Offprint - Scalf, Foy - Birds in The Religious Landscape - OIMP 35 PDF
Offprint - Scalf, Foy - Birds in The Religious Landscape - OIMP 35 PDF
Offprint - Scalf, Foy - Birds in The Religious Landscape - OIMP 35 PDF
1
A pied kingfisher (Ceryle rudis) among the papyrus marshes. Wall painting from the northern palace of Akhenaten, Amarna
(Davies 1936, vol. 2, pl. 76)
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH
BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
edited by
ROZENN BAILLEUL-LeSUER
Series Editors
Leslie Schramer
and
Thomas G. Urban
with the assistance of
Rebecca Cain
Lauren Lutz and Tate Paulette assisted with the production of this volume.
Illustration Credits
Front cover: “Birds in an Acacia Tree.” Tempera on paper by Nina de Garis Davies, 1932. Catalog No. 11.
Back cover: Head of an owl. Limestone and pigment. Late Period to early Ptolemaic period, 664–150 bc Catalog No. 22
Catalog Nos. 1–2, 5–15, 17–18, 20–27, 29–40: Photos by Anna R. Ressman; Catalog Nos. 3, 16, 19: Copyright the Art Institute of
Chicago; Catalog No. 4: A114917d_12A, photo by John Weinstein. Reproduced with the permission of The Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago, all rights reserved; Catalog No. 28: Copyright the Brooklyn Museum, New York
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Service —
Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.
∞
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword. Gil J. Stein .. ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Preface. Jack Green . . ............................................................................................................................................... 9
List of Contributors .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Introduction. Rozenn Bailleul-LeSuer .................................................................................................................................. 15
Time Line of Egyptian History............................................................................................................................................. 19
Map of Principal Areas and Sites Mentioned in the Text . . .................................................................................. 20
I. THE REVERED AND THE HUNTED: THE ROLE OF BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SOCIETY
1. From Kitchen to Temple: The Practical Role of Birds in Ancient Egypt. Rozenn Bailleul-LeSuer...................... 23
2. The Role of Birds within the Religious Landscape of Ancient Egypt. Foy Scalf ................................................ 33
3. An Eternal Aviary: Bird Mummies from Ancient Egypt. Salima Ikram ............................................................... 41
4. Sheltering Wings: Birds as Symbols of Protection in Ancient Egypt. Randy Shonkwiler .................................. 49
5. Pharaoh Was a Good Egg, but Whose Egg Was He? Arielle P. Kozloff ................................................................... 59
6. Birds in the Ancient Egyptian and Coptic Alphabets. François Gaudard ............................................................ 65
7. Birds and Bird Imagery in the Book of Thoth. Richard Jasnow ............................................................................ 71
8. Birds in Late Antique Egypt. Susan H. Auth .......................................................................................................... 77
II. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BIRDS AND MODERN SCIENCE
9. Bird Identification from Art, Artifacts, and Hieroglyphs: An Ornithologist’s
Viewpoint. John Wyatt ............................................................................................................................................ 83
10. Bird Behavior in Ancient Egyptian Art. Linda Evans ........................................................................................... 91
11. Studying Avian Mummies at the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology: Past, Present,
and Future Work. Lidija M. McKnight ..................................................................................................................... 99
12. Medical CT Scanning of Ancient Bird Mummies. Bin Jiang, MD, and Michael Vannier, MD ................................. 107
13. Challenges in CT Scanning of Avian Mummies. Charles A. Pelizzari, Chad R. Haney,
Rozenn Bailleul-LeSuer, J. P. Brown, and Christian Wietholt........................................................................................ 109
14. Terahertz Pulse Imaging of an Egyptian Bird Mummy. J. Bianca Jackson, Gérard Mourou,
Julien Labaune, and Michel Menu .......................................................................................................................... 119
III. EPILOGUE
15. The Avifauna of the Egyptian Nile Valley: Changing Times. Sherif Baha el Din ................................................. 125
IV. CATALOG
Birds in Creation Myths ................................................................................................................................. 131
Pharaoh the Living Horus and His Avian Subjects . . ...................................................................................... 135
Birds as Protection in Life ............................................................................................................................. 143
Fowling in the Marshes and Aviculture . . ....................................................................................................... 147
Nina de Garis Davies’s Facsimiles from the Painted Tomb-Chapel of Nebamun. . .............................................. 152
Bird Motifs in Ancient Egyptian Arts and Crafts .......................................................................................... 157
Birds in the Writing System .......................................................................................................................... 167
Birds in the Religious Life of Ancient Egyptians .......................................................................................... 177
Falcon Cults . . ............................................................................................................................................ 178
Ibis Cults . . ................................................................................................................................................ 189
Birds in Death and the Afterlife .................................................................................................................... 201
Appendix: Bird Anatomy....................................................................................................................................... 214
Concordance of Museum Registration Numbers ................................................................................................. 215
Checklist of the Exhibit ........................................................................................................................................ 216
List of Birds . . ......................................................................................................................................................... 217
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................................... 218
5
2. THE ROLE OF BIRDS WITHIN THE RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE OF ANCIENT EGYPT
avian elements in the divine cause, the visual metaphors employed actually have
T
iconography of ancient egypt an internal consistency and logic. If it were not the
case, what power would the images have either to
he proliferative variety of animal imagery influence people or explain their ideologies.
