Hat, Mandriva, Fedora and other
distributions, runs in multi-user mode with
command line interface
4 Unused; available for customization
5 Red Hat, Mandriva, Fedora and others,
same as runlevel 3 with graphical interface
6 Reboots the system

Runlevel Services
• Defining services
– /etc/inittab - defines what programs will run in certain runlevel
• identifier:runlevel:action:process
– id (identifier) –1-4 characters that identifies function
– runlevel – list of runlevels for which this entry applies
– action – action to be taken
– process – tells Linux which process to run for this entry
• System V or SysV startup scripts - run all scripts that are
associated with the current runlevel
– /etc/rd.d/rc?.d, /etc/init.d/rc?.d, or /etc/rc?.d
– Symbolic links stored in /etc/rc.d, /etc/init.d, or /etc/rc.d/init.d
– Starting scripts manually with start command
• /etc/init.d/sshd start
18
Managing Runlevels
• Configuring default runlevels
– Change 2nd value in /etc/inittab file command
• Specify which system processes are automatically started
• Modify runlevel from the command prompt
• Management utilities
– chkconfig
– ntsysv

Checking & Changing Runlevels

• Determine runlevel with runlevel command
• Specify which system processes are automatically started
– Edit /etc/inittab
• Modify runlevel from the command prompt
– init/telinit
– shutdown
• Options:-now, -r reboot, -H halt, -P power off, -h halt or
power off
• shutdown –h +5 “save your data, reboot in 5” (-c cancel)
– halt
– reboot
– poweroff

Managing Runlevels - Utilities

– chkconfig
– chkconfig –-list
19
Managing Runlevels - Utilities

– ntsysv
– ntsysv –level 1

What We Covered

 Defining Runlevels
Runlevel Services


 Managing Runlevels
Checking and Changing Runlevels

Managing Runlevels - Utilities

Linux Installation
Planning

20
Linux Installation Planning
In This Lesson:
 Hard Disk Layout
 LILO Boot Manager Configuration
 GRUB Boot Manager Configuration
 Shared Libraries

Hard Disk Layout

• Partitions - segment your hard drive
– Master Boot Record (MBR)
• Uses 4 primary partitions, one that can be used as a
placeholder extended partition, which will contain logical
partitions. (codes: FAT, extended, NTFS, swap, linux filesystem)
1st primary partition 2nd primary 3rd primary partition

partition/extended
partition
1st logical 2nd logical

Hard Disk Layout (cont’d)

• MBR partitions have the following one-byte type codes:
– 0x0c (FAT)
– 0x05 (older type of extended partition)
– 0x07 (NTFS)
– 0x0f (newer type of extended partition)
– 0x82 (linux swap)
– 0x83 (linux filesystem)
21

• Partitions
– GUID Partition Table (GPT)
• Intel‟s intended BIOS replacement for all x86 and x86-64
computers
• Reserved for disks bigger than 2TB
• Has 3 data structures:
– Protective MBR
– Header
– Partition table


• Partitions
– Logical Volume Management (LVM) partitions
• Complex alternative to partitions
• Partition type codes of 0x8e
• Utilities
– pvcreate
– vgcreate
– lvcreate
– lvscan
• To access these volumes
– /dev/mapper/myvol-home


• Common partitions & filesystem layouts (mount points)
Partition Typical Size Use
Swap 1-2 times system RAM addon, allows system to run
RAM more programs
/home 200MB – 1000GB Holds users‟ data files; Useful for
(or more) upgrades
/boot 20MB – 200MB Holds critical boot files; Separate
partition overcomes older BIO
limits and boot loaders on disks
over 8GB
/usr 500MB – 10GB Holds most Linux programs & data
/usr/local 100MB – 3GB Holds Linux unique programs and
data files (like those you compile)
22

Partition Typical Size Use
/opt 100MB – 5GB Linux program and data files
associated with 3rd
(commercial) party packages
/var 100MB – 500GB Miscellaneous files, often
transient
/tmp 100MB – 20GB Holds users‟ temporary files
/mnt N/A Not really a separate partition,
but mount points for
removable media
/media N/A Like /mnt, holds subdirectories
that may be used as mount
points for removable media

Boot Manager Configuration

• The boot loader revisited
– BIOS and the MBR
• Boot Managers / Boot Loaders
– LILO (LInux LOader)
– GRUB (GRand Unified Bootloader)

Boot Manager Configuration - LILO

• Configuration file /etc/lilo.conf
– Options
• Boot
• Default
• Prompt
• Timeout
• Lba32
• Vga
• Root
• Read-only
23
Boot Manager Configuration - LILO (cont’d)

– Per-image options
• Image, other, label, initrd, append
– Adding a Kernel
• Obtain root access
• Open up the /etc/lilo.conf file
• Copy and paste an existing stanza and modify the
appropriate information
• Change the label line
• Change the image line to point to your new kernel
• Save and exit
• While still logged in as root, type “lilo”. This will install
LILO in the MBR, and you‟ll see your stanza names
echoed on the screen.

Boot Manager Configuration - LILO (cont’d)

– LILO command options:
• -C conf-file tells Linux to use a config file other than
lilo.conf
• -t tests the configuration
• -v is often used with -t, to see more information about
your changes
• -b bootdev specifies an alternate boot device

Boot Manager Configuration - GRUB

• Configuration file: /boot/grub/menu.lst
• Options
– Default
– Timeout
– Splashimage
24
Boot Manager Configuration - GRUB (cont’d)

• Per-image options
– Title
– Root
– Kernel
– Initrd
– Rootnoverify
– Chainloader
• Adding a Kernel
– Same steps as for LILO
– Reboot to have the changes take effect

Boot Manager Configuration - GRUB (cont’d)

• Installing GRUB manually
– Use the command:
• grub-install device
• grub-install/dev/had
• grub-install „(hd0)‟
• Interacting with GRUB
– Arrow keys - to move up and down the kernel listing
– Pressing e - will allow you to edit that kernel option
– Pressing the enter key - to complete your edits
– Pressing b - to boot the computer

Shared Libraries
• What is a library and why should it be shared?
– Gimp Tool Kit (GTK+)
• Library file locations (/etc/ld.so.conf)
• Path settings
– LD_LIBRARY_PATH
• Command syntax
– export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=[path]
• Library management
– ldd -v
25
Shared Libraries (cont’d)

• Library cache
– /etc/ld.so.cache
– ldconfig
• Options:
– -v verbose
– -N update links
– -n update links in specified directories
– -X update cache
– -f conffile use new config file
– -C cachefile change cache file ldconfig creates
– -r dir to reat dir as root directory
– -p display cache

What We Covered

 Hard Disk Layout
LILO Boot Manager Configuration


 GRUB Boot Manager Configuration
Shared Libraries

Package Management

26
Package Management
In This Lesson:
 The Role of a Package Manager
 Debian Package Management
 Apt Package Management
 Debian Configuration &
Troubleshooting
 RPM Package Management
 Yum Package Management
 RPM & Yum Configuration &
Troubleshooting
Package Management
The Role of a Package Manager

• What are packages?
• Install new packages
• Files database
• Upgrade
• Dependencies
• Checksums
• Binary packages
• Uninstall
• Choosing a package manager
Package Management
Debian Package Management

• Which distributions use Debian?
• dpkg command:
• dpkg [options] [action] [package-files] [package-name]
• Options
Options Action Description
--root=dir All Modifies system using a
root directory:dir
-B or --auto-deconfigure -r Disables packages that
rely on one being
removed
--force-things Many Forces actions
27
Package Management
Debian Package Management (cont’d)
Options Action Description

--ignore- -i,-r Ignores dependencies for
depends=package specified package
--no-act -i, -r Checks for problems
without taking action
--recursive -i Installs all packages that
match wildcard
-G -i Doesn‟t install package if
newer versions exists
-E or --skip-same-version -i Doesn‟t install if same
version exists
Package Management

• dpkg command – actions
Options Description
-i or --install Installs a package
--configure Reconfigures installed package, runs
post-install script to set site-specific
options
-r or --remove Removes package, leaves config files
-P or --purge Removes package and config files
-p or --print-avail Displays info about installed package
Package Management

• dpkg command – actions
Options Description
-I or --info Displays info about uninstalled
package file
-l pattern or – list pattern Lists installed package whose names
match the indicated pattern
-L or --listfiles Lists installed files associated with
package
-S pattern or --search pattern Locates package(s) that own the file(s)
indicated by pattern
-C or --audit Searches for partially installed
packages and suggests fixes
28
Package Management

• apt-get commands
Command Description
update Gets updated package info from
/etc/apt/sources.list
upgrade Upgrades all installed packages
dselect-upgrade Performs any undone changes in
package status following dselect
dist-upgrade Upgrades with conflict resolution
install Installs a package by package
name
remove Removes package by package
name
Package Management
Command Description
source Gets newest source package file by
package filename:
check Checks consistency & broken
packages
clean Clears info about retrieved
packages from Debian database
autoclean Like clean, but removes info about
packages that can‟t be downloaded
Package Management

• apt-get - options
Option Command Description

-d or --download-only upgrade,dselect- Downloads package
upgrade,install,source files, but doesn‟t install
-f or --fix-broken install, remove Attempts to fix
unsatisfied
dependencies
-m, --ignore-missing, upgrade,dselect- Ignores all package
or --fix-missing upgrade,install, files that can‟t be
remove, source retrieved
-q or --quiet All Omits some progress
indicator info; Can be
doubled
29
Package Management

• apt-get – options
Option Command Description

-s,--simulate,--just- All Performs simulation
print,--dry-run,-- without action
recon,--no-act
-y,--yes,or --assume- All Yes response to any
yes yes/no prompts in
installation scripts
-b,--compile, or –build source Compiles source
package after retrieval
--no-upgrade install apt-get will not
upgrade if older
version exists
Package Management

• apt-cache
• showpkg
apt-cache showpkg packagename
• stats
apt-cache stats
• unmet
apt-cache unmet
• depends
apt-cache depends packagename
• pkgnames
apt-cache pkgnames
Package Management

• dselect
• aptitude – access with Ctrl+T
• search
• update
• install
• remove
• upgrade
• autoclean
• clean
• help
• Synaptic
30
Package Management
Debian Configuration & Troubleshooting

• Reconfiguring packages
• dpkg-reconfigure packagename
• Configuring Debian package tools
• /etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg or ~/.dpkg.cfg
• apt - /etc/apt/sources.list or /etc.apt/apt.conf
Package Management
RPM Package Management

• rpm [operation] [options] [package-files|package-names]
– packagename-a.b.c-x.arch.rpm
• “a.b.c” represents the version number
• “x” represents the build number
• “arch” represents the architecture
Operation Description
-i Installs package - can‟t already exist
-U Installs new package or upgrades existing
-F or --freshen Upgrades only if an earlier version exists
-q Queries – installed? Packages it contains
Package Management
RPM Package Management

