Math Formulas

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
FORMULA
When any pressure is detected above the absolute zero of pressure, it is
labeled as absolute pressure. It is measured using barometer, and it is equal
to measuring pressure plus the atmospheric pressure.
Diagram showing absolute pressure, vacuum and gauge

Absolute pressure formula (p a b s ) is given by,
P a b s =P a t m +P g a u g e
where p g a u g e is gauge pressure and p a t m is atmospheric pressure.
The vacuum pressure is articulated as,
Vacuum Pressure=Atmospheric Pressure-Absolute Pressure
At sea level it is around 14.7 pounds per square inch.
Solved Examples
Let’s see some examples of absolute pressure:
Problem 1: A pressure gauge measures the p g a u g e reading as 31 psi. If the

atmosphere pressure is 14.2 psi. Compute the absolute pressure that
corresponds to p g a u g e reading.
Answer:
Given: p a t m (Atmospheric pressure) = 31 psi

p g a u g e (Gauge pressure) = 14.2 psi
Absolute pressure (p a b s ) = p a t m + p g a u g e
= 31 psi + 14.2 psi
= 45.2 psi
Problem 2: The psia pressure instrument gives the reading as 35.8 psi. If the
atmospheric pressure is 15 psi, calculate the corresponding guage pressure.
Answer:
Given: Atmospheric pressure p a t m = 15 psi

Absolute pressure p a b s = 35.8 psi
The Gauge pressure is

p g a u g e = 35.8 psi – 15 psi
= 20.8 psi.
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

FORMULA
If the two vectors are assumed as a⃗ and b⃗ then the dot created is articulated as a.b. Let’s
suppose these two vectors are separated by angle θ. To know what’s the angle measurement we
solve with the below formula
The angle between two vectors formula is given by
where θ is the angle between a⃗ a→ and b⃗ b→.
Examples
Let’s see some samples on angle between two vectors:

Problem 1: Compute the angle between two vectors 3i + 4j – k and 2i – j + k.
Answer:
a⃗ = 3i + 4j – k and
b⃗ = 2i – j + k
The dot product is articulated as

a.b = (3i + 4j – k)(2i – j + k)
= (3)(2) + (4)(-1) + (-1)(1)
= 6-4-1
= 1
The Magnitude of vectors is given by
The angle between two vectors is
Problem 2: Find the angle between two vectors 5i – j + k and i + j – k.

Answer:
Known:
a⃗ = 5i – j + k and
b⃗ = i + j – k
The dot product is articulated as
a.b = (5i – j + k)(i + j – k)
a.b = (5)(1) + (-1)(1) + (1)(-1)
a.b = 5-1-1
a.b = 3
The Magnitude of vectors is given by
The angle between two vectors is
AVERAGE FORCE FORMULA

The force applied by a body that’s traveling at a defi nite velocity (rate of
speed) for a defi nite period of time is the average force. The word ‘average’ is
made use of to specify that this velocity is not an accurately measured
or ‘instantaneous’ velocity. Therefore, the mass of the body multiplied by the
average velocity over the defi nite time is equivalent to average force.
For a particular interval of time t, the force is described as the frequency of

change of momentum. It is hard to compute the rate of change if the time
interval is minor. There the term, average force makes an entrance.
Over a period of intervals (Δ t) the rate of change of momentum is Average
force. It is given by
Where,
the mass of the body is m,
the fi nal momentum is v f ,
the initial momentum is v i ,
the change in time is Δ t.
The Average Force Formula aids one in getting the rate of change of
momentum for any number of time intervals (Δ t). Expressed in Newton (N).
Average Force – Samples
Problem 1: A child throws bowling ball having a mass of 5 kg and it rolls with
a velocity of 4 m/s for 1 s. Compute its average force?
Answer:
Known: Mass of bowling ball m = 5 kg,

Initial velocity v i = 0
Final velocity v f = 4 m/s
Problem 2: A rubber ball of mass 0.25 kg rolls over the gravel with velocity
1.5 m/s and halts after 2 s. Compute its average force?
Answer:
Known: m = 0.25 kg, (Mass of the ball)

v = 1.5 m/s, (Velocity of ball)
The Average force is given by
ACCELERATION FORMULA
One may have perceived that pushing a terminally ill bus can give it a sudden
start. That’s because lift provides upward push when it starts. Here Velocity
changes and this is acceleration! Henceforth, the frame accelerates.
Acceleration is described as the rate of change of velocity of an object. A
body’s acceleration is the fi nal result of all the forces being applied on the
body, as defi ned by Newton’s Second Law. Acceleration is a vector quantity
that is described as the frequency at which a body’s velocity changes.
Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity to the change in time. It

is denoted by symbol a and is articulated as-
meter per second squared or m/s 2 is the S.I unit for Acceleration,
If t (time taken), v (fi nal velocity) and u (initial velocity) are provided. Then the
acceleration is given by formula
Where,
Final Velocity = v
Initial velocity = u
acceleration = a
time taken = t
distance traveled = s
Acceleration Solved Examples

Underneath we have provided some sample numerical based on acceleration
which might aid you to get an idea of how the formula is made use of:
Problem 1: A toy car accelerates from 3m/s to 5m/s in 5 s. What is its

acceleration?
Answer:
Given: Initial Velocity u = 3m/s,

Final Velocity v = 5m/s,
Time taken t = 5s.
Problem 2: A stone is released into the river from a bridge. It takes 4s for the
stone to touch the river’s water surface. Compute the height of the bridge from
the water level.
Answer:
(Initial Velocity) u = 0 (because the stone was at rest),

t = 5s (t is Time taken)
a = g = 9.8 m/s 2 , (a is Acceleration due to gravity)
distance traveled by stone = Height of bridge = s
The distance covered is articulated by
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
FORMULA
DEFINITION
FORMULA
The acceleration due to gravity acting on any object can be given using the
following equation:
Here, G is the universal gravitational constant whose value is fi xed and is equal
to 6.673 × 10-11 N.m2/Kg2. M is the mass of the body whose gravitational pull
is acting on the object under consideration, r is the radius of the planet and h
is the height of the object from the surface of the body.
When the object is on or near the surface of the body, the force of gravity
acting on the object is almost constant and the following equation can be used.
DERIVATION
From the Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we can write
F=ma
Here, F is the force acting on the object, m is its mass and ‘a’ is the
acceleration.
Also, as per Newton’s Law of Gravity, we can write,
It is the gravitational force acting between two bodies lying in the gravitational
fi eld of each other. This force acts inwards and is attractive in nature. Each of
the two bodies experience the same force directed towards the other.
Using the Newton’s second law of motion, in order to fi nd the acceleration of
the body under this condition,
Here, m is the mass of the object for which the acceleration due to gravity is to
be calculated.
Also, when the object is on or near to the surface the value of g becomes
constant and does not change considerably with the height. Hence, we can
write,
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: Given the mass and the diameter of the moon is kg

and m respectively, compute the acceleration due to gravity for an
object placed at its surface.
Solution:
As given in the question, the diameter of the moon = m
r = diameter/2 = 3.48 × 106 /2 = 1.74 × 106m = 1740000 m
Also, the mass of moon = 7.35 × 1022 kg
Using the formula for acceleration due to gravity, we write,
Upon substituting the values, we get,
g=1.620 m/sec2
The acceleration due to gravity is calculated to be 1.620 m/sec2.

Example 2: Given that the mass and the radius of the earth are 5.98x 1024 kg
and 6.38 x 106 m respectively. A satellite orbits the earth at a distance of 250
km above the surface. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity experienced by
the satellite.
Solution:
It can be seen that, the satellite is present at a considerable height from the
surface of the Earth, hence the height cannot be neglected. Using the fi rst
formula, we can write,
= 6380 km + 250 km = 6630 km = 6,630,000 m
g=9.07 m/sec2
AMPLITUDE FORMULA
A variables amplitude is a measure of its change over a single period. The
maximum height perceived in the wave is termed as Amplitude. It is
represented by A and is known in decibels (dB).
Where the distance covered by the wave is D and
The frequency of the wave is F.