within ancient Egyptian religion continues to A primary impediment to understanding a figure
remain a source of astonishment and bewil- such as the bimorphic Horus, shown with a human
derment to many viewers (Pearce 2007, pp. 242–64). body and a falcon’s head, is adopting a literal inter-
Crowned beasts, human bodies with animal heads, pretation of the scene (fig. 2.1). The iconography of
and fantastic deities depicted with the commingled divine beings was a human invention, an intellectual
limbs of numerous creatures — what Virgil called construct developed to provide a means to express,
“monstrous shapes of every species and Anubis the discuss, manipulate, and understand the various
barker” — are commonly found in the Egyptian artis- physical forces within the cosmos inhabited by the
tic repertoire (Smelik and Hemelrijk 1984, p. 1854). people of ancient Egypt. It should be remembered
What, however, did such representations mean? For that the ancient Egyptians still had intimate contact
some Greco-Roman authors seeing and hearing of with and reliance upon the natural forces of their en-
Egyptian practices, animal veneration was a source vironment. Such forces had an assortment of traits
of ridicule, hypocritically invoked as Greeks and that could be used metaphorically to embody abstract
Romans had their own forms of animal worship, some concepts or provide iconic vessels for the physical
of which were imported from Egypt.1 Others, such as manifestation of cosmic and social characteristics.
Plutarch, Diodorus, and Horapollo, while often not Features of flora and fauna derived from the natural
approving of the practice, had at least a partial un- world were chosen in order to communicate concepts
derstanding of the complex symbolic web woven by such as ferocity, protection, or motherhood. In this
Egyptian philosophers. Despite the potential confu- view, literal readings must be abandoned. Like any ar-
sion a glance at an Egyptian religious work of art can tistic expression, “these are communicative devices,
metaphors, in a system of formal art that aims not
at realist reproduction but at the essence of being”
(Quirke 2008, p. 74).
Diodorus Siculus, a historian from first-century
bc Sicily, had already grasped the basic metaphorical
concept. Concerning the symbolism of the falcon, he
wrote:
figure 2.1. Bimorphic depiction of Thoth, with the head of an ibis, and It is this metaphorical transfer which underpins
Horus, with the head of a falcon, shown anointing the pharaoh Ptolemy VIII
the “imagistic” system of ancient Egypt. 3 Horus, a
Euergetes II (170–163 bc). From the temple of Kom Ombo (photo by Foy
Scalf) god whose name literally means “the one who is far
33
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
away,” is depicted as a falcon, which can soar high be considered “a form of iconographic signs and can
into the sky, but the falcon is not limited to Horus. be compared to hieroglyphics.” 4
Montu, a god associated with valor and combat, can
also be depicted as a falcon due to the bird of prey’s
avian elements among the
ferocious killing abilities. Likewise, the falcon is a
common form of the solar deity Re because the flight
“transformation” spells of
of the falcon alludes to the flight of the sun across the egyptian funerary texts
sky. The complexity of the natural world and the am- Because of the close association between departed
bivalence of its flora and fauna led to a vast amount humans and the divine world, the metaphors evoked
of overlap in the iconographic canon (table 2.1). by avian imagery have further significance for under-
Egyptian divine images should be understood in standing the Egyptians’ conception of the afterlife.