• rpm [operation] [options] [package-files|package-names]
– packagename-a.b.c-x.arch.rpm
Operation Description
-V or --verify Verifies package – present & unchanged
-e Uninstalls package
-b Builds binary, given source & config - rpmbuild
--rebuild Builds binary, given source RPM file - rpmbuild
--rebuilddb Rebuilds the RPM db to fix errors
31
Package Management
RPM Package Management (cont’d)
Option Operation Description
--root dir Any Modifies Linux system having root at

dir
--force -i, -U, -F Forces install
-h or --hash -i, -U, -F Displays has maks (#) to show
progress
-v -i, -U, -F Used with –h, produces uniform no.
hash marks for each package
--nodeps -i, -U, -F, -e No dependency checks; Installs or
removes anyway
--test -i, -U, -F Checks for dependencies or other
problems without installing
Package Management
RPM Package Management (cont’d)
Option Operation Description
--prefix path -i, -U, -F Sets install directory to path

-a or --all -q, -V Queries or verifies all packages
-f file or --file file -q, -V Queries or verifies packages that own
file
-p package-file -q Queries the uninstalled RPM package-
file
-i -q Displays package info: maintainer,
description, etc
-R or --recursive -q Displays packages and files on which
this one depends
-l or --list -q Displays files contained in package
Package Management
Yum Package Management

• Install using the command line: yum [options] [command]
[package…]
Command Description
install Installs one or more packages and
dependencies by name
update Updates specified packages to latest version or
if none specified, all
check-update Checks to see if updates available, & displays
name, versions, & repository
upgrade Updates with –obsoletes flag
remove or erase Deletes packages, similar to rpm –e, but also
removes depended-on packages
list Displays info about package
32
Package Management
Yum Package Management (cont’d)

Command Description
provides or whatprovides Displays info that provides program or feature
search Searches package names, summaries, etc. for
keyword
info Displays information, similar to rpm –qi
clean Cleans cache directory
shell Enters Yum shell mode, multiple commands
resolvedep Displays pckg matching specified dependency
localinstall Installs local RPM files, Yum for dependencies
localupdate Updates system using RPM files, Yum for
dependencies
deplist Displays dependencies of specified package
Package Management
RPM & Yum Configuration and Troubleshooting

• RPM and YUM configuration files
– /usr/lib/rpm/rpmrc
– /etc/yum.conf
• Converting between package formats
– apt-get install alien
– alien [options] file[…]
• --to-deb
• --to-rpm
• --to-slp
• --to-tgz
Package Management
RPM & Yum Configuration and Troubleshooting

• Package troubleshooting
– Dependency problems
• rpmbuild –rebuild
• rpm –i packagename.rpm –-nodeps
33
Package Management
What We Covered

 The Role of a Package Manager
Debian Package Management


 Apt Package Management
Debian Configuration & Troubleshooting


 RPM Package Management
Yum Package Management


 RPM & Yum Configuration & Troubleshooting
GNU and Unix

Commands

GNU and Unix Commands

In This Lesson:
 The Linux Command Line
 Text Streams & Filters
 File Management
 Process Management
 Searching & Regular Expressions
 The Vi Editor
34
The Linux Command Line

• The shell
• bash or Bourne Again (bsh)
• tcsh
• csh
• ksh or Korn
• zsh or Z

The Linux Command Line (cont’d)

• Commands
• cd - changes the current working directory
• pwd - displays the current directory
• echo - echo writes the text you enter to the screen
– echo $PATH
• exec - runs an external program
• time - tells you how long subsequent commands take to
execute
• set - displays options relating to bash operation
• exit & logout - terminate the shell


• Navigation
• Tab - command completion
• History - stores commands in ~/.bash_history file
• Ctrl+R - backward search
• Ctrl+S - searches forward
• Ctrl+G - terminates a search
• Ctrl+A or Ctrl+E - moves cursor to start or end of line
• Ctrl+B or Ctrl+F (or up & down arrow) moves one character
• Ctrl+D or delete - deletes character at cursor
• Ctrl+K - deletes text from cursor to end
• Ctrl+X - deletes text from cursor to beginning of line
• Ctrl+T - transposes char before cursor with character cursor is on
• Esc and T - transposes two words before or on cursor
35

• Configuration files
• ~/.bashrc
• ~/.profile – user config
• /etc/bash.bashrc
• /etc/profile - global
• Environment variables
• export myvariable=my.newserver.com


• Help - man or man x command, info
• 1- executable programs and shell commands
• 2 - system calls
• 3 - library calls
• 4 - device files
• 5 - file formats
• 6 - games
• 7 - miscellaneous
• 8 - system admin commands
• 9 - kernel routines

Pipes, Streams & Filters

• Pipes - send output of a file to standard input of another
• file1 | file2
• Streams - input and output, sent to and from the computer
• Standard input (stdin)
• Standard output (stdout)
• Standard error (stderr)
• Tee - splits standard input so it display on standard output and
other files you specify. Usually used with pipes, so data can be
stored in a file and immediately viewed onscreen.
• runprog | tee newfile.txt
• The xargs command - builds a command from standards input
(`find *.n` backtick)
• xargs [options] [command [initial-arguments]]
36
Operator Effect
> Creates new file with standard output - if specified file

exists, it‟s overwritten
>> Appends standard output to existing file - if it doesn‟t exist,
it‟s created
2> Creates new file with standard error - if specified file exists,
it‟s overwritten
2>> Appends standard error to existing file - if it doesn‟t exist,
it‟s created
&> Creates new file with both standard output and standard
error – if file exists, it‟s overwritten
< Sends contents of specified file to be used as standard
input
<< Accepts text on the following lines as standard input
<> Specified file will be used as both standard input and
standard output

Pipes, Streams & Filters (cont’d)

• Filtering commands
Text Filter Purpose
cat (tac) Concatenate, links files

• –E or --show-ends - displays line ends, $ at end
of line
• –n or –number - adds line numbers to front of
every line
• –b or --number-nonblank - adds numbers only to
lines that contain text
• –s or --squeeze-blank - compresses blank lines
down to single line
• –T or –show-tabs - displays tab characters as ^I
• –v or --show-nonprinting - displays special
characters using car and M- notation


• Filtering commands
Text Filter Purpose
join Combines two files matching contents of specified

fields
paste Merges files line by line, tab separated
expand Converts tabs to spaces
od Octal dump, displays file as octal numbers
37

•Text Filtercommands
Filtering Purpose
sort Sorts a file

• –f or --ignore case
• –M or --month-sort
• –n or --numeric-sort
• –r or --reverse
• –k field
split Splits a file into 2 or more files
tr Changes characters, tr [options] SET1 [SET2]
unexpand Converts multiple spaces to tabs
uniq Removes duplicate lines
fmt Cleans up file format, –width, -w width options

Text Filter Purpose
nl Line numbering
• –b style or --body-numbering=style
• –h or --header-numbering=style
• –d=code or --section-delimiter=code
• –p or --no-renumber
• –n format or --number-format=format (ln, rn, rz)
• T - non blank lines
• a - all lines
• n - no lines
• pREGEXP


Text Filter Purpose
pr Prints a file
• –d - double space
• –l - line length
• –h - designates header
• –o - left margin
• –f - form feed
• –numcols - includes column by that name
head Allows view first 10 lines of file
• –c num or --bytes=num
• –n num or --lines=num
tail Allows view last 10 lines of a file
• –f or –follow
• --pid=pid
38
Text Filter Purpose
less Reads a file, one screen at a time

cut Extracts portions of lines and displays
• –b list
• –c list
• –f list
wc Produces word, line and byte counts
• --lines
• --words
• --bytes
• --chars(-m)

File Management
• The rules
– Case sensitive
– Filenames - omit *, ?, /, \
– Brackets [] match any character in a set
– dot and double dot - ., .. - current and parent directories
• Commands
– List - ls [options] [files]
– Copy - cp [options] source destination
– Move - mv [options] source destination
– Delete - rm [options] files
– Modify timestamp (or create file) - touch [options] files
– Create directory - mkdir [options] directory-name(s)
– Delete directory - rmdir [options] directory-names(s)

File Management (cont’d)

• tar or tape archiver command
Command Abbreviation Purpose
--create c Creates archive
--concatenate A Appends tar files to archive
--append r Appends non-tar files to
archive
--update u Appends files newer than
archive
--diff or --compare d Compares archive to files on
disk
--list t Lists archive contents
--extractor r --get x Extracts archive files
39

• tar qualifiers command
Qualifier Abbreviation Purpose
--directory dir C Switches to dir before action
--file [host:]file f Uses file on computer host as
the archive file
--listed-incremental g Incremental backup or restore,
file using file as list of previously
archived files
--one-file-system l Backup or restore 1 partition
--multi-volume M Creates or extracts multi-tape
archive
--tape-length N L Changes tapes after N
kilobytes


• tar qualifiers command
Qualifier Abbreviation Purpose

--same-permissions p Preserves protection info
--absolute-paths P Retains leading / on filenames
--verbose v Lists all files read or extracted
--verify W Verifies archive after write
--exclude file none Excludes file from archive
--exclude-from file X Excludes files listed in file
--gzip or --ungzip z Processes archive with gzip
--bzip2 j (I or y) Processes archive with bzip2


• dd - low level copy
• cpio command has 3 modes
– copy-out (-o or --create options) - creates an archive and
copies in the files
– copy-in (-i or --extract) - extracts data from an archive
– Copy-pass (-p or --pass-through) - combines copy-out and
copy-in
CPIO Option Abbreviation Purpose
--reset-access-time a Resets access time after

reading a file
--append A Appends data to existing
archive
40
CPIO Option Abbreviation Purpose
--pattern-file=filename E filename Uses contents of filename as
list of files to be extracted in
copy-in mode
--file=filename F filename Uses filename as cpio archive
file
--format=format H format Uses specified format (bin, crc,
tar)
N/A I filename Uses filename instead of
standard output
--list t Displays table of contents for
input
--unconditional u Replaces files without
verification
--verbose v Displays files as added or
extracted

Process Management
• uname option
Option Purpose
-n or --nodename Displays system‟s node name (hostname)
-s or --kernel-name Displays kernel name
-v or --kernel-version Displays kernel version (build date & time)
-r or --kernel-release Displays kernel version number
-m or --machine Displays info about your machine
-p or --processor Displays info about CPU
-i or --hardware-platform Hardware platform (usually unknown)
-o or --operating system Displays OS name
-a or --all Displays all information

Process Management (cont’d)

• ps cp,,amd - 3 types of options
• Unix98 - single char, grouped, preceded by single dash
• BSD - single char, grouped, no dash
• GNU long - multi-char never grouped, two dashes
Option Purpose
-A or -e Displays all processes on system (x – user)
-u user, U user, --User Displays processes owned by a user
user (username or id)
-f, -l, j, l, u, v Expands info
-H, -f, --forest Groups and indents processes to show
hierarchy
-w, w Displays wide (more than 80 columns)
41

• jobs command
• top - sorts by CPU usage
Option Purpose
-d delay Delays between output updates
-p pid Monitors specific processes (use ps)
-n iter Displays (n) no. updates and quit
-b Batch mode - file instead of screen
h and ? Help
k Kills process (use ps)
q Quits


• top - sorts by CPU usage
Option Purpose
r Changes priority (pid & new number)
s Changes display update rate in seconds
P Sorts by CPU use (default)
M Sorts by memory use


• Foreground and background
• fg vs. bg & (ampersand)
• Ctrl+Z then bg or Ctrl+Z then fg
• Priorities
• nice and renice
• kill –s signal pid
• nohup program options
• sighup or 1- terminates programs
• sigkill or 9 - exits without shutdown tasks
• sigterm or 15 - exits but closes tasks
• killall [options] [--] name […]
42
Searching and Regular Expressions