Amplitude Formula is made use of in computing the amplitude of the specifi ed
wave if its frequency and distance are provided.
Amplitude Solved Examples
Underneath we have provided some sample numerical based on amplitude

which might aid you.
Question 1: If y (= 5 sin ω t)represents the wave, fi nd the amplitude of the

wave?
Solution:
Given: y = 5 sin ω t
The equation is of the form
y = A sin ω t
Henceforth, the amplitude is A = 5.
Question 2: Compute the amplitude of the wave if a wave travels a distance

of 0.5 m and has a frequency of 5 Hz.
Solution:
Given: Distance D = 0.5 m,
Frequency f = 5 Hz
The amplitute is given by
Motion and It's Types
AMPERES LAW FORMULA

Andre-Marie Ampere gave the Ampere’s law in 1826. This is one of the basic
law of magnetism which talks about the sum magnetic fi eld through a closed
current carrying hoop. Ampere’s law can be valuable when calculating
magnetic fi elds of current distributions with a high degree of symmetry.
The magnetic fi eld in space an electric current is proportionate to the electric

current which works as its source, just as the electric fi eld in space is
proportional to the charge which serves as its source. Ampere’s Law says that
for any closed loop path, the total of the length elements times the magnetic
fi eld in the direction of the length element is equivalent to the permeability
times the electric current bound in the loop. The law can be articulated in two
arrangements, the “integral form” and the “diff erential form.”
The Ampere’s law formula is,
Where the permeability of the medium is mu and the magnetic fi eld is B ,
the infi nitesimal length is l , the current fl owing through the closed loop is I .
Solved Samples – Ampere’s Law
Now we’ll discuss the problems connected to the Ampere’s law:
Question 1: Compute the magnetic fi eld of a long straight wire that has a
circular loop with a radius of 0.05m. 2amp is the reading of the current fl owing
through this closed loop.
Solution:
Given parameters are,

R = 0.05m and I = 2amp and we know that, μ0μ0 = 4π×10−7π×10−7N/A 2
In the case of long straight wire

Question 2: Compute the magnetic fi eld of a straight wire which is made as a
circular loop with a radius of 0.1m. The current fl owing through this secure loop
is given as 5amp?
Solution:
Known parameters are,

R = 0.1m and I = 5amp and it’s given that,
μ0 = 4π×10−7π×10−7N/A 2
In the case of long straight wire
So,
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
FORMULA
Fundamental to fl uid mechanics Archimedes’ principle is a fundamental law of
physics. Archimedes’ principle indicates that the increasing buoyant force that
is applied on a body submerged in a liquid, whether partially or fully immersed,
is equivalent to the mass of the fl uid that the form displaces. The object will
sink, if the mass of the water displaced is less than the weight of the body,
otherwise, the body will fl oat, with the weight of the water displaced equivalent
to the mass of the object.
When a body is totally or partly submerged in a fl uid it experiences

buoyancy (upward force) that is equivalent to the mass of the fl uid
displaced.
Archimedes Principle Formula is known as
Where, Buoyant force of a given body = F,

Volume of the displaced fl uid = v
acceleration due to gravity = g
As we see that density ρρ = ρf – ρg. Here ρf is the density of the fl uid and ρg is
the density of the body.
Thus, the formula can also be articulated as
Archimedes principle formula is helpful in fi nding the buoyant force, the

volume of displaced body, the density of fl uid or density of body if some of
these numerics are known.
Archimedes Principle Problems Solved Examples

Underneath are given some problems based on Archimedes principle.
Problem 1: A ball of mass 2 kg that has a diameter of 50 cm falls in the pool.

Compute its buoyant force and volume of water displaced.
Answer:
Known:
Mass of water, m = 2 kg,
Diameter of ball, d = 0.5 m r = 0.25 m
The force is given by F = mg. Hence buoyant force is
F = 2 kg × 9.8 m/s 2 = 19.6 N
The Archimedes formula is given by F = ρρ g V d i s p
Hence volume of given body=Volume of displaced liquid
Problem 2: Calculate the buoyant force acting on it, if a stone of mass 250 g
is thrown in water?
Answer:
Known: m (Mass of stone) = 0.25 kg,

The buoyant force is given by
F = mg
= 0.25 ×× 9.8
= 2.45 N.
Thus, 2.45 N of upward force is being applied on the stone.
WORK DONE BY GRAVITY

FORMULA
Gravity is defi ned as the force that attracts a body towards the earth or
towards any other physical body having mass.
If a particular object is falling, the particle is bound to point in the direction of

gravity. The magnitude of the falling body depends on the mass, gravitational
constant and height from which it is falling.
The Work done by gravity formula is given by,
Wg = -mg(∆ h)
Where,
m = mass,
g = gravity,
h= height
The negative sign shows that the particle is dropping from a height Δ h
vertically in the direction of gravity.
If θ is the angle made when the body falls, the work done by gravity is given
by,
W = mgh cosθ
Where, the theta is the angle made when the body falls.
Example 1
A 15 kg box falls at angle 25 ∘ from a height of 10 m. Determine the work done

by gravity.
Solution:
Given:
Mass m = 10 kg,
angle = 23o
The work done by gravity formula is given by,
W = mgh cos θ
W = 15 × 9.8 × 10 cos 25o
= 1470 J
Therefore, the work done by gravity is 1470 J.
Example 2
A boy drags a 10 kg box across frictionless surface. He applies a force of 30 N

at an angle of 32o to the horizontal for 6m. Determine the work done by
gravity.
Solution:
Given:
Mass m = 10 kg,
Force F = 30 N,
angle θ = 32o,
Displacement s = 6m
The work done by gravity formula is,
W = mgh cos θ
W = 10 x 9.8 x 6 × cos 32o
W = 490.392 J.
the work done by gravity is 490.392 J
SNELLS LAW FORMULA

Snell’s law tells us the degree of refraction and relation between the angle of
incidence, the angle of refraction and refractive indices of given pair of media.
We know that light experiences the refraction or bending when it travels from
one medium to another medium. Snell’s law predicts the degree of the bend. It
is also known as the law of refraction. In 1621, Willebrord Snell discovered the
law of refraction, hence called Snell’s law.
Snell’s law is defi ned as “The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour and
for the given pair of media”. Snell’s law formula is expressed as:
Where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction. This constant
value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the
fi rst.
The following is a diagrammatic representation:

The normal on the surface is used to gauge the angles that the refracted ray
creates at the contact point. n1 and n2 are the two diff erent mediums that will
impact the refraction.
Derivation:
Let’s derive Snell’s law formula using Fermat’s principle. Fermat’s principle
states that “light travels in the shortest path that takes the least time”.
Let the refractive index of medium

1 and medium 2 are n1 and n2 respectively. Light enters from medium 1 to
medium 2 through the point O. Here, θ1 is the angle of incidence; θ2 is the
angle of refraction.
The traveling velocities of light in medium 1 and medium 2 are given by:
Where ‘c’ is the speed of light in vacuum
Let T be the time required for the light to travel from point P to point Q.
=0—————— (1)
Substitute the values in equation 1, we get
Substitute the values of v1 and v2,
Hence proved
Applications of Snell’s Law Formula in Real Life:
Snell’s law has a wide range of applications in the physics especially in the
branch of optics . It is used in optical apparatus such as eyeglasses, contact
lenses, cameras, rainbows. There is an instrument called a refractometer that
uses Snell’s law to calculate the refractive index of liquids. It is used all the
time in the candy-making industry.
Solved Examples:
Question 1: If a ray is refracted at an angle of 14° and the refractive index is

1.2, compute the angle of incidence.
Solution: Given,
Angle of refraction, r = 14°
Refractive index, μ = 1.2
Using Snell’s law formula,

Question 2: If the angle of incidence is 25° and angle of refraction is 32°, fi nd
the refractive index of the media.
Solution: Given,
Angle of incidence, i = 25°
Angle of refraction, r = 32°
Using Snell’s law formula,
To solve more problems on the topic, download Byju’s -The Learning App.
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

FORMULA
Elastic potential energy is the potential energy stored by stretching or
compressing an elastic object by an external force such as the stretching of a
spring. It is equal to the work done to stretch the spring which depends on the
spring constant k and the distance stretched.
According to Hooke’s law, the force applied to stretch the spring is directly
proportional to the amount of stretch.
In other words,
Force required to stretch the spring is directly proportional to its displacement.