their multiplicity and diversity, not as monolithic en- In the Egyptian collection of mythological episodes
tities without nuance. We should not interpret figures scholars now call the Book of the Heavenly Cow, it
such as a human body with a falcon head as repre- is said that man comes into being from the tears of
senting some actual entity in the universe, whose the sun god. The creator of this etiological myth
particular likeness distinguished it exclusively from employed a playful pun, connecting the Egyptian
every other divine being. Rather, this is one way to word for “man” (rmṯ) with the word for “tear” (rmy.t)
express a particular quality about a force in the uni- because they contain similar consonantal roots.
verse which the ancient Egyptians were attempting However, the further implication contained in this
to explain and these “hybrid representations” should myth is that man is “consubstantial” with the gods;
man is made from divine material (Ritner 2011). For
the ancient Egyptian, the ultimate desire for the af-
terlife was to join in the company of the gods and
table 2.1. Prominent deities associated with avian iconography partake in the role of the sun during the day and
Name Avian Features Osiris throughout the night. The deceased actually
sought to become gods and to possess the powers of
Benu Heron the gods, including the ability to manifest in repre-
sentative animal forms and attain the qualities of the
Falcon,
Horakhty
Winged Sun Disk cosmic forces the images conveyed.
Just as substantial avian imagery appears within
Falcon,
Horus
Winged Sun Disk Egyptian religious art, funerary literature reserves a
Falcon, Kite,
prominent place for birds within the so-called trans-
Isis formation spells. The designation “transformation”
Kestrel, Swallow
derives from the recurrence of the Egyptian verb
Khonsu Falcon
“to become” ( ḫpr) in the introduction to such
spells (fig. 2.2). Within the traditional funerary com-
Montu Falcon
pilations of the Pyramid Texts (PT), Coffin Texts (CT),
and Book of the Dead (BD), the idea of “becoming”
Nekhbet Vulture
a particular being, including the gods themselves in
Falcon, Kite, addition to a variety of plant and animal forms, occu-
Nephthys
Kestrel, Swallow pied the focus of many passages. In the Greco-Roman
period, descendants of the transformation spells were
Qebehsenuef Falcon Head
used independently on papyri to form their own com-
Re
Falcon, position referred to as the Book of Transformations.5
Winged Sun Disk It was believed that those who employed these texts
Sokar Falcon
could transform into animal forms of their choosing
and Book of the Dead spells were dedicated to becom-
Thoth Ibis
ing a “falcon of gold” (BD 77), “divine falcon” (BD
78), “phoenix” (BD 83), “heron” (BD 84), “ba-bird” (BD
34
2. THE ROLE OF BIRDS WITHIN THE RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE OF ANCIENT EGYPT
figure 2.2. Spells 77–86 from Papyrus Milbank (OIM E10486), a Ptolemaic
Book of the Dead papyrus belonging to Irtyuru. The vignettes show the
various forms in which the deceased wished to transform himself by means
of the accompanying spells (D. 17930; photo by Anna Ressman)
35
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
“one bird, one pot”: the sacred animal of the god Sobek venerated throughout the Fayum;
cults of ancient egypt and the living falcon of Edfu, an incarnation of the
god Horus. These animals, and others like them, were
Avian elements were prominent in divine iconogra- selected to be the representative of gods on earth,
phy and funerary literature, but most infamous has a breathing receptacle for the god’s ba or manifest
been the direct worship of animals within the sacred physical power, and they were well cared for, paraded
animal cults of ancient Egypt (see fig. 3.4). The vener- during public festivals, and ornately buried. Cults of
ation of selected sacred animals has a long history in this type continued to be practiced into the Roman
Egypt extending back at least to the predynastic peri- period and elements borrowed from Egyptian cus-
od as revealed by the recent excavations of the elabo- toms continued in use into the Byzantine era across
rate burials of fauna at Hierakonpolis.8 The exact na- the Mediterranean world (Smelik and Hemelrijk 1984,
ture of these earliest animal cults remain an enigma p. 1999).