• Bracket - anything enclosed in brackets is a bracket expression,
c[aei]r would match car cer cir
• Range - lists start and end point separated by a dash, a[1-3]z
• Single char - matches any single character, c.r = car, cbr, cdr
• Start and end - carat ^ is start and $ is end
• Repetition - special symbol that marks how many times a
matching item should exist
• Multiple - vertical bar | separates 2 possible matches
• Parentheses () - marks sub-expressions
• Escaping - to match a special character like a dot, need to
escape with a backslash
• grep [options] regexp [files] - -c or --count, -f file or --
file=file, -i or --ignore-case, -r or --recursive, --extended-regexp

Searching and Regular Expressions (cont’d)

• Sed command - modifies the contents of files and sends the updated
file to standard output
– sed [options] –f script-file [input-file] (sed `s/blue/green‟
colors.txt > newcolors.txt)
– sed [options] script-text [input-file]
Command Address Purpose

= 0 or 1 Displays current line number
a\text 0 or 1 Appends text to file
i\text 0 or 1 Inserts text into file
r filename 0 or 1 Appends text from filename
into file

Searching and Regular Expressions (cont’d)
Command Address Purpose

c\text Range Replaces selected range of
lines with indicated text
s/regexp/replacement Range Replaces text that matches
regexp with replacement
w filename Range Writes current pattern space to
file
q 0 or 1 Quits but prints pattern space
Q 0 or 1 Quits
• tr –d \\r < dosfile.text > unixfile.txt
43
The Vi Editor
• First editor written for Unix
• Small and nimble, perfect for use on an emergency boot disk, or
as a full fledged web development tool
• 3 Modes
– Command - accepts (usually) single letter commands
– Ex or (:) - file manipulation, saving & outside programs
– Insert (R) - enter text
– Esc - exits & returns to command

The Vi Editor (cont’d)

• Navigation keys
– h, j, k, l - left, down, up, right arrow keys
– yank - (like copy) no.linesyy or 2yy
• yx - copies amount specified by x
– dd - yank, deletes and copies to buffer
• dx - deletes amount specified by x)
– p or P - (p) pastes after cursor (P) pastes before cursor
– :wq - saves and quits, q quit, no save
– ~ - changes case
– u - undo
– o - in command mode, opens text, inserts new line below
current and enters insert mode

The Vi Editor (cont’d)

• Navigation keys
– / - in command mode, searches text
– c - changes text from within command mode (cw, cc)
– G - goes to line, H home, L bottom of screen
– %s/original/replacement - replaces string globally
• Save
– :w - save
– :e - edit new file
– :r - include contents of old file in new
– :!ls - list directory
– :q or q! - quit
44
What We Covered

 The Linux Command Line
Text Streams & Filters


 File Management
Process Management


 Searching & Regular Expressions

 The Vi Editor
Linux Filesystems

Linux Filesystems
In This Lesson:
 Creating Partitions and Filesystems
 Tuning Filesystems
 Debugging
 Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems
45
Linux Filesystems
Creating Partitions and Filesystems

• Partitioning a disk
– Fixed disk - fdisk command works on MBR disks
– fdisk nameofdevice
– fdisk /dev/sda - for a primary master SATA disk
• p & l - displays partition table
• n - creates a new partition
• d - deletes a partition
• t - changes partition type code
• l - lists of common type codes
• a – makes the disk bootable
• m – help
• q - exits without saving
• w – writes changes to disk
Linux Filesystems
Creating Partitions and Filesystems (cont’d)

• Preparing partition for use – making or formatting the filesystem
– Ext2fs (ext2) – FAT - Fat Allocation Table

– Ext3fs (ext3) – NTFS - New Technology File System
– Ext4fs (ext4) – HFS & HFS+ - Hierarchical File
– ReiserFS (reiser) System
– JFS (jfs) – ISO-9660 (iso9660)
– XFS (xfs) – Joliet (iso9660)
– Btrfs – UDF - Universal Disk Format
Linux Filesystems

• Creating a filesystem
– mkfs (mk2fs for ext2 and ext3)
• mkfs –t reiserfs /dev/hda5
• Creating a swap partition
– mkswap /dev/hd5
– swapon /dev/hda5
46
Linux Filesystems

• Tuning filesystems
– dumpe2fs [options] device
– xfs_info devicename
– tune2fs [options] device
• Options
– –c - mounts
– –i - adjusts time between checks
– –j - adds a journal
– –m percent - sets reserved blocks (used by root)
– –l & –u - obtains the filesystem‟s label and UUID
(Universally Unique Identifier)
– –L & –U - changes the labels
– xfs_admin
Linux Filesystems

• Debugging
– debugfs devicename
– Commands used
• show_super_stats or stats-displays filesystem superblock
info, similar to dumpe2fs
• undelete inode name - undeletes a file
• write internal-file external-f - extracts a file
• cd, ln, and rm - are all usable (change dir, link, delete)
• list_requests, lr, help or ? - gets help
• quit - exits the program
Linux Filesystems

• Journal - describes pending operations, so prior to writing disk data,
Linux describes what it‟s going to do in a journal
• Linux‟s journaling filesystems are ext3fs, ext4fs, reiserFS, XFS, & JFS
• Checking filesystems
– fsck [–sACVRTNP] [–t fstype] [–] [fsck-options] filesytems
– Options:
• –C - indicates progress
• –V - verbose output
• –N - displays without action
• –t - forces filesystem type
• –a or –p - automatic checks
• –r - interactive check
• –f - forces full filesystem check.
47
Linux Filesystems

• Monitoring disk use
– df [options] [files]
– du [options] [directories]
• Options:
– –a or --all - reports individual files
– –c or --total - adds grand total to end of output
– –h or --human - scales and labels units
– –l or --count-links - counts hard links independently
– --max-depth=n - limits report to n levels
– --summarize – limits report to files & dir specified
– –x or --one-file-system - limits report to current
filesystem
Linux Filesystems
Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems

• Permanent change - in the /etc/fstab file
• mount [alrsvw] [–t fstype] [–o options] [device] [mountpoint]
• Parameters:
• –a - mounts all filesystems listed in /etc/fstab
• –r - mounts read only
• –v - verbose output
• –w - mounts for both read and write operations
• –t fstype - specifies the filesystem type
• –L and –U - mounts with specified label or UUID
• device - device filename associated with the partition or disk
• mountpoint - directory to which device‟s contents should be
attached
Linux Filesystems
Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems (cont’d)

• To add filesystem specific options - –o parameter or the
/etc/fstab file
– Options - review mount man page for more details
• defaults • uid=value
• loop • gid=value
• auto or noauto • umask=value
• user or nouser • dmask=value
• users • fmask=value
• owner • conv=code
• remount • norock
• ro • nojoliet
• rw
48
Linux Filesystems

• Unmounting
– umount [-afnrv] [-t fstype] [device] [ mountpoint]
• –a - mounts all in /etc/tstab
• –f - forces unmount
• –r - if filesystem can‟t be unmounted, remount in read-
only mode
• –t - mounts specified file type – you must specify device
or mountpoint
Linux Filesystems

• Permanent mount - review contents of /etc/fstab
Linux Filesystems
What We Covered

 Creating Partitions and Filesystems
Tuning Filesystems


 Debugging
Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems

49
Managing User
Resources: Quotas and
Permissions

Managing User Resources: Quotas and Permissions

In This Lesson:
 Disk Quotas
 File Permissions and Ownership

Disk Quotas
• What is a Quota?
– Disk space limitations for Linux users and groups
• Installation
– Kernel 2.6.x and higher
– ext2, ext3, ReiserFS, JFS, and XFS
– rpm –qi quota
– yum install quota (as root)
– /etc/fstab (usrquota,grpquota)
• /dev/sda3 /home ext4 usrquota,grpquota 1 1
50
Disk Quotas
• Implement quotas
– quotaon
• Enable quotas
– edquota username (–t - filesystem grace period)
• quotacheck
– scans filesystem, verifies & updates quota info
• quota
– –g - groups
– –l - omit NFS
– –q - over limit
• repquota
– Summarizes info about a specified filesystem (–a for all)

File Permissions and Ownership

• Defining ownership
– Whoever creates a file, owns it
– ls -l
• Change owner
– chown [options] [newowner]:[newgroup] filenames
• –R or --recursive (make change to entire directory tree)
– chown nancy:techdev cfiles.txt
• Change group
– chgrp [options] newgroup filenames

File Permissions and Ownership (cont’d)

• The partnership between ownership and permissions
– owner - user that owns the file
– group - group that owns the file
– others - all other users
Permission Symbol Purpose

Read r Users can open and
view a file
Write w Users can open,
modify, and save a file
Execute x Users can run an
executable file
51

• Permission bits:
– 1st - directory
– 2nd (group of 3) - owner
– 3rd (group of 3) - group
– 4th (group of 3) - others (world)
– Permissions = base 8 number, 3 digits long: owner, group,
other
– Read:4, Write:2, Execute:1 or 4+2, 4+2, 4 = 664


• Permission bits: directory, owner, group, others
Type Code Purpose

- Ordinary data, text, program, graphic, etc.
d Directory
l Symbolic link - contains name of another file or
directory
p Named pipe
S Socket
b Block device
c Character device


Type Code Octal Code Purpose
rwxrwxrwx 777 Read, write & execute
for all users
rwxr-xr-x 755 Read & execute for all
plus write for owner
rwxr-x--- 750 Read and execute for
owner and group,
write for owner
rwx------ 700 Read, write & execute
for owner only
rw-rw-rw- 666 Read and write for all
rw-rw-r-- 664 Read and write for
owner and group, r all
52

Type Code Octal Code Purpose
rw-rw---- 660 Read and write for
owner and group
rw-r--r-- 644 Read and write for
owner, read for group
and others
rw-r----- 640 Read and write for
owner, read only for
group
rw------- 600 Read and write for
owner
r-------- 400 Read for owner


• Special permission bits
– Set user ID (SUID)
• Runs program with permission of owner instead of user
• s in owner execute bit
• rwsr-xr-x
– Set group ID (SGID)
• Sets group of the program to group of the file
• s in group execute bit
• rwxr-sr-x
– Sticky bit
• Directory‟s files can only be deleted by owner or root
• t in other (world) execute bit
• rwxr-xr-t


• Changing permissions
– chmod [options] [mode[,mode…]] filename
– chmod o+x myfile.txt
Perm. Set Code Meaning Change type Code Perm. to Modify Code
u Owner + (Add) r - Read
g Group - (Remove) w - Write
o World = (Equal to) x - Execute
a All X - Executes only if
file is a dir or already
has exe. perm
s - SUID or SGID
53
Perm. Set code Meaning Change type Code Perm. to Modify Code
t - Sticky bit
u - Existing owner‟s
permissions
g - Existing group
permissions
O - Existing world
permissions


• Set default mode and group
– umask
– /etc/profile
– newgrp (change default group -l)
– 022 typical default, example:
Files Directories
Default mode: rw-rw-rw- Default mode: rwxrwxrwx
- umask: ----w--w- - umask: ----w--w-
Result: rw-r-r-- Result: rwxr-xr-x


• Set default mode and group
– umask
– /etc/profile
– newgrp (change default group -l)
Umask Created Files Created Directories