It is given as
Wherein,
k = spring constant
x = displacement
The Elastic Potential Energy Formula of the spring stretched is given as
Where,
P.E = elastic potential energy and it’s expressed in Joule.
Example 1
A compressed spring has potential energy of 40 J and its spring constant is 200
N/m, calculate the displacement of the spring.
Solution:
Given:
Potential energy P.E = 20 J,
Spring Constant k = 200 N/m,
The Potential energy formula is given by
P.E = 1 / 2 kx2
the displacement is given by
x = √2P.E / k
= √2×40 / 200
= 0.632 m
Example 2
The vertical spring is linked to a load of mass 5 kg which is compressed by

10m. Determine the Force constant of the spring.
Solution:
Given: Mass m = 5kg
Distance x = 10 cm
Force formula is given by
F = ma
= 5 kg × 9.8 m/s 2
= 49 N
Force in the stretched spring is
F = k x
Force Constant k is given by
= F / x
= 49 / 10
= 4.9 N/m
ANGULAR ACCELERATION
FORMULA
Defi nition: Angular acceleration of an object undergoing circular motion is
defi ned as the rate with which its angular velocity changes with time. Angular
acceleration is also referred to as rotational acceleration. It is a vector
quantity, that is, it has both magnitude and direction.
Angular acceleration is denoted by α and is expressed in the units of rad/s2 or

radians per second square.
Formula:
Angular acceleration can be expressed as given below,

And also in terms of the double diff erentiation of the angular displacement, as
given below,
Derivation:
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity with respect to

time, or we can write it as,
Here, α is the angular acceleration that is to be calculated, in terms of

rad/s2, ω is the angular velocity given in terms of rad/s and t is the time taken
expressed in terms of seconds.
Angular velocity as we know, can be expressed as given below.
Here, ω is the angular velocity in terms of rad/s, v is the linear velocity and r is
the radius of the path taken.
Angular Velocity can also be expressed as the change in angular displacement

with respect to time, as given below.
Where, θ is the angular rotation of the object and t is the total time taken.
Using the above formula, we can write angular acceleration α as
Real Life Example:

Example 1:
An ant is sitting at the edge of a rotating circular disc. It’s angular velocity
changes at the rate of 60 rad/s for 10 seconds. Calculate its angular
acceleration during this time?
Solution:
Given: The change in angular velocity is equal to dω = 60 rad/s. The time

taken for this change to occur is equal to t = 10s.
Using the formula for angular acceleration and substituting the above values,
we get,
Example 2:
The rear wheel of a motorcycle has an angular acceleration of 20 rad/s2 in a

second. What can be said about its angular velocity?
Answer:
Given: The angular acceleration of the wheel is equal to α = 10 ,

Time taken t = 1 s,
According to the formula for angular acceleration,
Angular velocity d is
dω = αdt
dω =20×1 = 20 rad/s
AIR RESISTANCE FORMULA

As we have perceived, the air resistance decreases the speed of a planes that
is moving in the sky.
Air resistance is a force that is initiated by air. This force acts in the confl icting
direction to a body passing through the air. Air resistance exerts the frictional
force of air against a moving body. As a body moves, air resistance decelerates
it down. The quicker the body’s motion, the superior the air resistance applied
against it. Air resistance impacts all moving objects, from bicycles, car, trains,
and rockets to airplanes and even alive bodies. The resistance against the air is
Air resistance, which reduces the speed of the moving body. Its formula is
articulated as,
Where,
air constant is c,
the object’s velocity is v.
Air Resistance Formula is made use of in fi nding the air resistance, air
constant and velocity of the body, if some of these numerics are known. This
formula has wide applications in aeronautics.
Air resistance Solved Samples
Underneath are given some questions based on air resistance which will be
useful to comprehend the concept.
Problem 1: A plane moving with a velocity of 50 ms - 1 has a force constant of
0.05. Calculate its air resistance.
Answer:
Given: v (Velocity of air) = 50 ms - 1 ,

c (Force constant) = 0.05
The force constant is given by F = cv 2 = 0.05 × 2500 = 125 N.
Problem 2: An object is traveling at 20 ms - 1 experiences a force of 50 N.
Calculate the force constant.
Answer:
Given: Velocity of air v = 20 ms - 1 ,

Force F = 50 N,
The force constant is given by
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
FORMULA
The degree to which a body rotates, gives its angular momentum. It is
designated by L. Angular Momentum Formula is articulated as
the angular velocity is ω. The moment of inertia of the rotating body about axis
of rotation is I, and the angular momentum is L,When regarding linear
momentum the Angular momentum is articulated by
the linear momentum is p the radius of the body is r from the axis crossing
through center x signifi es the cross product
It is articulated in kilogram meter square per second (kg m 2 /s). Angular

Momentum formula is made use of in computing the angular momentum of the
particle and also to fi nd the parameters associated to it.
Angular Momentum Samples

Problem 1: A solid cylinder of mass 500 kg rotates about its axis with angular
speed of 90ms - 1 . If the radius of the cylinder is 0.5 m. Compute the angular
momentum of the cylinder about its axis?
Answer:
Given: Mass M = 500 kg,

Angular speed ω = 90 ms - 1 ,
Radius r = 0.5 m,
Moment of Inertia I
The angular momentum is given by L =
Problem 2: Compute the angular momentum of the rod of radius 1 m and

mass 2 kg spinning with velocity 5 rad/s?
Answer:
Given: Radius r = 1 m,
Mass M = 2 kg,
Angular Velocity ωω = 5 rad/s
The angular momentum is articulated by L = I ω
= Mr 2 ω
= 2 × 12 × 5
= 10 kg m 2 s - 1 .
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT
FORMULA
Defi nition: Angular displacement is defi ned as the shortest angle between the
initial and the fi nal points for a given object undergoing circular motion about a
fi xed point. Angular Displacement is a vector quantity that means, it has a
direction as well as magnitude and is represented by a circular arrow pointing
from the initial point to the fi nal point, that is either clockwise or anti clockwise
in direction.
Formula: Angular displacement of a point can be given by using the following

formula,
Where,
Here, θ is the angular displacement of the object through which the movement
has occurred, s is the distance covered by the object on the circular path and r
is the radius of curvature of the given path.
When the acceleration of the object, the initial velocity and the time at which
the displacement is to be calculated is known, we can use the following
formula.
Here, ω is the initial angular velocity, t is the time at which the angular
displacement is to be calculated and α is the angular acceleration of the
object.
Derivation:
Let us consider an object ‘A’ undergoing linear motion with initial velocity ‘u’
and acceleration ‘a’. Let us say, after time t, the fi nal velocity of the object is
‘v’ and the total displacement of the object is ‘s’.
We know that acceleration is defi ned as the rate of change of velocity. Or we

can write,
We can also write it as,
Integrating both the sides, we get,
Also,
As we know v=dxdt, we can write,

v dv=a dx
Upon integrating both the sides of the equation, we get,
Now, substituting the value of u from the fi rst equation into the second
equation, we get,
Dividing both the sides of the equation by 2a, we get,
Upon substituting the value of v instead of u we get,
1) Neena goes around a circular track that has a diameter of 8.5 m. If she runs
around the entire track for a distance of 60 m, what is her angular
displacement?
Answer:
According to question, Neena’s linear displacement, s = 60 m.
Also, the diameter of the curved path, d = 8.5
As we know that, d = 2r, so r = 4.25 m.
And according to formula for angular displacement,
θ = 60m /4.25 m
θ = 14.12 radians
2) Rohit bought a pizza of radius of 0.5 m. A fl y lands on the pizza and walks
around the edge for a distance of 80 cm. Calculate the angular displacement of
the fl y?
Answer:
According to question, the distance travelled by the fl y on the pizza is, s = 80

cm = 0.08 m.
The radius of the pizza is given to be, r = 0.5 m.
Using the formula for angular displacement,

θ = 0.08m/0.5 m
θ = 0.16 radians
AVERAGE SPEED FORMULA

The Average speed, as obvious from the term itself, is the average of
the speed of a moving body for the overall distance it has covered.
The average speed is a scalar quantity, which means, it is only represented by

the magnitude and direction of travel is not important and is linked to the
distance covered by the object.
Average Speed Formula
The formula for average speed is computed by calculating the ratio of

the total distance traveled by the body to the time taken to cover that
space. It is not the average of the speed.
The average speed equation is articulated as:
The equation (2) embodies the average speed formula of an object moving at a
varying speed.
Average Speed Problems