because of extremely fragmentary evidence and a The other form of animal veneration consisted of
lack of written documents from the period to provide the capturing and rearing of animal species sacred to
the indigenous perspective on these practices. Based a particular deity and the mummification and burial
on evidence from later historical epochs, animal cults of these species in special purpose-built necropoleis
primarily took one of two forms. In one form, an ani- (fig. 2.4). Rather than a single chosen member, all
mal was considered the physical living incarnation members of these species were considered sacred to
of a particular deity on earth (Dodson 2009). There their tutelary divinity and were buried by the mil-
were many sacred animals associated with different lions (fig. 2.5). An astonishing menagerie of fauna
gods and various cities, such as the Apis bull, a liv- were treated in this manner including fish, beetles,
ing manifestation of the god Ptah worshipped in the lizards, snakes, shrews, moles, mice, ibises, hawks,
city of Memphis; the living crocodile, an earthly form falcons, dogs, and jackals. These categories of worship
figure 2.4. The subterranean animal necropolis at Tuna el-Gebel. Pre-Ptolemaic parts of the galleries shown in green
(courtesy of Dieter Kessler)
36
2. THE ROLE OF BIRDS WITHIN THE RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE OF ANCIENT EGYPT
37
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
figure 2.7. The title of Nesshutefnut, h.m ntr n nꜢ bı’k.w Ꜥnh̆.w m h t⸗f “priest of the living falcons in his tree,” from his Book of the Dead papyrus in the
˘
Oriental Institute Museum (OIM E9787)
38
2. THE ROLE OF BIRDS WITHIN THE RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE OF ANCIENT EGYPT
39
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
10
See Yoyotte 1959; de Meulenaere 1960; Holm-Rasmussen 1979; enthroned Pepy (Brooklyn Museum 39.120) whose back pillar
Ray 2002, pp. 121–22; Gorre 2009; Ladynin 2009, pp. 7–9. For stat- doubles as a serekh with Horus perched atop.
ues showing Nectanebo II between the legs of the Horus falcon, 11
The Alexander Romance refers to a collection of stories about
see Metropolitan Museum of Art 34.2.1 published in Arnold 1995, Alexander the Great that circulated in antiquity, some of which
pp. 44–45 (no. 50), and Musée du Louvre, Paris, E 11152. These show Egyptian connections (Jasnow 1997).
statues can be compared to images known already in the Old 12
Apis and Mnevis were sacred bulls deemed to be the earthly in-
Kingdom such as the statue of Khafre (Egyptian Museum, Cairo, carnations of Ptah and Re respectively (Dodson 2005, pp. 72–95).
CG 14) with Horus stretching his wings around the head of the 13
Kessler 1989, pp. 299–303; Kessler 2010, pp. 269–70.
king (see fig. 4.4 in this volume) and the alabaster statue of an
40
CATALOG
1. OSTRICH EGG
Organic remains
A-Group, ca. 3100 bc
Qustul, Cemetery S, deposit 4
Excavated by the Oriental Institute,
1962–63
15.4 x 12.7 cm
OIM E21384
Oriental Institute digital images
D. 17994–95
131
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
132
CATALOG NO. 2
2. “THREE VIGNETTES,
THEBES, TOMB OF QUEEN and potential harm caused by salt, water, and
NEFRETERE, RAMESSES II, temperature fluctuations, visiting the tomb is often
1292–1225 B.C.” restricted and conservators have worked diligently
in an attempt to slow the rate of deterioration
Nina de Garis Davies, ca. 1936 which has continued to plague the tomb over the
Tempera on paper last century.1 Therefore, Davies’s paintings are
42.54 x 59.69 cm valuable not only for their artistic beauty, but in
Collection of the Oriental Institute some cases they preserve a record of monuments
Oriental Institute digital image D. 17885 now damaged or lost.
From right to left, the figures depicted are the
goddess Nephthys in the form of a common kestrel,
This tempera by Nina de Garis Davies depicts a the benu-bird in the form of a grey heron, and the
scene found on the west wall in the antechamber lion of yesterday.2 The scene is well known as a
of the tomb of Nefertari, queen of Ramesses II, portion of the vignette from Book of the Dead (BD)
in the Valley of the Queens (QV 66). Her tomb is spell 17, which adorns the interior of Nefertari’s
justly famous for the remarkable preservation tomb along with texts and scenes from various Book
and vivid colors of the painted scenes decorating of the Dead spells and other funerary literature.