000 666 (rw-rw-rw-) 777 (rwxrwxrwx)
002 664 (rw-rw-r--) 775 (rwxrwxr-x)
022 644 (rw-r--r--) 755 (rwxr-xr-x)
027 640 (rw-r-----) 750 (rwxr-x---)
077 600 (rw-------) 700 (rwx------)
277 400 (r------) 500 (r-x------)
54

• Change file attributes - chattr (-, +, =) filename
• chattr +a myfile.txt
Attribute Abbreviation Purpose

Append only a Disables write access,
except to append data
Compressed c Automatically
compresses data
written to the file and
uncompresses it when
read back
Immutable i Disables write, delete,
rename, or link


• Change file attributes (cont‟d)
Attribute Abbreviation Purpose

Data journaling j Journals data written
to file
Secure deletion s Zeros data blocks
when file is deleted
No tail-merging t Disables merging of
tail file data
No access time A Doesn‟t update access
updates time stamp with file
access

What We Covered

 Disk Quotas

 File Permissions and Ownership


55
Linux Links and System
Files

Linux Links and System Files

In This Lesson:
 Understanding Links
 Linux System Files
 Locating Files

Understanding Links
• What is a link?
– Shortcut or pointer to a target file or location
• Hard links
– Two directory entries that point to the same file (inode)
– To delete the file, must delete both hard links
– Must exist on a single low-level file system (not multiple
partitions, i.e. /root to /home)
• Soft/Symbolic links
– Separate file whose contents point to the linked-to file
– Can point across filesystems
– ls -l will show linked to file
56
Understanding Links (cont’d)

• Creating links
– ln command
• ln [options] source link
– –f or --force - removes existing links
– –i or --interactive - does the same, but queries user
before replacing existing files
– –d, –F, or --directory - attempts to create hard links
to directories
– –s or --symbolic - creates a symbolic link

Linux System Files

• FSSTND (Filesystem Standard)
– Developed in 1994 to create standards
– Standardized /bin & /usr/bin programs, /etc for executables,
/usr read only
• FHS (Filesystem Hierarchy Standard)
– Developed in 1995 as replacement for FSSTND
– Made distinction between shareable & unshareable, static &
variable, program executables & user files
Shareable Unshareable
Static /usr, /opt /etc, /boot
Variable /home, /var/mail /var/run, /var/lock

Linux System Files (cont’d)

• Linux system directories and contents
Directory Contents
/ Root filesystem or directory - all directories branch off of
root
/boot Contains static and unshareable files related to booting
the computer
/bin Contains critical executable files - most common user
commands like ls, cp, mv, etc.
/sbin Similar to bin, but contains programs run by
administrator, fdisk, etc.
/lib Contains program libraries; /lib/modules contains kernel
modules (drivers)
57

Directory Contents
/usr Contains the bulk of systems programs and often splits
to a separate partition; /usr/bin & /usr/lib contains
programs and libraries
/usr/local Contains subdirectories that mirror /usr, like
/usr/local/bin and holds programs admin installs locally
/usr/X11R6 Contains files related to the X, the GUI env
/opt Contains commercial packages
/home Contains user data


Directory Contents
/root Home directory for the root user
/var Contains transient files: log files, print queue, mail
/tmp Holds programs temporary files, sometimes on separate
partition
/mnt For removable media devices: cdrom & floppy
/media Optional, but contains subdirectories for media:
/media/cdrom
/dev Contains device files or hardware interfaces
/proc Virtual filesystem that provides hardware info not
accessible from /dev

Locating Files
• find [path] [expression]
– brute force approach to file location, slower but reliable
Expression Purpose
-name Finds files that match the specified pattern
-perm mode Finds files that have certain permissions
-size n Finds files with a specific size
-gid Searches for files whose GID is indicated
-uid Searches for files owned by indicated user
-maxdepth Searches limited number of subdirectories
58
Locating Files (cont’d)

• whereis - searches by directory
– whereis cp
• which - searches the current path
– which sshd
• type - how command is interpreted: command aliases
– type type
• locate -like find, search initiated from its own database
– locate search-string
• updatedb - updates slocate database
• /etc/updatedb.conf - configuration file for updatedb

What We Covered
 Understanding Links
 Linux System Files
 Locating Files
Preparing for Your

CompTIA Linux+
Certification Exam
(LX0-101)
59
Preparing for Your CompTIA Linux+ Certification Exam
In This Lesson:
 Exam Overview
 Where to Take the Exam
 Retake Policy
 Preparation Tips
 After the Exam

Exam Overview
• Experience
– CompTIA A+, CompTIA Network+ and at least 12 months of
Linux administration experience
– http://www.comptia.org/certifications/testprep/examobjectiv
es.aspx
• LX0-101
Domain % of Examination
101 System Architecture 14%
102 Linux Installation and Package Management 18%
103 GNU and Unix Commands 43%
104 Devices, Linux Filesystems, Filesystem 25%
Hierarchy Standard

Exam Overview
• 60 questions, 90 minutes to complete
– Multiple choice
– Fill-in the blank
• Scoring
– 500 on a scale of 200-800
60
Where to Take the Exam

• Pearson Vue
– http://www.pearsonvue.com
– $150 -$168
• Prometric
– http://www.prometric.com/CompTIA/default.htm

Retake Policy
• 1st retake has no waiting period, but for 3rd and any
subsequent attempts, must wait 14 days.
– If a Candidate has passed an exam, he/she cannot take it
again without prior consent from CompTIA.
– CompTIA beta examinations may only be taken one (1) time
by each candidate.
– A test result found to be in violation of the retake policy will
not be processed, which will result in no credit awarded for
the test taken. Repeat violators will be banned from
participation in the CompTIA Certification Program.

Exam Preparation Tips

• Man and info pages
– man commandname
– info commandname
• Review the lessons
• Practice
• Save tough questions for last
61
After The Exam

• Your Linux+ certificate
– https://www.certmetrics.com/comptia/login.aspx
• Linux Professional Institute Certification (LPIC -1)
– Contacting LPI to obtain
• Novell Certified Linux Administrator (CLA)
– http://practicum.novell.com/LPI2CLAForm.php
• Logos for download

What We Covered
 Exam Overview
 Where to Take the Exam
 Retake Policy
 Preparation Tips
 After the Exam
Introduction to
CompTIA Linux+
Training -
Exam LX0-102
62
Introduction to CompTIA Linux+ Training - Exam LX0-102

• The Linux Shell Environment
• Writing and Editing Scripts
• Linux Databases
• X11 Installation and Configuration
• Display Manager and Accessibility Options
• User and Group Accounts and Files
• Job Scheduling
Introduction to CompTIA Linux+ Training - Exam LX0-102


• Localization and System Time
• Managing System and Kernel Logs
• Email and Printing
• Internet Protocols
• Network Configuration and Troubleshooting
• Security Administration
• Encryption Options
The Linux Shell

Environment

63
The Linux Shell Environment
In This Lesson:
 Environment Variables
 Shell Configuration Files
 Aliases

Environment Variables
• Used to pass data to shell programs
• Always in uppercase
• Preceded by $
Environment Variable Purpose
USER or USERNAME Holds current username
SHELL Holds path to current command shell
PWD Holds present working directory
HOSTNAME Holds system hostname
PATH Holds a list of directories to be searched
when running command from shell prompt
HOME Holds path to current user‟s home
directory

Environment Variables (cont’d)
Environment Variable Purpose

MAIL Holds path to current user‟s mail spool;
/var/spool/mail/username
LANG Holds language, specified as locale
LD_LIBRARY_PATH Indicates where library files can be found
PS1 Holds default prompt; \u - username, \h
hostname, \W - current working directory
NNTPSERVER Specifies name of news server system
TERM Holds name of terminal type
DISPLAY Specifies X display, :0,0
EDITOR Specifies default text editor
64
Environment Variables (cont’d)

• Environment variables
– env - at the command line
– echo $VAR
– echo $HOME
– echo $PATH
– echo $HOSTNAME
– echo $PS1
• Setting environment variables
– manually: variable=value
• PATH=/var/opt/myprog
• export PATH
• export PATH=/var/opt/myprog

Shell Configuration Files

• Permanent changes
– Using bash startup scripts
– /etc/skel (skeleton files) - files copied to users home
directories at account creation
– Logout script - ~/.bash_logout
– Keyboard configuration - ~/.inputrc
File Type Login File Non-Login File

Global /etc/profile & /etc/bashrc or
/etc/profile.d /etc/bash.bashrc
User (local) ~/.bash_login, ~/.bashrc
~/.profile, or
~/.bash_profile

Aliases
• What are aliases?
– Shortcut to a different file or command
• alias
• alias alias_name=„commands‟
65
What We Covered

 Environment Variables

 Shell Configuration Files

 Aliases
Writing and Editing

Scripts

Writing and Editing Scripts

In This Lesson:
 Shell Script Components
 Shell Script Commands
 Conditional Expressions
66
Shell Script Components

• script - text file containing commands to be executed by shell
• #!/bin/bash or sh – referred to as shebang, hashbang,
hashpling or pound bang

Shell Script Components (cont’d)

• Executable
• bash newscript
• chmod a+x newscript
– Path for scripts
• /usr/local/bin
– Sample script:
#!/bin/bash
echo “I Love Linux”
date
– Launching programs with a script
• /usr/bin/mail &

Shell Script Commands

• File manipulation commands
• ls, mv, cp
• grep - locates files that contain strings
• find - searches based on filenames, ownership, etc
• cut - extracts text files from a file
• mail - send email from within a script
– Variables (parameters)
• placeholder in a script, for value when script runs
• $, 0-9, $0=name of script, $1=first parameter, $2=2nd, etc.
– Test script with copy command and variables:
#!/bin/sh
cp $1 $2
67
Conditional Expressions
• Couple of rules
– When you assign a value to a variable from the output of a
command, enclose in ` (backticks)
– Variable names should be preceded by a $
– #!/bin/bash or sh – referred to as shebang, hashbang,
hashpling or pound bang
– Make the script executable with
chmod
– Place script in a directory on the path

Conditional Expressions (cont’d)

• Enables a script to perform action based on a condition
– if/then - executes based on true/false condition
• if condition
then
command
fi
– if/then/else
• if condition
then
command
else
command
fi


• Enables a script to perform action based on a condition
– case statement - condition evaluated in many different ways
case variable in
pattern1 command(s) ;;
pattern2 commands(s) ;;
esac
– Loop - performs same action until condition met
• for x in „condition‟; do command done
– seq - generates list of numbers from 1st argument to
last
– for x in „seq 1 5‟
• while [condition] do commands done
• until - continues looping until condition is true
68

– Function () - part of a script that performs a sub-task, and
can be called by name from other parts of the script
• newfunction() {
commands
}
– Example:
#!/bin/bash
function hello() {
echo Howdy!
}
hello

What We Covered
 Shell Script Components
 Shell Script Commands
 Conditional Expressions
Linux Databases

69
Linux Databases
In This Lesson:
 SQL Overview
 MySQL - Databases and Tables
 MySQL - Storing Data
 MySQL - Retrieving Data
 MySQL - Deleting Data
Linux Databases
SQL Overview
• Structured Query Language - SQL
• Language used to retrieve data from databases
• SQL Products
• MySQL - included in most Linux distributions
– yum install mysql mysql-server
– /etc/init.d/mysqld start
– mysql_secure_installation
• PostgreSQL - derivative of the Ingres software
• SQLite - a library, not a database
Linux Databases
SQL Overview (cont’d)