The subsequent samples will help us comprehend how to compute average
speed.
Solved Examples
Problem 1: A runner sprints at a track meet. He completes an 800-meter lap

in 1 minute 20 sec. After the fi nish, he is at the starting point. Calculate the
average speed of the runner during this lap?
Answer:
For calculating the Average speed of the runner, one must calculate the total
distance traveled by him and the overall time taken to complete that distance.
In this case, the distance traveled by him is equal to 800 meters and he has
completed it in 80 seconds.
So, applying formula for the average speed
we have
Problem 2: Vikram drove his car for 4 hours at 50 miles per hour and for 3
hours at the speed of 60 miles per hour. Find his average speed for the
journey?
Answer:
For fi nding the average speed we need to compute the full distance covered by
Vikram.
D 1 = 60 × 3 = 180 miles
D 2 = 50 × 4 = 200 miles
Therefore, the total distance traveled is
D = D1 + D2
D = 180 + 200
D = 380 miles
So Average speed is
ANGULAR SPEED FORMULA
Speed is all about how slow or fast an object moves. To calculate the speed of
the rotational motion, angular speed arises.
Angular Speed Formula computes the distance covered by the body in terms
of revolutions or rotations to the time taken. It is represented by ω and is given
as
Distance traveled is in terms of angle θ is measured in radians and time taken

in seconds. Therefore, the Angular speed is articulated in radians per seconds
or rad/s.
Angular speed for a single complete rotation is known as
The connection between Angular speed and Linear Speed is
Where,
Linear speed = v and

radius of circular path = r
Angular Speed Problems
Underneath are provided some questions on angular speed which helps you to
get an idea of how to use this formula.
Problem 1: Earth takes 365 days to complete a revolution around the sun.
Calculate its Angular speed?
Answer:
Question 2: The wheel of a wagon of radius 1m is traveling with the speed of

5m per second. Calculate its Angular speed.
Solution:
Given: Linear speed V = 5m/s,

Radius of Circular path r = 1m
AVERAGE ACCELERATION
FORMULA
Acceleration: Acceleration of an object is defi ned as its rate of change of
velocity at that instant. It is usually denoted by ‘a’ and is measured in the units
of m/s2. Any object experiencing an unbalanced force, constant or variable,
shows acceleration. In other words, any object undergoing a change in its
velocity, either magnitude, or direction or both is said to be accelerated.
Average acceleration: Average acceleration is defi ned as the ratio of change in
velocity to the change in time for a given interval. Unlike instantaneous
acceleration, average acceleration is calculated for a given interval.
Formula:
Average acceleration is calculated by the following formula,
Here, Δ v is the change in velocity and Δ t is the total time over which the
velocity is changing.
Here the change in velocity and time can be expressed as the diff erence in the
initial and the fi nal velocity. Let us say, the initial time is denoted by ti, and
the velocity at this time is observed to be vi. After some time it attains the
fi nal velocity vf when the time is tf. The above expression for average
acceleration can be written as
Here, the initial velocity is vi, the fi nal velocity is vf, the initial time is ti and
the fi nal time is tf.
Also, if the object shows diff erent velocities, such as v1, v2, v3…vn for
diff erent time intervals such as t1, t2, t3…t3respectively, the average
acceleration is calculated using the following formula,
Real Life Example
If the velocity of a marble increases from 0 to 60 cm/s in 3 seconds, its average

acceleration would be 20 cm/s/s. Meaning that the marble’s velocity will go up
by 20 cm/s each second.
Average acceleration Problems
Example 1: A bus accelerates with an initial velocity of 10 m/s for 5s then 20

m/s for 4s fi nally for 15 m/s for 8s. What can be said about the average
acceleration of the bus?
Solution:
It is given that, the velocities of the bus at diff erent time intervals is, v1 = 10
m/s, v2 = 20m/s, v3 = 15m/s
The time intervals for which the object possesses these velocities are t1 = 5s,
t2 = 4s, t3 = 8s
Hence, over the interval, the total velocity can be given as the sum of these
velocities.
Similarly, the total time interval can be given as the sum of these intervals,
Using the above formula for average acceleration, we get,
Question 2: A sparrow, while going back to its nest accelerates to 6 m/s from
3 m/s in 5s. What can we say about its average acceleration?
Solution:
As given in the question, the initial velocity vi = 3m/s,

And the fi nal velocity vf = 6m/s
Also, the total time interval over which the velocity changed can be given as, t
= 5 s
Using the above mentioned formula for average acceleration, we get,
ANGULAR VELOCITY FORMULA

Angular velocity is a vector quantity and is described as the rate of change of
angular displacement which specifi es the angular speed or rotational speed of
an object and the axis about which the object is rotating. The amount of
change of angular displacement of the particle at a given period of time is
called angular velocity. The track of the angular velocity vector is vertical to
the plane of rotation, in a direction which is usually indicated by the right-hand
rule.
It is articulated as
Where, d θ is change in angular displacement,
dt is change in time t.
Angular Velocity Formula is given by
Where, θθ is angular displacement and
t is the time taken.
The Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity is articulated by the formula
Where,
the linear velocity is V
the radius of circular path is r
Angular velocity is articulated in radian per second (rad/s). Angular Velocity

formula is used to compute the angular velocity of any moving body.
Angular Velocity Problems

Underneath are given some problems based on Angular velocity which may be
helpful for you.
Solved Examples
Problem 1: Calculate the angular velocity of a particle moving along the

straight line given by θ = 3t 3 + 6t + 2 when t = 5s.
Answer:
Given: θ = 3t 3 + 6t + 2,
time t = 5 s
Problem 2: Find the angular velocity of the second hand of a clock?

Answer:
The second hand of the clock fi nishes 1 complete rotation in 60 s.
Angular velocity ω = 2 π,
Time taken t = 60 s
BUOYANCY FORMULA
It is apparent that kids are astonished when witnessing paper boats fl oat in
water. So what keeps these paper boats fl oating in the water. It is
called Buoyancy
Weight of displaced liquid = Buoyancy
Buoyancy is the phenomena stated by Archimedes which says the body

experiences the upward force when it is completely or partially
submerged in liquid.
The description of buoyancy denotes to whether something can fl oat in air or

water, or the power of water or other fl uids to keep water afl oat, or a positive
disposition. An instance of example for buoyancy is when a boat fl oats over
water. Buoyancy is an upward force applied by a fl uid that opposes the weight
of an immersed object.
Buoyant Force is articulated by the following formulas:
Buoyant force F b , in terms of pressure is articulated by
Where,
P = Pressure and
A = Area
In terms of Area Height and Volume, it is given by
Where
the density of the fluid is ρ ,

the gravity is g,
volume of the immersed part of the body in the fl uid is V.
the height of immersed part is h and
the area is A.
Buoyant force formula helps to determine
Buoyancy Formula Problems
Questions based on Buoyancy are provided below:
Problem 1: A ice cube having density of 0.5 g/cm 3 has a Buoyant force of 9 N,
is immersed in water. Calculate its Volume?
Answer:
Density of ice ρρ = 0.5 g/cm 3 ,

Buoyant force, F b = 9 N,
Problem 2: A wooden log of density 2g/cm 3 and volume 50 cm 2 fall on the

surface on water. Calculate its Buoyant force?
Answer:
Given: Density ρ = 2 g/cm 3 ,

Volume v = 50 cm 2 ,
Buoyant force is given by F b = ρρ g v
= 2 × 10 - 3 × 10 6 Kg/m 3 × 9.8 m/s 2 × 50 × 10 - 4 m 2
= 98 N.
BEAT FREQUENCY FORMULA