its walls. Due to the delicate nature of the plaster BD 17 is one of the most frequently attested spells
133
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
in the Book of the Dead corpus and this long close association with the sun god and appeared on
vignette highlights a number of important passages, scarab-shaped amulets placed near the heart of the
characters, and themes mentioned in the text.3 mummy often inscribed with BD 29B, which begins:
The text itself is a complex and not completely “I am the benu-bird, the soul of Re, who guides the
understood compilation of interwoven narratives, gods to the netherworld from which they go forth.” 9
glosses, and commentaries through which the tomb Through the spell of BD 83, a “spell for turning into
owners demonstrated their religious knowledge the benu-bird,” the deceased sought transformation
while identifying themselves as the creator god.4 into the phoenix for the purpose of rejuvenation
Nephthys is shown here in the form of a kestrel and affiliation with the gods.
with her name Nb.t-ḥw.t “Lady of the enclosure” In addition to being an icon of rejuvenation, the
written in hieroglyphs on top of her head. In the benu-bird figured in certain Egyptian cosmogonic
original scene she stands at the head end of a stories. In Pyramid Text spell 600, the benu-bird is
funerary bed holding the mummy of Nefertari with said to appear as the creator god Atum-Khepri at
Isis also in the form of a kestrel at the foot end. the beginning of time upon the primeval mound
Isis and Nephthys were the principle mourners in rising from the cosmic waters (Nun), probably
the collection of Osirian myths, thus by extension inspired by herons wading in the marshes and pools
for the deceased, and the piercing shrieks of of the Nile.10 This mythic episode was memorialized
birds of prey were thought to represent their in the temple of the benu-bird in Heliopolis,
wailing cries. The two goddesses are referred to as where the primeval mound was symbolized by
“screechers” (ḥꜢ.t) in Pyramid Text spell 535: “As the the pyramidal benben-stone and where the corpse
screecher comes, so the kite comes, namely Isis and of the sun god is said to reside.11 The benu-bird
Nephthys.” 5 As the protectors of the deceased, Isis thus represented the power (bꜢ) of the sun god as
and Nephthys are commonly depicted as women creator and the avian imagery further reinforced
with outstretched bird wings on the corners of the metaphor of the sun’s daily “flight” across the
New Kingdom royal sarcophagi.6 In a composition sky. fs
from the end of the fourth century bc called the
“Stanzas of the Festival of the Two Kites,” two
published (selected)
women who have undergone the ritual preparation
of complete hair removal and had the names Isis Davies 1936, vol. 2, pl. 93
134
CATALOG
figure c26. A Ptolemaic king makes an offering before Horus and an enshrined falcon referred to in the
text as the “living falcon upon the serekh,” from the temple of Horus at Edfu (photo by Stefano Vicini)
177
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
29, recto
29. DEMOTIC LETTER TO was honored in a shrine carved into the cliffs of
“THE IBIS, THOTH”
Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari.
The letter preserved on papyrus OIM E19422
Papyrus, ink was written in the Demotic script in eight lines
Late Period, Dynasty 27, reign of Darius I, on the recto and one line on the verso. It was
between June 25, 502 bc, and July 24, 502 bc
composed in the reign of Darius I (522–486 bc)
Probably Hermopolis, Tuna el-Gebel during the first period of Persian rule following
Purchased in Cairo, 1950; donated to the Oriental the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses in 525 bc. It
Institute by Alan Gardiner via George Hughes, 1956
was written by a man named Efou (Ἰw⸗f-ʿw), son of
27.0 x 11.5 cm Hornufechebe (Ḥr-nfr-ḫby), who worked as part of
OIM E19422 the administration of a cult of the ibis, bird sacred
Oriental Institute digital images D. 17992–93 to the god of writing and wisdom Thoth. The letter
was presumably rolled up and placed somewhere
in the galleries of ibis burials within the necropolis
In ancient Egypt, people commonly sought out of Tuna el-Gebel as the papyrus’s excellent state of
powerful individuals for the redress of legal, preservation suggests.