• Relational databases defined
• Stores data in a table
• Row aka tuple = object
• Column aka attribute or field
Transportation:
Car Blue Toyota

Motorcycle Silver Harley
Moped Yellow Mopedcorp
Bicycle Red Schwinn
70
Linux Databases

• Data Types
Data Type Purpose

INTEGER (INT) Stores whole number, 4-bytes long from
-2147483648 to 2147483647
SMALLINT Stores whole number, 2-byte integer
DECIMAL Fixed storage of decimal values (no
rounding)
NUMERIC Fixed storage of decimal values
FLOAT Floating point number (rounded)
DOUBLE PRECISION Floating point number stored with twice
the precision of FLOAT
Linux Databases

Data Type Purpose
DATETIME Date and time in YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
format
DATE Date in YYYY-MM-DD format
TIME Time in HH:MM:SS format, time of day or
period of time
CHAR One or more characters
VARCHAR Variable number of characters or string;
can hold 1-255 characters
ENUM Enumerated list like small, medium or
large
SET Data that may have zero or more values
Linux Databases
MySQL - Databases and Tables

• Launching
• mysql – at command prompt
• /help
• Display databases
• SHOW DATABASES;
• Create databases and tables
• CREATE DATABASE dbname;
• USE dbname;
• SHOW TABLES - displays existing tables
• DESCRIBE tablename - shows the fields
• CREATE TABLE tablename;
– create table employees (name varchar(50), hiredate
date, department varchar (30), salary decimal(10,2));
71
Linux Databases
MySQL - Storing Data

• Storing data
• INSERT INTO tablename;
– VALUES(„value1‟, „value2‟, „value3, …);
– INSERT INTO employees VALUES(„value1‟, „value2‟,
„value3‟);
• UPDATE tablename;
Linux Databases
MySQL - Retrieving Data

• SELECT fields(s) FROM table [WHERE conditions] [ORDER BY
field]
– Conditions: =, <, > (letters and numbers), AND & OR, *
– group by (SUM) and order by
– select salary from employees where name=„John Smith‟;
– select salary from employees;
– select name and salary from employees;
– select salary from employees here salary>70000;
• Combining data from multiple tables
– Primary key
– create 2nd table, use select or join
Linux Databases
MySQL - Deleting Data

• DELETE FROM tablename WHERE conditions;
– DELETE FROM employees WHERE x=„field‟;
• DELETE * from tablename; - removes data
• DROP TABLE tablename; - removes table
72
Linux Databases
What We Covered

 SQL Overview

 MySQL - Database & Tables

 MySQL - Storing Data

 MySQL - Retrieving Data

 MySQL - Deleting Data
X11 Installation and

Configuration

X11 Installation and Configuration

In This Lesson:
 Understanding the Linux GUI
 X Configuration Tools
 Configuring X
 X Font Configuration
73
Understanding the Linux GUI

• X - Linux‟s graphical user interface or GUI
• Linux‟s GUI environment
– X Server implementations - responsible for drawing windows on
the screen; handles mouse and keyboard
• XFree86 (4.x) - early system, rare
• X.org.X11 - most common
• Accelerated-X – rare, made by Xi Graphics
– Window Manager
– GUI toolkit - creates X window applications
• GTK+ and Qt
– Desktop environment
• GNOME
• K Desktop Environment (KDE)

X Configuration Tools
• X server tools
• XFree86 –configure
• Xorg –configure
• Queries hardware and produces configuration files:
– /root/XF86Config.new
– /root/xorg.conf.new
• Distribution tools
– Fedora - Display Settings tool
• system-config-display
• xf86cfg (4.x) or xorgcfg - deprecated
• XFree86 3.x - required by video card
– xf86config, Xconfigurator, XF86Setup

Configuring X
• X configuration files
– X.org-X11
• xorg.conf
– Stored in /etc or /etc/X11
– XFree86 4.x
• XF86Config-4
– Stored in /etc/X11
• XF86Config
– Stored in /etc or /etc/X11
– XFree86 3.x
• XF86Config
– Stored in /etc r /etc/X11
74
Configuring X (cont’d)
• Configuration file format
– Sections for each feature
Section “InputDevice”
Identifier “Mouse0”
Driver “…”
Options…
EndSection
• Runlevels
– telinit 3 (Fedora)
– Shut down guid - /etc/init.d/gdm (or xdm) stop
– Start X again – startx
• X server supports configuration directories /etc/X11/xorg.conf.d
and /usr/share/X11/xorg.conf.d

• Configuration file sections
– Modules - loads X server modules or drivers
• Section “Module”, load
– Keyboard
• Section “InputDevice”, driver & options
– Mouse
– Monitor
• Section “Monitor”, modelname, horiz & vert sync, refresh,
modelines
– Video Card
• Section “Device”, driver, vendor, ram
• Section “Screen”, device, monitor, depth, display

• Server layout section
– Section “ServerLayout”
Identifier
Screen
InputDevice
InputDevice
EndSection
– xdypinfo
• Information about current display (X, color, resolution)
– xwininfo
• Technical information about windows
75
X Font Configuration
• Configured through X or a font server which delivers fonts using
network protocols
• Font types:
– Bitmap - pixels are either active or inactive
– Outline or scalable fonts - each character is represented as
series of lines and curves
• Adobe PostScript Type 1
• TrueType
• X core fonts
– Require font directory
– Require to add font directory to X‟s font path

X Font Configuration (cont’d)

• Font directory
– Typical storage: /usr/share/fonts or /usr/share/X11/fonts
– Downloading own fonts: /opt/fonts or /usr/local/fonts
• File types
– Adobe PostScript Type 1 - .pfa or .pfb
– TrueType - .ttf
• Font summary file
– mkfontscale - reads all the fonts in the current directory and
creates a file called fonts.scale
– mkfontdr - combines fonts.scale with fonts.dir


• Programs
– ttmkfdir - true type
– type1inst - type 1
• Modifying the path
– Edit the files section of XF86Config or xorg.conf
• Section “Files”
• FontPath “/usr/local/fonts”
76

• Testing the changes
– Shutdwown and restart X
• xset fp+ /usr/local/fonts
• xset fp rehash
• xfontsel
• Configuring the font server
– Edit font path to point to server
• Xft fonts
– Edit /etc/fonts/local.conf to add new directory
– Run fc-cache as root to create index files

What We Covered
 Understanding the Linux GUI
 X Configuration Tools
 Configuring X
 X Font Configuration
Display Manager and

Accessibility Options

77
Display Manager and Accessibility Options
In This Lesson:
 The X Login System
 XDMCP Server Configuration
 X and Remote Access
 Accessibility Options

The X Login System

• GUI vs. text logins
– GUI typically used for users, text logins for servers
• X GUI login - X Display Manager Control Protocol (XDMCP)
• X display manager (XDM)
• GNOME display manager (GDM)
• KDE display manager (KDM)
– Launch from /etc/inittab or SysV startup script
• /etc/sysconfig/desktop (Fedora)
• SysV: gdm, kdm, xdm script (Ubuntu)

XDMCP Server Configuration

• XDM server configuration files
– /etc/X11/xdm/xdm-config
– /etc/X11/xdm/Xaccess
– /etc/X11/xdm/Xresources
• KDM server configuration files
– /etc/X11/kdm or /etc/kde/kdm
– [Xdmcp] enable true for network logins
• GDM server configuration files
– /etc/X11/gdm (gdm.conf)
– [xdmcp] yes for network logins
78
X and Remote Access

• Understanding X clients and servers
– Server runs on a computer, clients are programs
– Remote connections server runs on computer and clients run
on a remote system
• The connection
– Login to client and open terminal
– xhost + servername
– Login to server (using secure protocol like ssh)
– On server type: export DISPLAY=client:0.0
– Run progams
– Logoff: xhost -servername

Accessibility Options
• Keyboard and mouse
– Repeat rate
– Sticky keys
– Slow keys
– Bounce/debounce
– Mouse tracking and click
– Simulated mouse clicks
– Mouse emulation/navigation
– Mouse gestures
– gnome onscreen keyboard (gok)

Accessibility Options (cont’d)

• On-Screen Keyboard
– Accessibility
– On-Screen Keyboard
– gok command activates the GUI program
• Screen Setting
– Default fonts
– Contrast
• Speaking
– Orca
– Emacspeak
• Braille Display
– BRLTTY
– Linux kernel 2.6.26
79
What We Covered

 The X Login System

 XDMCP Server Configuration

 X and Remote Access

 Accessibility Options
User and Group

Accounts and Files

User and Group Accounts and Files

In This Lesson:
 Introduction to Linux Users and Groups
 Creating User Accounts
 Changing User Accounts
 Creating Groups
 Changing Groups
80
Creating User Accounts

• Linux Authentication
– Username and password
– Biometrics
• Username scheme rules
– Passwords
• Case sensitive, ex. vhenry vs. Vhenry
– Usernames
• Must begin with a letter
• Upper & lower case
• Symbols, no spaces
• Userids
– stored in /etc/passwd

Creating User Accounts (cont’d)

• Adding users
– useradd options username
Option Purpose
–c comment Sets comments - phone, name, etc.
–d home-dir Specifies home directory, default is
/home/username
–e expire-date Sets account disable date YYYY-MM-DD
–f inactive-days Sets number of days before account
becomes completely disabled
-g default-group Sets name or GID of user‟s default group
-G group[…] Sets name or GID of one or more groups
user belongs to

Creating User Accounts (cont’d)

Option Purpose
–m (default option) (–k Creates user home directory with files
skeleton-dir) from/etc/skel
–p encrypted-password Passes pre-encrypted password to system,
useful in scripts
–s shell Sets user‟s default login shell; bin/bash is
default
–u UID Sets up account with specified UID - 500 &
up; –o allows reuse
–r Creates a system account; No home
directory & /etc/login.defs
–n Disables group creation with same name
as user (Red Hat)
81
Changing User Accounts

• Setting passwords
– passwd options username
Options Purpose
–k Updates an expired account
–l Locks account; ! added to password
–u Unlocks account; Removes !
–f Forces creation with no password
–d Removes password
–S Displays password info

Changing User Accounts (cont’d)

• Changing other options associated with user accounts
– usermod options username (user shouldn‟t be logged in)
Options Purpose
–m When used with –d, moves users home
directory files
–l Changes user‟s login name
–L & –U Locks or unlocks user password


• Changing account expiration options
– chage options username
Options Purpose
–l Displays account expiration info for a user
–m mindays Sets minimum number of days between
password changes
0=multiple times a day
1=once/day
2=every 2 days
–M maxdays Sets maximum number of days between
password changes
82

• Changing account expiration options
Options Purpose
–d lastday Sets last day a password was changed
–I inactivedays Sets number of days between expiration
and disable
–E expiredate Sets expiration date YYYY/MM/DD
–W warndays Sets number of days before expiration that
system will warn user


• Modifying changes directly via /etc/passwd file
– tommy:x:505:100:Thomas Smith:/home/tsmith:/bin/bash
– Fields:
• Username
• Password (shadow password indicated by x)
• UID
• GID
• Comment
• Home directory
• Default shell