Beat is a word linked to sound waves. The beat frequency is not anything but
the diff erence in frequency of two wave. It is because of the constructive and
destructive interferences. When two sound waves of dissimilar frequency
approach your ear, the alternating productive and damaging interference
causes the sound to be alternatively loud and soft – a phenomenon which is
termed as “beating” or producing beats. The beat frequency is equivalent to
the complete value of the alteration in frequency of the two waves. The count
of beats per second is equivalent to the diff erence in frequency. Conferring to
these interferences, sound will be loud or soft. Actually, the beat frequency is
the complete value of the diff erence in wave frequencies. The formula for the
beat frequency is,
Where the frequency of two waves are f 1 and f 2 .
Beat Frequency Problems
Let us converse over the numerical of beat frequency.
Problem 1: Compute the beat frequency if the two frequencies of waves are
750Hz and 380Hz respectively?
Answer:

f 1 = 750Hz and f 2 = 380Hz
The beat frequency is given by,
fb = |f2−f1|
fb = |380−750|= 370Hz
Problem 2: Compute the beat frequency if the wave frequencies are 550Hz
and 1000Hz respectively?
Answer:
Known numerics are,

f 1 = 550Hz and f 2 = 1000Hz
Thus, the beat frequency is articulated by,
fb = |f2−f1|
fb = |1000−550|= 450Hz
BREWSTERS LAW FORMULA

Brewster’s Law Brewster derived a relation amongst the polarizing angle ip and
the refractive index mu which is well known as Brewster’s law. This says that
the tangent of the polarizing angle is numerically equivalent to the refractive
index of the medium.
A polarizing angle is created when at a certain angle of incidence, the refl ected
light is completely polarized, and this specifi c value of the angle of incidence is
identifi ed as polarizing angle. The polarizing angle ip hinges on on the
refractive index mu of the transparent material.
The relation is articulated by “µ = tan ip”
When unpolarized light is found to be incident on a transparent medium at any

polarizing angle then the transmitted and refl ected rays are vertical to each
other.
Examples
Some numerical on Brewster’s Law are mentioned below: Solved Samples
Problem 1: Refractive index of a polarizer is found to be 1.9128. Find the

polarization angle and angle of refraction?
Answer:
Refractive index of the polarizer = 1.9128
The Brewster’s law is μ = tan ip
Or, ip = tan−1tan−1 (1.9128)

Or, ip = 62o 24’
Now, Angle of refraction
It is given that ip + ir = 90 degrees
Thus, angle of refraction or ir = 90 – 62o 24’
Angle of refraction = 27.6 o
Problem 2: Compute the Brewster’s angle of light that is traveling from water
(n = 1.33) into air ?
Answer:
AVERAGE VELOCITY FORMULA

As the word states, Average Velocity is the average value of the known
velocities. Displacement over total time is Average Velocity. The average speed
of an object is described as the distance traveled divided by the time gone.
Velocity is a vector unit, and average velocity can be described as the
displacement divided by the time. The units for velocity can be understood
from the defi nition to be meters/second or in common any distance unit over
any time unit. The average speed of a body is described as the distance
covered divided by the time elapsed.
It is useful in determining the average value of speed if the body is varying
continuously for the given time intervals.
It is known as V a v . Average Velocity Formula fl uctuates based on the given

problem.
If any distances x i and x f with their corresponding time intervals t i and t f are
given we use the formula
Where x i = Initial Distance,

Final distance = x f ,
Initial time = t i ,
Final time = t f .
If fi nal Velocity V and Initial velocity U are known, we make use of the formula
Where,
U = Initial Velocity and
V = Final Velocity.
If there are diverse distances like d 1 , d 2 , d 3 ……. d n for diverse time intervals t 1 ,
t 2 , t 3 ,… t n then
Average Velocity Problems
Below are problems based on Average Velocity:

Problem 1: Compute the average velocity at a specifi c time interval of a
particle if it is moves 5 m at 2 s and 15 m at 4s along x-axis?
Answer:
Given: Initial distance traveled, x i = 5 m,

Final distance traveled, x f = 15 m,
Initial time interval t i = 2s,
Final time interval t f = 4s.
Problem 2: A car is moving with an initial velocity of 20 m/s and it touches its
destiny at 50 m/s. Calculate its average velocity.
Answer:
Given: Initial Velocity U = 20 m/s,

Final velocity V = 50 m/s.
BULK MODULUS FORMULA

The Bulk Modulus is the relative change in the volume of a body produced by a
unit compressive or tensile stress acting over its surface uniformly.
The bulk modulus describes how a substance reacts when squeezed uniformly.
When the external forces are perpendicular to the surface, it is distributed
uniformly over the surface of the object. This may occur when an object is
immersed in a fl uid and undergo a change in volume but no change in shape.
The ∆P is volume stress defi ned as the ratio of the magnitude of the change in
the amount of force ∆F to the surface area.
The bulk modulus of any liquid is a measure of its compressibility and the
pressure required to bring about a unit change in its volume.
Hence, Bulk modulus formula is given by
K = V(∆P) / ∆V
Where,
∆P denotes change in pressure
∆V denotes change in volume
The units for the bulk modulus K are psi or kPa.
Example 1
Determine the change in volume if the atmospheric pressure of 0.1 MPa of an

aluminium block is reduced to zero when this unit is put in a vacuum. The bulk
modulus of aluminium is 120000 MPa.
Solution
Bulk Modulus K = (−ΔP) / ΔV/V
∆V / V = −(∆P) / K
∆V / V = −(−0.1) / 120000
∆V / V = 8.3 x 10-3
Hence, the fractional change in volume is 8.3 x10-3
Example 2
In ammunition testing center the pressure is found to be 255 MPa. Calculate

the change in volume of the piece of copper piece when subjected to this
pressure in percentage. The bulk modulus of copper is 1.38 x 1011 Pa.
Solution
The pressure in the testing center is 255 MPa.
The bulk modulus is K = (−ΔP) / ΔV(V)
(−ΔP) because ∆ V is negative when the ∆ P is positive
The change in percentage = (ΔV / V) × 100
= (ΔP / K) × 100
= 255×106 / 1.38×1011
Therefore, the change in volume percentage is 0.184 %
BEAM DEFLECTION FORMULA

Defl ection is the degree to which a particular structural element can be
displaced by a considerable amount of load. It can be referred to an angle or
distance.
The distance of defl ection of a member under a load is directly related to the
slope of the defl ected shape of the member under that load. It can be
calculated by integrating the function that describes the slope of the member
under that load.
The Beam is a long piece of a body capable of holding the load by resisting the
bending. The defl ection of the beam towards a particular direction when force
is applied on it is called Beam defl ection.
Based on the type of defl ection there are many beam defl ection formulas given
below,
w = uniform load (force/length units)
V = shear
I = moment of inertia
E = modulus of elasticity
d = defl ection
M = moment
PINNED-PINNED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD
V = w (L/2 – x)
M = wx/2 (L – x)
δ = wx/24EI (L 3 – 2 Lx 2 + x 3 )
FIXED-FIXED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD
V = W (L/2 – x)
M = W/12 (6Lx – L 2 – 6x 2 )
δ = wx 2 /24EI (L – x) 2
PINNED-FIXED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD
V = w(3L/8 – x)
M = wx (3L/8 – x/2)
δ = wx/48EI (L 3 – 3Lx 2 + 2x 3 )
FREE-FIXED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD
V = – wx
M = – wx 2 /2
δ = w/24EI (x 4 – 4L 3 x + 3L 4 )
PINNED-PINNED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD
V = Pb/L – P (x-a) 0
M = Pbx/L – P (x-a) 1
δ = P/6EI [bx3/L – abx/L (2L – a) – (x – a) 3 ]

FIXED-FIXED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD
V = Pb 2 /L 3 (L + 2a) – P(x – a) 0
M = −Pab 2 /L 2 + Pb 2 x/L3 (L + 2a) – P (x – a) 1
δ = P/6EI [b 2 x 3 /L 3 (L + 2a) – 3ab2x2/L2 – (x – a) 3 ]
PINNED-FIXED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD
V = Pb 2 /2L 3 (2L + a) – P(x – a) 0
M = Pb 2 x/2L 3 (2L + a) – P (x – a) 1
δ = P/6EI[b 2 x 3 /2L 3 (2L + a) – 3ab 2 x/2L – (x – a) 3 ]