social, or personal grievances. Such individuals The single line of text on the verso of this
could be human or divine, alive or dead. Imploring appeal preserves an address identifying it as “a plea
departed relatives as intermediaries for real- of the servant Efou, son of Hornufechebe, before
world difficulties (an art which has been termed the ibis, Thoth, twice great, lord of Hermopolis,
“necromancy”) has a long history in Egypt with the great god.” The addressee is none other than
direct evidence stretching back into the Old a god of national importance, for Hermopolis
Kingdom.1 Letters written to gods, such as this was the most sacred city of Thoth in Egypt. Ibises
papyrus addressed to “the ibis, Thoth,” are direct from surrounding cities were sent for burial in the
descendants of similar texts previously presented underground galleries of the animal necropolis and
to the powerful spirits (Ꜣḫ) of deceased individuals.2 pilgrims traveled to pay their respects before this
In fact, petitions of this kind from the Greco-Roman eminent deity. It is no accident that Efou writes
period were sometimes addressed to Imhotep, to Thoth. As he tells us, he left his former work
the famous architect of the Third Dynasty king to perform services within the cult of the ibis.
Djoser who became deified after his death and who Efou probably rendered his duties to a smaller ibis
192
CATALOG NO. 29
29, verso
cult outside of Hermopolis because he mentions not allow a guard over it either. He steals from me
that he has no supervisor before whom he could by force. Since year 17, he stole my money and my
bring his appeal. Whether or not this statement is wheat. He had my servants harmed. He stole from
hyperbole can no longer be known. He then lists a me all that I have. About the burnt offerings, his
heart is obstinate. If the heart is stout, then they
series of injustices committed against him as well
will be protected before Thoth, twice great, lord of
as the ibis cult, alleging that one Psentehe, son of
Hermopolis. As for Psentehe, son of Montuhotep,
Montuhotep, has stolen from him and the ibis cult,
he has stolen from my life. He has cast me out of
had his assistants harmed, and appropriated his my portion. As the law, he acts for himself. Many
stipend. As the source of his livelihood, Efou would things depart through his hand, which pertain to
have taken the theft of his income quite seriously. the ibis. Let me be protected from Psentehe, son
What truth may have been in these claims, we do of Montuhotep. Written by the servant Efou, son
not know, but the mention of crimes perpetrated of Hornufechebe, in the month of Phamenoth of
against the very cult of the god addressed could not regnal year 20.
have hurt Efou’s case. Efou does not seek for the
god to harm Psentehe, but only asks to be protected verso
from the latter’s malice. fs A plea of the servant Efou, son of Hornufechebe,
be[fore the ib]is, Thoth, twice great, lord of
recto Hermopolis, the great god.
A plea of the servant Efou, son of Hornufechebe,
before Thoth, twice great, lord of Hermopolis:
published (selected)
My great lord, O may he pass the lifetime of Pre.
From the month of Mecheir of regnal year 11 up Hughes 1958; Migahid 1986, pp. 38–44; Endreffy 2009, p. 244
to today, I perform the service of the ibis. I aban-
doned my (former) work. More than it, I prefer the
notes
work which pertains to the ibis. I have no super-
visory personnel. If the heart is stout, then they
1
Ritner 2002; idem 2008, p. 184; Gardiner and Sethe 1928.
will be protected before Thoth, twice great, lord
2
For example, the letter from a man to his deceased relative,
of Hermopolis. I pray on account of Psentehe, son who is referred to as a “powerful spirit” (Ꜣḫ), preserved on OIM
E13945, published in Woods 2010, cat. no. 81.
of Montuhotep. He does not perform the service
of the ibis except for eating its food. And he does
193
CATALOG NO. 34
Wood, pigment
Late Period, Dynasties 25–30, ca.