• /etc/shadow
– tommy:encryptedpwd:15010:0:-1:7:-1:-1
– Username
– Password
– Last password change
– Days until a change is allowed
– Days before change required
– Warning day before expiration
– Days between expiration and deactivation
– Expiration
– Special flag
83

• Deleting users
– userdel options username
Option Purpose
–r or --remove Removes all files from user‟s home
directory and mail spool
–f or --force Forces deletion while user logged in
–h or --help Lists of all userdel options

Creating Groups
• groupadd options groupname
Option Purpose
–g GID Specifies a group id (–o to share)
–r Creates GID less than 500
–f Forces creation of a group with existing
name

Changing Groups
• groupmod
– groupmod options groupname
• Options
– –g GID, –n newgroupname
– Use usermod to add user to group
• usermod –G developers ajones
84
Changing Groups (cont’d)

• Setting password and assigning group administrators
– gpasswd options group
Option Purpose
–a user Adds user to group
–d user Removes user from group
–R Disallows new members with newgrp
–A user Specifies group administrators
–M user Adds users to list of group members

Changing Groups (cont’d)

• Removing groups
– groupdel groupname
– /etc/group

What We Covered

 Introduction to Linux Users and Groups

 Creating User Accounts

 Changing User Accounts

 Creating Groups

 Changing Groups
85
Job Scheduling

Job Scheduling
In This Lesson:
 Cron Job Overview
 Creating Cron Jobs
 The Anacron Tool
 The At Command
Job Scheduling
Cron Job Overview

• The cron program is a daemon
– checks files every minute
• /var/spool/cron
• /etc/cron.d
• /etc/crontab
• /etc/cron.hourly, daily, weekly, monthly
• System cron - created by root and used to perform system
maintenance
– Syntax:
• time accountname command
86
Job Scheduling
Cron Job Overview (cont’d)

• Fields:
– 1st 5 - time: minute (0-59), hour (0-23),
day of the month (1-31), month (1-12),
day of the week (0-7, 0&7=Sun)
• *, all wildcard
• Comma list represents any of values
• Dash indicates a range
• /=stepped values or /10=ever 10 minutes
– Account name
– Command to run
Job Scheduling
Creating User Cron Jobs

• Crontab utility
– crontab options file
– –u - user
– –l - displays current cron job
– –r - removes current cron job
– –e - edits current cron job
– Create configuration file and pass filename to crontab with
file parameter
• crontab –u username filename
– crontab –u tsmith my-cron
• variable=value
Job Scheduling
Creating User Cron Jobs (cont’d)

– User cron jobs are stored in these directories:
• /var/spool/cron
• /var/spool/cron/tabs
• /var/spool/cron/crontabs
– Controlling access to cron
• Restrictions: executable permissions
• Use files to allow or disallow access:
– /etc/cron.allow
– /etc/cron.deny
87
Job Scheduling
The Anacron Tool

• Anacron
– Keeps a record of programs it should execute and how often
– Launched via startup script
• Anacron‟s configuration file is /etc/anacrontab
– Comment lines
– Environment variables
– Job definitions:
• Period - program run frequency in day
• Delay - delay between anacron start and program run
• Identifier - string that identifies the command
• Command - command to be run
Job Scheduling
The At Command
• The at - runs a single command at some point in the future
– at timeofday
• atd daemon must be running to use the at, stored in /etc/init.d
or /etc/rc.d/init.d
– Time of day HH:MM (noon, midnight, teatime-4:00pm)
– Day (if more than 24 hrs in advance) MMDDYY or DD.MM.YY
– Now +specified period in future
• atq - lists pending at jobs
• atrm - removes an at job from the queue
• batch - executes jobs when system load drops below 0.8
• Control access with files:
– /etc/at.allow
– /etc/at.deny
Job Scheduling
What We Covered

 Cron Job Overview

 Creating Cron Jobs

 The Anacron Tool

 The At Command
88
Localization and System
Time

Localization and System Time

In This Lesson:
 Time Zone Settings
 Understanding Locales
 Linux System Time
 Network Time Protocol Configuration

Time Zone Settings

• Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) - Greenwich, England time
• To translate between UTC and your actual local time, Linux uses
the /etc/localtime file
• Date
– Friday Dec 31 10:05:55 EDT 2010
• Changing your timezone
– /usr/share/zoneinfo - view subdirectories, US, etc.
– Delete existing localtime file in /etc directory
– Create symbolic link to a new localtime file
• ls –s /usr/share/zoneinfo/US/Los_Angeles
– Type date to view change
89
Understanding Locales
• A locale specifies language, country info
– language=territory.codeset@modifier
• language = en, sp, fr, etc.
• territory = US, SP, JP, etc.
• codeset = ASCII, ISO-8859, UTF8
• modifier = locale specific code
– locale command displays settings; -a shows all available
• Temporary change: set LC_ALL and LANG env variables
• export LANG=code.encoding
• export LC_ALL=code.encoding
• Permanent change, edit: ~/.bashrc or /etc/profile
• LANG=C

Understanding Locales (cont’d)

• Converting between character sets
– iconv –f encoding –t encoding inputfile
• –f - source encoding
• –t - destination encoding
• --list - lists all encodings

Linux System Time

• System clocks
– Hardware clock - which maintains computer time
– Software clock - which is set from the hardware clock when
the system boots
• Setting the software clock manually
– date [–u|--utc|--universal] [MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss]]
• No options - displays current date
• Passing a time - sets software clock in 24 hour format
– December 1, 2010 at 10:00am = date 1201100010
• -u, --utc, --universal - sets UTC time
90
Linux System Time (cont’d)

• Synchronizing hardware and system clocks
• BIOS
• hwclock options
Option Purpose
-r or --show displays hardware clock
--set and --date=newdate sets hardware clock
--systohc sets hardware clock to software
clock
--hctosys sets software clock to hardware
clock
--utc treats hw clock as storing UTC

Network Time Protocol Configuration

• Network Time Protocol (NTP)
– stratums, 0 - infinite, top level atomic clocks
• Locating a time source
– ISP
– Distribution NTP server lists
– Public NTP server pools
– Public server lists

Network Time Protocol Configuration (cont’d)

• One system functions as NTP server
– ntp, xntp, ntpd, or xntpd
– Configuration file
• /etc/ntp.conf
– server clock.example.com
– server ntp.pangaea.edu
– server time.luna.edu
– Confirm changes with /etc/init.d restart
91

– Checking the status of ntp
• ntpq
– -p - displays server listing
– refid - shows the server to which each system is
synchronized
– st - shows the stratum
– * - denotes your system‟s synch machine
– + - indicates good times
– x - denotes discarded servers


• Configure clients to point to ntp server, not outside time server
• Restrict clients from acting as server
– iptables firewall rule
– Restrict default ignore in ntp.conf
– Restart daemon after any updates with /etc/init.d/ntpd
restart
– Verify changes with ntpq to
• Performing one time clock setting
– ntpdate hostname or ip address of ntp server
– ntp myclock.test.com
– ntpd -g

What We Covered
 Time Zone Settings
 Understanding Locales
 Linux System Time
 Network Time Protocol Configuration
92
Managing System and
Kernel Logs

Managing System and Kernel Logs

In This Lesson:
 The Syslog Daemon
 Manual Logging
 Log File Rotation
 Reviewing Log Files

The Syslog Daemon

• System logger (syslogd) - provides a centralized method to
handle log files
– Installed from sysklogd
– Works with klogd which handles kernel log messages
• System logger location
– /etc/syslog.conf (rsyslog.conf for Fedora)
• facility.priority action (facility and priority = selector)
– facility - type of program
– priority - code for the importance
– action - location of stored message
93
The Syslog Daemon (cont’d)

• facility options:
– auth authpriv, corn, daemon, kern, lpr, mail, mark, news,
security, syslog, user, uucp and local10 - local17
• priority options:
– debug, info, notice, warning, warn, error, err, crit, alert,
emerg, panic
• action options:
– Usually a filename in /var/log (messages, syslog, secure),
other options: console, remote pc, users - * = all

Manual Logging
• Tool that manually creates log files
– logger options message
Option Purpose
–i Records the process ID (PID)
–s Echoes data to standard error in addition to log file
–d Uses datagram rather than stream connection to
logger socket
–f file Logs contents of a file
–p pri Sets a priority
–t Removes logger tag in filenames
–u Logs directly to a network socket

Log File Rotation

• Meant to control log file size
– logrotate
• /etc/logrotate.conf
94
Log File Rotation (cont’d)

• logrotate.d files
– Example
/var/log/btmp {
missingok
monthly
create 0660 root utmp
rotate 1
}

Log File Rotation (cont’d)

– Options:
• dateext - uses datecode
• compresscmd - for different compression
• create - for new log file
• time - for interval
• size - sets maximum file size
• x - sets old copies to be maintained
• mail - sets where to email
• nomail - says not to send any email
• prerotate and postrotate - specify scripts to be run (end
with endscripts)

Reviewing Log Files

• Tools to review log files
– pager (less)
– grep - to search for a string
– head and tail - used to view 1st 10 and last 10 lines of a file
– tail –f - echo lines on the screen as they are added
– Logcheck (Sentry)
95
What We Covered

 The Syslog Daemon

 Manual Logging

 Log File Rotation

 Reviewing Log Files
Email and Printing

Email and Printing

In This Lesson:
 Email Basics
 Email Software
 Managing Your Email
 Email Security
 Printing Basics
 Common Unix Printing System
 Managing The Print Queue
96
Email and Printing
Email Basics
• Protocol - a communications scheme, essentially a program that
allows dissimilar systems to communicate
• Email protocols
– Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• SMTP servers aka Mail Transfer Agents (MTA)
– Post Office Protocol (POP)
– Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
– /var/spool/mail
– Mail User Agents (MUA)
• Email client
Email and Printing

Email Software
• 4 popular email servers:
– Sendmail
– Postfix
– Exim
– Qmail
• Additional software:
– Cyrus IMAP, Dovecot - pull mail servers
– Fetchmail - pulls mail with POP or IMAP and injects it into a
local SMTP mail queue
– Evolution, Kmail, Pine, and Mutt - mail readers (clients)
Email and Printing

Managing Your Email

• Send and receive
– mail program (command line utility)
• send: mail –v –s subject –c cc-address –b bcc-address to
• read: mail –v –f name –u user
• –a - inserts arbitrary header
– nail – alternative
• –a - attaches a file
Option Purpose
–v Produces more verbose output
–s subject Specifies a subject
–c, –b Specifies carbon and blind copy
–f Reads mail; –u read mail of user)
97
Email and Printing
Managing Your Email (cont’d)

• mailq - main email que manangement program
– sendmail -bp
– sendmail -q
– Postmail (postqueue) Exim(runq)
• Alias - can allow one address to accept mail for another
– /etc or /etc/mail
• name: addr1,addr2,…
• newaliases
• ~/.forward
Email and Printing

Email Security
• Bugs - flaws in the program code that can be exploited by
attackers and used to compromise your system
• Configuration errors - related to the administrator
– open relay - relays messages from any computer to another
Email and Printing

Printing Basics
• Linux and postscript printing
– postscript - default printing standard
– ghostscript - converts to printer friendly format
– /etc/rc.d
– /etc/init.d
– /etc/rc?.d
– Search for configuration files with grep command
98
Email and Printing
Common Unix Printing System