FREE-FIXED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD
V = -P(x – a) 0
M = -P(x – a) 1
δ = P/6EI [3b 2 x – 2L 3 – a 3 – (x – a) 3 ]
Example 1
A pinned-pinned beam of length 50 cm is put under uniform load of 60 gms

having x as 5 cm. Determine the shear.
Solution:
Given parameters are
Length L = 50 cm
Uniform load w = 60 gms
Displacement x = 5 cm
The shear is given by V = w (L/2 – x)
= 0.06 kg (0.5/2 m – 0.05 m)

= 0.06 kg (0.25 – 0.05)m
= 0.012 kgm.
Question 2: n fi xed-fi xed beam of length 30 cm is put under uniform load of

200 gm having x as 20 cm. Determine the moment.
Solution:
Length L = 30 cm,
Uniform load w = 200 gms,
The moment is
V = −wx 2 /2
= −0.2kg×0.2 2 / 2
= 0.004 kg m 2 .
CAPACITANCE FORMULA
Capacitance is used to describe how much charge any conductor can hold. It
represents the ratio of the charge fl owing across the conductor to the potential
applied. Capacitors are the conductors used for holding charges.
Capacitance is the ability of a substance to store an electrical charge. Any

object that can be electrically charged shows capacitance. A parallel-plate
capacitor is the common form of energy storage device. Capacitance is
exhibited by a parallel plate arrangement and defi ned in terms of charge
storage. When a capacitor is charged completely, there is a potential diff erence
between its plates, and larger the area of the plates and/or smaller the
distance between them, greater will be the charge of the capacitor and greater
will be its Capacitance.
Capacitance Formula is expressed as
C = Q / V
Where,
Q denotes the charge of the conductor,
V denotes the potential applied across the conductor and
C is proportionality constant, called capacitance
If the capacitors are connected in series, the capacitance formula is expressed

by
If capacitors are connected in parallel, the capacitance formula is expressed by
Where C1,C2,C3…….Cn are the capacitors and Capacitance is expressed in

Farads
Example 1
Determine the capacitance of the capacitor if 5 coulomb of charge is fl owing

and 2V of potential is applied.
Solution
Charge Q is 5 C,
Voltage applied V is 2 V
the Capacitance formula is given by

C = Q / V
= 5 / 2
= 2.5 F
Example 2
Determine the capacitance if capacitors 6 F and 5 F are connected
(i) In series and
(ii) In parallel
Solution
The capacitance in series formula is given by
Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2
= C1+C2 / C1C2
= 6+5 / 30
= 0.367 F
The capacitance in parallel formula is given by
Cp = C1 + C2
= 6 + 5
= 11 F
BUFFER SOLUTION FORMULA

A buff er solution is an aqueous solution comprising a mixture of a weak acid
and its conjugate base, or vice versa. There is a minute change in its pH when
a small or moderate amount of strong acid or base is added to it and that’s the
reason it is used to prevent changes in the pH of a solution.
The pH value of water solvent is 7, but if we add a few drops of HCl or NaOH
solution, its pH decreases or increases respectively. Therefore it is necessary to
have solutions whose pH does not change even on addition of strong alkalies or
strong acids. Such solutions are called buff er solutions.
Buff er capacity is the capacity of a buff er solution to resist change in its pH.
The equation is given by,
pH = pKa + log [Salt] / [Acid]
The pH of any acidic buff er solution is always less than 7 and the pH of any
basic buff er solution is always greater than 7.
Example 1
Determine the ratio of concentrations of Formate ion and formic acid in a buff er
solution so that its pH is required to be 4? Identify the pH of this buff er to have
the maximum buff er capacity? Ka of formic acid is 1.8 × 10-4.
Solution
We have the equation
pH = pKa + log[Salt] / [Acid]
4 = – log(1.8 × 10-4) + log[Formate] / [Formic acid]
4 = 3.74 + log [Formate] / [Formic acid]
log[Formate] / [Formic acid]
= 4 – 3.74 = 0.26
[Formate] / [Formic acid]= 1.8

The buff er capacity would be maximum near the pKa of the acid.
For maximum buff er capacity
pH = pKa = -logKa
= -log(1.8 × 10-4)
= 3.74
buff er capacity = 3.74
Example 2
Calculate the volume of 0.2M solution of acetic acid that needs to be added to
100ml of 0.2M solution of sodium acetate to obtain a buff er solution of pH 5.00.
pKa of acetic acid is 4.74.
Solution
We have the equation,
pH = pKa + log[Salt] / [Acid]
log[Salt] / [Acid] = pH – pKa
= 5 – 4.74
= 0.26
[Salt] / [Acid] = 1.82
Number of moles of sodium acetate
= 100×0.2 / 1000
= 0.02 mol
Let volume of 0.2M acetic acid added = V mL
Number of moles of acetic acid = V×0.2 / 1000
0.02 / V× 0.2/1000 = 1.82
Therefore,
V = 0.02×1000 / 0.2×1.82
= 55 mL
55 mL of acetic acid is added
BERNOULLIS EQUATION
FORMULA
Water in a hydraulic system exhibits two types of energy – kinetic and
potential. Kinetic energy when water is in motion and potential is when there is
water pressure. The sum of both kinetic and potential forms is the total energy
of water. According to Bernoulli’s principle, the total energy of the liquid
remains constant and hence when water fl ow in a system increases, the
pressure must decrease.
Bernoulli’s principle states that for an inviscid fl ow of a nonconducting fl uid, an

increase in the speed of the fl uid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in
pressure or decrease in the potential energy. Bernoulli’s principle can be
applied to various types of liquid fl ow, resulting in what is denoted as
Bernoulli’s equation. The simple form of Bernoulli’s principle is applicable for
incompressible fl ows.
The Bernoulli’s equation formula is given by

E = Z+ P / W + V2 / 2g
where,
E denotes total energy
z is the height of the water
P means pressure
w is the unit weight of water
V indicates fl ow velocity
g is acceleration due to gravity
Example 1
A pipe has an internal diameter of 2.2 cm and pressure of 2.5 x 105 Pa supplies
water into a house. Calculate the pressure of fl ow in the pipe which enters with
an inlet pipe diameter of 1.5 cm at a height of 5m above ground. The inlet pipe
fl ow speed is 1.8 m / s.
Solution
v2 =a1v1 / a2 or (pie) ∗ (1.1)2
= 2.178 / 0. 5625
=3.872 m/s
P2 = 2.5∗105 Pa – 1/2[1∗103 kg/m3] [14.99 − 3.24] – [1 * 103] [9.8] [5]
P2= (2.5 x 105) – (5.88 x 103) – (49 x 103)Pa
P2 = 1.95 * 105 Pa
CENTER OF MASS FORMULA
All the bodies have a point where its total mass is concentrated, and we can lift
it by applying force on that particular point.
Center of mass is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the
distributed mass sums to zero or the point where if a force is applied causes it
to move in the direction of strength.
Center of Mass refers to a point where whole body’s mass is concentrated.
If there are two masses (m1, m2) separated by distances x1 and x2 from a
fi xed point. The Center of Mass (X) is expressed by
If there are n number of masses (m1, m2,..mn) having distances x1, x2,……
xn then the Center of mass (X) is expressed by
Center of Mass Formula is used to fi nd the center of mass of any given number
of bodies when their respective masses and distances are known. Center of
mass is expressed in meters (m) because we are fi nding the distance where the
center of mass is located.
Example 1
Determine the Center of the mass of the two bodies having weights of 2 Kg and
3kg separated by the distance of 10 cm.
Solution
m1 = 2 Kg,
m2 = 3 Kg,
x1 = 0 m,
x2 = 0.10 m.
The Center of mass formula is expressed as
X = m1x1+m2x2 / m1+m2
= 2×0 + 3×10 / 2 + 3
= 30 / 5
= 6 cm.
Example 2
Calculate the Center of the mass of the system having masses 7 Kg, 4 Kg and 3
Kg along the x-axis having distance 5 cm, 6 cm, and 8 cm?
Solution
m1 = 7 Kg
m2 = 3 Kg
m3 = 4 Kg
x1 = 5 cm
x2 = 6 cm
x3 = 8 cm
The Center of mass is expressed by X
= m1x1+m2x2+m3x3 / m1+m2+m3
= 7×5+3×6+4×8 / 7+3+4
6.071 cm
CURRENT DENSITY FORMULA

Current density refers to the density of current and denoted by the symbol J. In
the fi eld of electromagnetism, Current Density is the measure of fl ow of
electric charge in amperes per unit area of cross-section (m²). This is a vector
quantity, with both magnitude and direction. An electrical current fl owing
through and having units of charge per unit time per unit area are measured in
the direction perpendicular to the fl ow of direction.
It concerns about the amount of current fl owing across the given area.
Current Density Formula is expressed as,
J = I / A
Where,
I denotes the current fl owing through the conductor in Amperes and

A denotes the cross section area in m 2
Current density is expressed In A/m 2
Example 1
A 5 mm 2 copper wire has a current of 5 mA of current fl owing through it.