750–350 bc
Dendera
Gift of the Egypt Exploration Fund,
1897–1898
6.9 x 7.1 x 2.8 cm
OIM E4461
Oriental Institute digital images
D. 17908–09
201
BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH: BIRDS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Oriental Institute example is somewhat exceptional the netherworld, thereby complementing the
for its well-preserved paint, as the color decoration solar-Osirian cycle with which everyone hoped
on many similar figures has faded away, and also for to associate. Upon death, recitations during the
its unusual wig style.2 The face is painted gold, the funerary rituals sought to ensure that the ba
wings are given elaborate patterns of blue and dark rise in the sky and the corpse descend into the
blue, and the underside of the tail is red. A beautiful netherworld.12 Separation of the ba and corpse was
example from the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty burial not permanent for the ba would reunite nightly
of Yuya (KV 46) portrays the deceased with a black with the corpse (as specified in Book of the Dead
wig, red face and feet, yellow underbelly, white legs, spell 89). The alighting of the ba onto the corpse
green wings, and blue tail.3 is depicted in a miniature limestone sarcophagus
The original placement of this figurine is model from the late New Kingdom which shows
unknown, but depictions of the ba are known from the ba seated upon the torso of the mummy with
other elements in the funerary assemblage. A outstretched wings.13 Regeneration occurred
wooden statuette found in the tomb of Tutankamun through this reunion, just as the sun god Re’s
(KV 62) depicts the king lying on a funerary reunion in the netherworld with Osiris provided the
bed with a figure of his ba crossing wings with necessary conditions for his daily renewal, setting
a falcon figure over his torso.4 A similar model the divine precedent for Egyptian conceptions of
made of black stone showing the ba-bird sitting existence in the afterlife. fs
next to the mummy was manufactured for a non-
royal individual named Re from the Eighteenth
notes
Dynasty.5 These objects suggest that ba-statuettes
were placed near the corpse, perhaps over the
1
Earlier pair and trio statues from the Old Kingdom have been
assumed to fulfill a similar role, but this is far from certain. See
chest, as accoutrements applied to the coffin or
Žabkar 1968, p. 76; Vandier 1958, pp. 85–88. An overview of the
sarcophagus,6 following the instructions in the Meroitic ba-statues can be found in Török 2009, pp. 422–24, and
rubric for Book of the Dead spell 89, the “spell for Silverman 1997, pp. 306–07.
causing the ba to join to his corpse,” which states: 2
See Lacovara and Trope 2001, cat. no. 7; von Droste et al. 1991,
“Recitation over a ba of gold filled with precious cat. nos. 111–14. A similar wig is depicted on a ba-statuette in
stones, which a man placed (on) his chest.” 7 In the decoration of Theban Tomb 78 (Brack 1980, pl. 17).
fact, actual gold amulets representing the ba
3
Egyptian Museum, Cairo, CG 51176 (JE 95312), Quibbel 1908, p.
63; Bongioanni et al. 2001, p. 495.
have been discovered in both royal and private 4
Bongioanni et al. 2001, pp. 284–85; Wiese and Brodbeck 2004,
burials.8 Alternatively, the ba-statuettes could have
pp. 120 and 194–95.
been simply left freestanding within the tomb or 5
Egyptian Museum, Cairo, CG 48483, Newberry 1937, pp.
attached to a stela by a wooden dowel, a hole for 372–73, pl. 30; Hornung and Bryan 2002, p. 204.
which is preserved in the base of this example.9 6
A falcon statuette of similar shape and manufacture occu-
Within ancient Egyptian philosophical pies this position on the famous Roman-period coffin of Soter
tradition, human beings had several aspects to their (British Museum, London, EA 6705), as pictured in Riggs 2005,
existence including ba ( bꜢ), ka ( kꜢ), corpse figs. 87–88.
( ẖꜢ.t), name ( rn), and shadow ( šw.t).10
7
This rubric is found in the famous papyrus of Ani, now in the
British Museum (British Museum, London, EA 10470.17). For
Each of these elements symbolized the various
photos, see Faulkner 1998b, pl. 17.
relationships and abilities of the individual, both 8
Bleiberg 2008, p. 115; Andrews 1994, p. 68; Fazzini 1975, p. 126.
within this world and in the hereafter. The ba, most Bronze statuettes are also attested; Roeder 1956, p. 399 and pl.
often represented as a bird with human head, was 56.
of paramount importance for it represented the 9
Bács et al. 2009, p. 137; Riggs 2003, p. 193. Stela 54343 in the
individual’s power of mobility.11 In particular, the British Museum preserves a ba-statuette attached to the top
power of flight, symbolized through the metaphor (Munro 1973, pl. 20).
of the bird body, allowed for the deceased to
10
Zandee 1960, pp. 19–20; Assmann 2005, pp. 89–90.
travel in the company of the sun god during the
11
Žabkar 1968.
daily solar cycle. Corresponding to the ba’s airy
12
Assmann 2005, pp. 90–96.
13
Egyptian Museum, Cairo, CG 48501, Newberry 1937, p. 380, pl.
existence is the corpse, which was destined for
30. Cf. also CG 51107 from KV 46, Quibbel 1908, p. 49. pl. 27.
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