• Common Unix Printing System (CUPS)
– cupsd
– /etc/cups
– /etc/cups/cupsd.conf
• <DefaultPrinter printername>
• Postscript printer definition files (/etc/cups/ppd)
– Directive order – deny and allow
– Default policy options
– Browsing control and access control
– Enable browsing
– Browsing access control
Email and Printing

Common Unix Printing System (cont’d)

• Web based utility
– Internet Printing Protocol (IPP) - printer list exchange
– http://localhost:631
Email and Printing

Managing The Print Queue

• Server Message Block (SMB) / Common Internet File System (CIFS)
– smb://username:password@server/share
• Line Printer Daemon (LPD) protocol
– lpd://hostname/queue
• lpr - submits a print job
– –Pqueuename, –r, –h, –J (–C & –T)
– –m username, –#
– mpage (size reduction)
• lprm - removes a print job
• lpq - displays the print queue
99
Email and Printing
What We Covered

 Email Basics

 Email Software

 Managing Your Email

 Email Security

 Printing Basics

 Common Unix Printing System

 Managing The Print Queue
Internet Protocols

Internet Protocols
In This Lesson:
 Networking and TCP/IP
 TCP/IP Protocol Types
 IP Addressing
 Network Hostnames
 Network Ports
100
Internet Protocols
Networking and TCP/IP

• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) - type of
network stack; components of a network
• Network hardware
– Network cards, motherboard integration, external interfaces
– Ethernet
• 10Base-T
• 100Base-T
• 1000mbps or gigabit ethernet
– Token Ring, LocalTalk, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),
High Performance Parallel Interface (HIPPI), etc.
Internet Protocols
Networking and TCP/IP (cont’d)

– Wireless networking (Wi-Fi)
• 802.11a - max speed 54 Mbps
• 802.11b - max speed 11 Mbps
• 802.11g - max speed 54 Mbps
• 802.11n - max speed 300 Mbps
– Cabling - cat-5 or cat-5e
– Hubs - half duplex
– Switches - full duplex
– Wireless router - used by Wi-Fi
• Packets - chunks of data (frame in Ethernet)
Internet Protocols
Networking and TCP/IP (cont’d)

• Protocol stacks - software that encodes and sends data
– TCP/IP, NetBEUI, AppleTalk, IPX/SPX
Client Server
TCP/IP Stack
Application Application
Transport Transport
Internet/ Internet/
Network Network
Data Link Data Link
Reply
Request
101
Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Protocol Types

• Internet Protocol (IP)
– Network layer protocol (layer 2), best effort packet transfer
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
– Network layer protocol (layer 2), commonly used to send
error messages
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
– Transport layer protocol (layer 3), fast with no delivery
guarantees
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
– Transport layer protocol (layer 3), full error checking and
correction
Internet Protocols
IP Addressing
• Network addresses - 6 bytes in length (hex), separated by colons
– Hardware address (Media Access Control (MAC) address)
• ifconfig ethn - discover hardware address
• eth0 Link encap: Ethernet Hwaddr 00:A0:CC:24:BA:02
• IPv4 addresses - 4 bytes in length
– Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) converts between IP &
MAC address
– 4 base-10 numbers (0-255) ex. 192.168.1.1
• IPv6 – 16 bytes in length (hex), separated by colons
– Upgrade to IPv4 - includes more security and more addresses
– Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP)
– 8 groups of 4 digit hex numbers
• fe80:0:0:0:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf
Internet Protocols
IP Addressing (cont’d)
• Network mask (subnet mask or netmask)
– Identifies portion of IP address that a network address and
part that is a computer address, using binary 1 for network
and 0 for computer - 255 or 0 values, 255=network,
0=computer
– Ex. 255.255.255.0 = 1st 3 octets network add, last is node
– Represented by number of network bits in address:
192.168.1.1/24 = netmask 255.255.255.0
102
Internet Protocols
IP Addressing (cont’d)
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) form
• Broadcast - sent to all computers on network
Class Address Range Reserved Address

A 1.0.0.0-127.255.255.255 10.0.0.0-10.255.255.255
B 128.0.0.0-191.255.255.255 172.16.0.0-
172.31.255.255
C 192.0.0.0-223.255.255.255 192.168.0.0-
192.168.255.255
D 224.0.0.0-239.255.255.255 none
E 240.0.0.0-255.255.255.255 none
Internet Protocols
Network Hostnames
• Hostname - name of a computer
– Two parts - machine name and domain name
– TCP/IP can link computer names to IP addresses
• Resolving hostnames
– Domain Name System (DNS) - a database of computers that
converts between IP addresses and hostnames
• Manual DNS lookup
– nslookup - deprecated
– host - nslookup replacement
– dig - more complex lookup
– whois – general domain information, –H - omits legal
disclaimers
Internet Protocols
Network Hostnames (cont’d)

• /etc/hosts - simpler than DNS but only local
– Edit /etc/nsswitch.conf to change lookup order from DNS to
file or vice versa
– Modify the hosts line
• /etc/networks - applies to network addresses (name followed by
IP)
103
Internet Protocols
Network Ports
• Network ports are program addresses (like web browser)
– servers tie to ports at startup
Port TCP or UDP Purpose Example Server

20 TCP File Transfer Protocol ProFTPd, vsftpd
(FTP) data
21 TCP FTP ProFTPd, vsftpd
22 TCP Secure Shell (SSH) OpenSSH, Dropbear
23 TCP Telnet in.telnetd
25 TCP Simple Mail Transfer Sendmail, Postfix,
Protocol (SMTP) Exim, qmail
Internet Protocols
Network Ports (cont’d)

53 TCP and UDP Domain Name System Berkeley Internet

(DNS) Name Domain (BIND)
djbdns
67 UDP Dynamic Host Internet Software

Configuration Protocol Consortium (ISC)
(DHCP) DHCP
80 TCP Hypertext Transfer Apache, Roxen, thttpd

Protocol (HTTP)
Internet Protocols

111 TCP and UDP Portmapper NFS, NIS, RPC
services
113 TCP auth/ident identd
119 TCP Network News InterNetNews (INN),
Transfer Protocol Diablo, Leafnode
(NTTP)
139 TCP NetBIOS Session (Win Samba
sharing)
143 TCP Internet Mail Access Dovecot, Cyrus IMAP,
Protocol (IMAP) UW-IMAP
104
Internet Protocols

161 UDP Simple Network Mgmt Net-SNMP
Protocol (SNMP)
177 UDP XDMCP XDM, KDM, GDM
389 TCP LDAP OpenLDAP
443 TCP HTTP over SSL Apache, Roxen
(HTTPS)
445 TCP Microsoft Directory Samba
Services (DS)
465 TCP SMTP over SSL; or Sendmail, Postfix,
URL Rendezvous Exim, qmail or
Directory (URD) network routers
Internet Protocols

631 TCP Internet Printing CUPS
Protocol
993 TCP IMAP over SSL Dovecot, Cyrus IMAP,
UW-IMAP
995 TCP POP-3 over SSL Dovecot, Cyrus IMAP,
UW-IMAP
5900+ TCP Remote Framebuffer VNC, OpenVNC,
(RFB) TightVNC
6000- TCP X Window System X.org-X11, XFree86
6007
Internet Protocols
What We Covered

 Networking and TCP/IP

 TCP/IP Protocol Types

 IP Addressing

 Network Hostnames

 Network Ports
105
Network Configuration
and Troubleshooting

Network Configuration and Troubleshooting

In This Lesson:
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
 Configuring Static IP Addresses
 Configuring Routing
 Configuring Devices and Hostnames
 Troubleshooting Overview

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

• DHCP allows one computer on the network to manage settings
for others
– Computer sends broadcast, searching for DHCP server
– Server replies using clients MAC address with config
information: IP, netmask, gateway, DNS server address
– DHCP lease
• DHCP clients:
– pump
– dhclient
– dhcpcd
• Startup script: /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0
– BOOTPROTO=dhcp
– /etc/network/interfaces on Debian (iface eth0 inet dhcp)
106
Configuring Static IP Addresses

• Manually configuring static IP addresses
– Using command line
– Using configuration files:
• /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0
• /etc/network/interfaces
• Required settings:
– IP address - set via the ipaddr line
– Netmask - set with the netmask line
– Gateway address - set with the gateway line
– DNS - set in the /etc/resolv.conf file using the keyword
nameserver followed by ip address

Configuring Static IP Addresses (cont’d)

• Configuring and displaying IP address and netmask
– For local networks
• ifconfig interface up address netmask mask
– For outside networks (ex. routing traffic to the Internet)
• route add default gw ipaddress

Configuring Routing
• Creating a route entry
– route [add |del] [-net | -host] target [netmask nm] [gw gw]
[reject] [[dev] interface]
• Enable routing
– echo “1” > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
– Permanent change
• Edit /etc/sysctl.conf to include: net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1
• ifup - initializes or brings up an interface
– ifup device
• ifdown - brings the device down
– ifdown device
107
Configuring Devices and Hostnames

• DNS – adds an entry to the DNS server
– /etc/hosts (alternative, must edit on remote systems)
• Local computer
– hostname myhost
• domainname - sets the domain name as used by network
information system
• dnsdomainname - sets it as used by DNS
• /etc/hostname (/etc/sysconfig/network on Fedora)

Troubleshooting Overview
• ping - sends icmp echo request packet from the source system to
the destination every second
– –c - sets number of packets
– ping –c 5 linux.com
• traceroute - sends 3 packets to each computer that sits between
your system and a target
– –n - says to show the target computers ip‟s instead of hostname
– traceroute –n 191.168.1.1
• tracepath - similar to traceroute but gives you 1 line of output for
each test packet
– tracepath system

Troubleshooting Overview (cont’d)

• netstat - checks network status
– --interface or –I - shows information about an adapter
– --route or –r - shows routing table
– --masquerade or –M - gets info about connection
– --program or –p - provides info about programs using network
connections
– --all or –a - used with other options and displays info about
ports
– No options - returns info about open ports and where they
connect
108
Troubleshooting Overview (cont’d)

• tcpdump - looks at raw traffic
– –A - displays in ascii
– –D - shows interfaces
– –n - displays addresses numerically
– –v - shows additional info
– –w file - writes packets to a file
• telnet – remote login tool, not encrypted
– telnet system
• file transfer protocol (FTP) – remote login tool
– ftp system

What We Covered

 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

 Configuring Static IP Addresses

 Configuring Routing

 Configuring Devices and Hostnames

 Troubleshooting Overview
Security Administration

109
In This Lesson:
 Understanding the Super Server
 Unused Servers and Security
 The Role of Configuration Files
 Host Security
Understanding the Super Server

• What is a super server?
– Program that listens for network connections on behalf of
another program and then hands off control to the intended
server
• Reduces server memory load
• Enables security checks at super server level
– 2 types of super servers:
• inetd & xinetd
Understanding the Super Server (cont’d)

• The inetd super server
– First super server
– ps ax | grep inetd
• Adding serves to inetd
– /etc/inetd.conf (or split into several files in /etc/inetd.d)
– 1 line for each server, fields:
• Service name from /etc/services
• Socket type - type of connection, stream, dgram, raw
• Protocol - TCP or UDP
• Wait/no wait - for dgram sets whether server connects to
its clients & frees socket (nowait) or processes all
packets and then times out (wait) nowait for other
socket types
110