Determine the current density.
Solution
The Given parameters are
Total Current I is 5 mA
Total Area A is 5 mm2
The Current density J = I / A
= 5×10 − 3 / 5×10 − 3
= 1 A/m2
Example 2
Determine the current density of 50 Amperes of current is fl ows through the

battery in an area of 10 m 2 ?
Solution
Given parameters
Current I is 50 A,
Area A is 10 m 2
The current density is given by J = 50 / 10
= 5 A/m 2 .
CURRENT DENSITY FORMULA

Current density refers to the density of current and denoted by the symbol J. In
the fi eld of electromagnetism, Current Density is the measure of fl ow of
electric charge in amperes per unit area of cross-section (m²). This is a vector
quantity, with both magnitude and direction. An electrical current fl owing
through and having units of charge per unit time per unit area are measured in
the direction perpendicular to the fl ow of direction.
It concerns about the amount of current fl owing across the given area.
Current Density Formula is expressed as,
J = I / A
Where,
I denotes the current fl owing through the conductor in Amperes and
A denotes the cross section area in m 2

Current density is expressed In A/m 2
Example 1
A 5 mm 2 copper wire has a current of 5 mA of current fl owing through it.

Determine the current density.
Solution
The Given parameters are
Total Current I is 5 mA
Total Area A is 5 mm2
The Current density J = I / A
= 5×10 − 3 / 5×10 − 3
= 1 A/m2
Example 2
Determine the current density of 50 Amperes of current is fl ows through the

battery in an area of 10 m 2 ?
Solution
Given parameters
Current I is 50 A,
Area A is 10 m 2
The current density is given by J = 50 / 10

= 5 A/m 2 . CONE FORMULA
Cone is a three-dimensional structure having a circular base where a set of line
segments, connecting all of the points on the base to a common point called
apex. A cone can be seen as a set of non-congruent circular discs that are
stacked on one another such that ratio of the radius of adjacent discs remains
constant. You can think of a cone as a triangle which is being rotated about one
of its vertices. There is a predefi ned set of formulas for the calculation
of curved surface area and total surface area of a cone which is collectively
called as cone formula.
Curved surface area of a cone =
Total surface area of a cone =
Where, r is the base radius, h is the height and l is the slant height of the cone.
Derivation:
In order to calculate the curved surface area and total surface area of a cone ,
we divide it into a circular base and the top slanted part. The area of the
slanted part gives you the curved surface area. Total surface area is the sum of
this circular base and curved surface areas.
Area of the circular base:
The base is a simple circle and we know that area of a circle is given as:
Area of a circle=πr²
Where r is the base radius of the cone
Area of the curved surface:
Now if open the curved top and cut into small pieces, so that each cut portion
is a small triangle, whose height is the slant height l of the cone.
Now the area of each triangle =1/2× base of each triangle × l.
∴Area of the curved surface = sum of the areas of all the triangle s
From the fi gure, we know that, the curved surface is equivalent to the
perimeter of the base of the cone.
The circumference of the base of the cone =
∴ Area of the curved surface =
Area of the curved surface= πrl
Total Surface Area of a Cone = Area of the circular base + Area of the curved
surface
Total Surface Area of a Cone =
Total surface area of a cone = πr (l + r)
Solved Examples:
Question 1: Find the total surface area of a cone, if radius is 8.2 cm and
height is 16 cm.
Solution: Given,
Radius r= 8.2 cm
Height h= 16 cm
Slant height,
Total surface area of a cone =
Total surface area of a cone = 3.14 x 8.2(17.98 + 8.2) = 674.4cm²
Question 2: Calculate the curved surface of a cone having base radius 5 cm

and a slant height of 20 cm. (Take )
Solution: Given,
Radius r= 8 cm
Slant height l= 20 cm
Using the formula of curved surface area of a cone,
Area of the curved surface = πrl
Area of the curved surface =
CIRCLE FORMULA
Circle is a particular shape and defi ned as the set of points in a plane placed at
equal distance from a single point called the center of the circle. We use Circle
Formula to calculate the area, diameter, and circumference of a circle. The
length between any point on the circle and its center is known as its radius.Any
line that passes through the center of the circle and connects two points of the
circle is known as the diameter of the circle. Radius is half the length of a
diameter of the circle. Area of the circle describes the amount of space covered
by the circle and the length of the boundary of the circle is known as its
circumference.
Where,
r denotes the radius of the circle.

d indicates the diameter of the circle.
c indicates circumference of the circle.
The Circle Formulas are expressed as,
Diameter of circle = 2r
Circumference of circle = 2 πr
Area of circle = πr 2
Example 1
A circle has a radius 8 cm. Calculate its diameter, area and circumference.
Solution
Radius, r = 8cm
Diameter of a circle is given by
2r
= 2 × 8 cm
= 16 cm
Area of a circle is given by
π r2
= π × 64
= 201.088 cm 2
Circumference of a circle is given by
2 π r
= 2 × π × 8
= 50.272 cm
Example 2
Find the diameter, area and circumference of a circle of radius 15 cm.
Solution
Radius of a circle, r = 15 cm
Diameter of a circle is given by
2r
= 2 × 15
= 30 cm
Area of a circle is given by
π r2
= π ×15 2
= π × 225
= 706.95 cm 2
Circumference of a circle
= 2 π r
= 2 × π × 15
CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL
= 94.26 c
FORMULA
A quadrilateral whose vertices lie on a single circle is called cyclic
quadrilateral. This circle is called the circumcircle, and the vertices are known
to be concyclic.
The sum of the products of opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to

the product of the two diagonals. The opposite angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is
supplementary.
The Cyclic Quadrilateral formula is by a
FORMULA NEEDS TO BE CREATED
√(s−a) (s−b) (s−c) (s−d)
Where s is called the semi-perimeter,
s = a + b +c + d / 2
Example 1
Calculate the area of the quadrilateral when the sides of the quadrilateral are
30 m, 60 m, 70 m and 45 m.
Solution
a=30m
b = 60m
c = 70m
d = 45m
s = a + b +c + d / 2
s = 30+60+70+45 / 2
s = 102.5 m
Area of cyclic quadrilateral is given by
= √ (s−a) (s−b) (s−c) (s−d)
= √(102.5−30)(102.5−60)(102.5−70)(102.5−45)
= 2399.60 square meter
Example 2
Calculate the area of the quadrilateral when the sides of the quadrilateral are
35 m, 77 m, 75 m and 43 m.
Solution
a = 35 m
b = 77 m
c = 75 m
d = 43 m
s = a + b + c + d / 2
s = 35 + 77 + 75 + 43 / 2
s = 115 m
Area of cyclic quadrilateral is given by
√(s−a) (s−b) (s−c) (s−d)
= √ (115−35)(115−77)(115−75)(115−43)
2958.91 square meter
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
FORMULA
Capacitive reactance ( X C ) is a measure of a capacitor’s opposition to
alternating current. It is measured in ohms like resistance but reactance is
more complex than resistance because its value depends on frequency (f) of
the electrical signal passing through the capacitor.
A Capacitor is a current storing device. In electrical and electronic systems,

reactance is all about the opposition of a circuit element to changes in current
or voltage due to that element’s capacitance.
When the capacitor is connected to a DC supply voltage, it becomes charged to

the value of the applied voltage, acts as a temporary storage device and
maintains this charge as long as the supply voltage is present.
Capacitive Reactance Formula is expressed by
Where in,
L = inductance of the circuit,
C = capacitance and
f = frequency of ac mains
Example 1
Calculate the capacitive reactance if 40 mF is connected to a frequency

generator of 50 Hz signal.
Solution
According to given parameters
F= 30 x 10 - 3
C = 50Hz
The capacitance reactance formula is given by
Xc = 1 / 2πfC
= 1 / 2π×40×10 − 3 ×50
= 0.106 Ω
Example
Calculate the reactance of capacitance in an AC circuit wherein the input signal

has a frequency of 100 Hz and a capacitor has a capacitance of 1000mF in a
circuit.
Solution
Given
Frequency f is 100 Hz
Capacitance C is 1000 mF
The capacitance reactance formula is given by
xc = 1 / 2πfc
xc = 1 / 2 π x 200 x 1000 x 10 - 3
= 7.961 Ω
Hence, the capacitive reactance is 7.961 Ω
CENTRIPETAL FORCE FORMULA