• User - username used to run the server (root, nobody)
• Server name - server filename
• Parameters - everything after server name
• # hash marks denote comments, remove to activate line
– Restart server with /etc/rc.d/init.d/inetd restart or reload
– kill or killall command - sends SIGHUP signal
• kill –HUP pid
• killall –HUP inetd
– TCP wrappers program - tcpd
• Instead of inetd calling server, calls TCP - checks whether
client is authorized to access server, then calls server
• /etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts/deny
– daemonlist : clientlist

• The xinetd super server
– Extended super server, includes TCP wrapper functionality
– /etc/xinetd.conf, etc/xinetd.d
– /etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd restart (or kill, killall)
• bind - listens on only one network interface
• only_from - specifies IP addresses, network or host
names, separated by spaces
• no_access - blacklisted computers or networks
• access_times - sets times during which users can access
server (hour:min-hour:min)
Unused Servers and Security

• Security best practices dictate disabling unused servers
– netstat - network status tool
• netstat -ap - lists all open ports or network connections
– lsof - lists open files (files include network connections)
• lsof –i or lsof –i :port
– nmap - network scanner (nessus includes check for known
vulnerabilities)
• –sT - scans TCP ports
• –sU - scans UDP ports
• nmap –sT targetsystem
111
The Role of Configuration Files

• SysV startup scripts
– /etc/rc?.d
– /etc/init.d/rc?.d
– /etc/rc.d/rc?.d (?=default runlevel)
– Edit file to disable unwanted servers
• Super server scripts
– Only used to launch network servers
– /etc/inittab
• getty & mingetty
– /etc/event.d
The Role of Configuration Files (cont’d)

• Disabling vs. removing
– Disable via script editing -allows you to easily reactivate a
server
– Remove via package manager - reduces risk of accidental
reactivation
– Removing is preferable
Host Security
• Password rules
– Use strong passwords
• No dictionary words or names
• Include numbers
• Punctuation marks
• Upper/lower case, etc.
– Shadow passwords (/etc/shadow)
– Force periodic password changes
– Educate users (social engineering, phishing, multiple
passwords)
– Use ssh for remote logins
– Consider using password crackers
112
Host Security (cont’d)

• Password management
– Password aging and expiration (shadow passwords)
• chage
• usermod
• Root account
– Use su command
• su with username acquires that user‟s privileges
• –c, to run a single program with root privileges
– su –c “netstat”
• sudo runs a single command as root
– sudo netstat -ap
– /etc/sudoers (visudo)

• Setting memory limits
– Pluggable Authentication Module (PAM), pam_limits
– /etc/security/limits.conf
• Domain type item value
– Domain - entity to which limit applies
– Type - specifies hard or soft limits
– Item - what type of item being limited
– Value - limit value

– ulimit - only affects bash programs and those launched from
bash
• ulimit [options [limit]] (-a show current settings)
– –c - limits size of core dumps
– –f - limits size of files created by shell
– –n - limits number of open file descriptors
– –u - limits number of processes a user can run
– –t - limits CPU time in seconds
– –v - sets virtual memory available to shell
113

– –s - sets maximum stack size
– –d - limits programs data set size
– –l - sets maximum size that can be locked in memory
– –H, –S - makes other options hard or soft limits
• Other option
– /etc/nologin - only root can log in

• SUID & SGID files
– Runs the program as the file or group owner
– When set to run as root, poses security risk
– Use find to search for and modify if necessary
• find / -perm +6000 -type f
What We Covered
 Understanding the Super Server
 Unused Servers and Security
 The Role of Configuration Files
 Host Security
114
Encryption Options

Encryption Options
In This Lesson:
 The Secure Shell (SSH) Overview
 SSH Configuration
 SSH Access Control & Logins
 SSH Security
 GNU Privacy Guard
 GNU Encryption
Encryption Options
The Secure Shell (SSH) Overview

• What is ssh?
– The secure shell (ssh) is a secure end to end remote login
– Advantages:
• Strong encryption
• Tunneling capabilities
• File transfer
– Disadvantages:
• Slower connection = performance degradation
– Servers:
• OpenSSH (launch via super server or SysV startup script)
• /etc/init.d/sshd reload
115
Encryption Options
SSH Configuration
• /etc/ssh/sshd_config
– Option value
• protocol , 1 or 2 (level 2 recommended)
• PermitRootLogin - set to no for added security
• X11Forwarding - enables tunneling features
• /etc/ssh/ssh_config (can be overridden by local file)
• Encryption keys (/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key &
ssh_host_dsa_key, .pub for public keys, ssh_host_rsa1_key)
– Private & public keys
– Generate keys with ssh-keygen
– ssh-keygen -q -t rsa1 -f /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key -C „‟ -N „‟
– ssh-keygen -q -t rsa -f /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key -C „‟ -N „‟
– ssh-keygen -q -t dsa -f /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key -C „‟ -N „‟
Encryption Options
SSH Configuration (cont’d)

• Known hosts file (global cache)
– ~/.ssh/known_hosts in /etc or /etc/ssh
– Create by coping file from an account that has connected to
the hosts you‟d like to include
• cp /home/nancy/.ssh/known_hosts
/etc/ssh/ssh_known_hosts
– Hostname
– IP (or both)
– Key type
– Key
Encryption Options
SSH Access Control and Logins

• Passwords
• TCP Wrappers - launch openssh to use or /etc/hosts.allow and
deny files to limit access using IP address
• Firewall rules
• /etc/nologin
• Logging in with no password - set up ssh client with keys and
give public key to the server
– Log into client as user who will be performing remote access
– ssh-keygen -q -t rsa -f ~/.ssh/id_rsa -C „‟ -N „‟
– Copy id_rsa.pub to another media under another name
– Log in to ssh server
– cat ~/temp.rsa >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
– Log out and log in ( some older clients require ssh -2 option)
116
Encryption Options
SSH Access Control and Logins (cont’d)

• ssh-agent
– Log into client as user who will be performing remote access
– ssh-keygen -q -t rsa -f ~/.ssh/id_rsa -C
– Copy id_rsa.pub to another media under another name
– Log in to ssh server
– cat ~/temp.rsa >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
– Log out and log in
– On client: ssh-agent /bin/bash
– ssh-add ~/.ssh/id_rsa
• Login scripts
– sshrc (/etc or /etc/ssh)
Encryption Options
SSH Access Control and Logins (cont’d)

• Port tunnels
– /etc/ssh/sshd_config
• AllowTcpForwarding no (change to yes)
– ssh –N –f –L 100:test.ssh.com:143 test.ssh.com
• –N - don‟t execute remote programs
• –f - execute in the backgroud
• –L - specifies local port on which to listen, remote
computer to which to connect, port on the remote
computer you want to connect to
• Copying files
– scp file account:
• scp testfile user@user.com:
Encryption Options
SSH Security
• Set ssh to:
– Accept only level 2 protocol connections
– Refuse direct root logins
– Disable X forwarding if not needed
– Use TCP Wrappers or firewall to limit access
– Update software
– Protect private keys
117
Encryption Options
GNU Privacy Guard (GPG)

• GPG is an email encryption tool that allows digital signatures
(Pretty Good Privacy implementation)
– Generate keys (private and public pair)
• gpg --gen-key (~/.gnupg)
– Export public key
• gpg --export emailaddress > gpg.pub
– Import public keys to key ring
• gpg --import filename
– View keys
• gpg --list-keys
Encryption Options
GNU Encryption
• Encrypt data
– gpg --out encrypted-file --recipient uid --armor --encrypt
original-file
• Decrypt data
– gpg --out decrypted-file --decrypt encrypted-file
• enter passphrase
• Sign messages
– gpg --clearsign file (--sign creates new file with.gpg)
• Verify messages
– gpg --verify file
Encryption Options
What We Covered

 The Secure Shell (SSH) Overview

 SSH Configuration

 SSH Access Control & Logins

 SSH Security

 GNU Privacy Guard

 GNU Encryption
118
Preparing for Your
CompTIA Linux+
Certification Exam
(LX0-102)

In This Lesson:
 Exam Overview
 Where to Take the Exam
 Retake Policy
 Exam Preparation Tips
 After the Exam

Exam Overview
• Experience
– CompTIA A+, CompTIA Network+ and at least 12 months of
Linux administration experience
– http://www.comptia.org/certifications/testprep/examobjectiv
es.aspx
• LX0-102
Domain % of Examination
105 Shells, Scripting and Data Management 17%
106 User Interfaces and Desktops 8%
107 Administrative Tasks 20%
108 Essential System Services 17%
109 Networking Fundamentals 23%
110 Security 15%
119
Exam Overview
• 60 Questions, 90 minutes to complete
– Multiple choice
– Fill-in the blank
• Scoring
– 500 on a scale of 200-800

Where to Take the Exam

• Pearson Vue
– http://www.pearsonvue.com
– $150 -$168
• Prometric
– http://www.prometric.com/CompTIA/default.htm

Retake Policy
• 1st retake has no waiting period, but for 3rd and any
subsequent attempts, must wait 14 days.
– If a Candidate has passed an exam, he/she cannot take it
again without prior consent from CompTIA.
– CompTIA beta examinations may only be taken one (1) time
by each candidate.
– A test result found to be in violation of the retake policy will
not be processed, which will result in no credit awarded for
the test taken. Repeat violators will be banned from
participation in the CompTIA Certification Program.
120
Exam Preparation Tips

• Man and info pages
– man commandname
– info commandname
• Review the lessons
• Practice
• Save tough questions for last

After The Exam

• Your Linux+ certificate
– https://www.certmetrics.com/comptia/login.aspx
• Linux Professional Institute Certification (LPIC -1)
– Contacting LPI to obtain
• Novell Certified Linux Administrator (CLA)
– http://practicum.novell.com/LPI2CLAForm.php
• Logos for download

What We Covered
 Exam Overview
 Where to Take the Exam
 Retake Policy
 Exam Preparation Tips
 After the Exam
121
Next Steps

Next Steps
In This Lesson:
 What We Learned
 Follow Up
 What‟s Next
Next Steps
What We Learned
• System Architecture
• Linux Installation and Package Management
• GNU and Unix Commands
• Devices, Filesystems and Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
• Shells, Scripting and Data Management
• User Interfaces and Desktops
• Administrative Tasks
• Essential System Services
• Networking Fundamentals
• Security
122
Next Steps
Follow Up
• Preparing for the Linux+ Certification Exams
• Transcender Lessons
• Course Reference Material
• CompTIA Linux+
– http://www.comptia.org/certifications/listed/linux.aspx
Next Steps
What’s Next
• After passing LX0-101 and LX0-102, you will be Linux+ certified
– Linux Professional Institute LPIC-1
– Novell Certified Linux Administrator (CLA)
• Linux Professional Institute Certification
– Advanced Level Linux Professional LPIC-2
– Senior Level Linux Professional LPIC-3
– http://www.lpi.org/eng/certification/the_lpic_program
• Novell Certifications
– Novell Certified Linux Desktop Administrator
– Novell Certified Linux Engineer
– http://www.novell.com/training/certinfo/
123

Getting Started With Comptia Linux+ Training Course

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Getting Started With Comptia Linux+ Training Course

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Getting Started With Comptia Linux+ Training Course

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Getting Started with

CompTIA Linux+ Training