A force that acts on a body moving in circular path and directed towards the
center around which the body is moving is called Centripetal force.
When an object travels around a circular path with a constant speed, it

experiences an accelerating centripetal force towards the center.
The equation for centripetal force is as shown below
Fc = mv2 / r
Where
Fc is centripetal force
m is mass
v is velocity
r is the radius of the path
Example 1
A van of 1,250 Kg is traveling at 50.0 m/s covers a curve of radius 2 m.
calculate the centripetal force.
Solution
The given parameters are
mass = 1,250 Kg
radius = 2 m
Velocity = 50.0 m/s
Substitute the values in the given formula
Centripetal Force
f = mv2 / r
f = (1,250 * (50)2) / 2
f = 1250 N
Example 2
A ball has of mass 200 gram is revolving around the circular path of
radius 7 cm. If it completes one revolution in 10 seconds, fi nd the
magnitude and direction of the centripetal force acting on the ball.
Solution
The given parameters are,
mass = 0.2 kg
radius = 0.07 m
Time period = 10 seconds.

We have the equation
W = 2∏ / T
= (2 * 3.14) / 10
W = 0.628 radians per second
Centripetal Force, F = m * r * w2
= 0.2 * 0.07 * (0.628)2
= 0.00552N
CENTROID FORMULA
The Centroid of a Triangle is the center of the triangle which can be determined
as the point of intersection of all the three medians of a triangle. The median is
a line drawn from the midpoint of any one side to the opposite vertex. The
centroid divides all the medians of the triangle in 2:1 ratio.
The Centroid Formula is given by
C = (x1 + x2 + x3 / 3, y1, y2, y3 / 3)
Where in,
C denotes centroid of the triangle.
x1,x2,x3 are the x-coordinates of the vertices of a triangle.
y1,y2,y3 are the y-coordinates of the vertices of a triangle.
Example 1
Determine the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are (5,3), (6,1) and (7,8).
Solution
(x1,y1) = (5,3)
(x2,y2) = (6,1)
(x3,y3) = (7,8)
The centroid formula is given by
C = (x1+x2+x3 / 3 , y1+y2+y3 / 3)
C = (5+6+7 / 3 , 3+1+8 / 3
C = (18 / 3 , 12 / 3)
C = (6,4)
Example 2
Calculate the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are (9,0), (2,8) and (1,4).
Solution

(x1,y1) = (9,0)
(x2,y2) = (2,8)
(x3,y3) = (1,4)
The centroid formula is given by,
C = (x1+x2+x3 / 3 , y1+y2+y3 / 3)
C = (9+2+1 / 3 , 0+8+4 / 3)
C = (12 / 3,12 / 3)
C = (4,4)
CIRCULAR VELOCITY FORMULA

The movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation
along its circular path is known as circular motion. It may be uniform and
exhibit a constant angular rate of rotation and speed, or non-uniform with
changing rate of rotation.
Rotating around a fi xed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular

motion of its parts. The motion equation describes the movement of the center
of mass of a body. Objects moving in circles possess a speed which is equal to
the distance traveled per time of travel. By multiplying the rotational frequency
with the circumference we can determine the average speed of the object.
The circular velocity formula is expressed as,
vc = 2 πr / T
Where in,
r denotes the radius of the circular orbit
T is time period.
In terms of angular velocity ω, the circular velocity is described as
(FORMULA NEEDS TO BE CREATED)
vc = ω r
Where in,
ω denotes the angular velocity,
r indicates the radius of circular path
Example 1
Determine the circular velocity of a pebble tied to a thread of 0.75 m when

swirled is rotating with angular velocity of 45 radians /s
Solution
Angular velocity ω = 45 rad/s
radius = 0.75 m
The circular velocity formula is given by
vc = ω r
vc = 45 × 0.75
= 33.75 m/s.
Example 2
Determine the circular velocity of the earth if the distance from sun to earth is
149500000 km and
period of earth revolution is 365.25 days.
Solution
radius r = 1495 × 108 m
Period T = 365.25 days
The circular velocity is expressed by
vc = 2πr / T
vc = 2×π×1495×108 / 365.25
= 2.571 × 109 m/s.
CIRCULAR VELOCITY FORMULA

The movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation
along its circular path is known as circular motion. It may be uniform and
exhibit a constant angular rate of rotation and speed, or non-uniform with
changing rate of rotation.
Rotating around a fi xed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular

motion of its parts. The motion equation describes the movement of the center
of mass of a body. Objects moving in circles possess a speed which is equal to
the distance traveled per time of travel. By multiplying the rotational frequency
with the circumference we can determine the average speed of the object.
The circular velocity formula is expressed as,
vc = 2 πr / T
Where in,
r denotes the radius of the circular orbit

T is time period.
In terms of angular velocity ω, the circular velocity is described as
(FORMULA NEEDS TO BE CREATED)
vc = ω r
Where in,
ω denotes the angular velocity,
r indicates the radius of circular path
Example 1
Determine the circular velocity of a pebble tied to a thread of 0.75 m when

swirled is rotating with angular velocity of 45 radians /s
Solution
Angular velocity ω = 45 rad/s
radius = 0.75 m
The circular velocity formula is given by
vc = ω r
vc = 45 × 0.75
= 33.75 m/s.
Example 2
Determine the circular velocity of the earth if the distance from sun to earth is
149500000 km and
period of earth revolution is 365.25 days.
Solution
radius r = 1495 × 108 m
Period T = 365.25 days
The circular velocity is expressed by
vc = 2πr / T
vc = 2×π×1495×108 / 365.25
= 2.571 × 109 m/s.
COULOMBS LAW FORMULA

Coulomb’s law is based on the electrostatic interaction between electrically
charged particles. The law was fi rst published by French physicist Charles
Augustin de Coulomb and was essential in the development of the theory of
electromagnetism.
The law provides the amount of force when two charges are separated by some
distance.
The interaction among charged objects is a non-contact force that acts at some
distance of separation. Every electrical interaction involves a force that
highlights the importance of charged variables.
Coulomb’s law on magnitude states that,

The electrostatic force between the two charged points is directly proportional
to the product of these charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
Coulomb’s Law Formula is expressed as
Wherein,
q 1 =magnitude of fi rst charge
q 2 = magnitude of the second charge
r = distance between the two charges
k = Coulomb Constant ( 9 × 10 - 9 N m 2 /C)
Coulomb’s law formula is applied to calculate the force exerted on the charge
and distance if these quantities are given.
The unit of Coulomb force is expressed in Newton (N).
Example1
If the force between the two charges 5 μ C and 9 μ C is .05 N, Calculate the
distance by which they are separated?
Solution:
Given: Charge q1 = 5 μ C,
Charge q2 = 9 μ C,
Force F = 0.05 N
Electric force constant k = 9 × 10 - 9 Nm 2 /C 2
The force formula is given by F = q1q2 / r2
Distance between them is given by r = q1q2 / F
Distance r = 9×10 - 9 × 5 ×10 − 6 x 9×10 − 6 / 0.05
= 8.1 m.
Example 2
If four protons surround an electron, and they are separated by 2 μ m,

determine the Electrostatic force acting between them.
Charge of proton = 1.6 × 10 - 1 9 C
Charge of electron = – 1.6 × 10 - 1 9 C
Solution
Given:
Charge q1 = 4 protons
= 4 × 1.6 ×10 - 1 9 C = 6.4 × 10 - 1 9 C
Charge q2 = 1 electron
= – 1.6 x 10 - 1 9 C
Electrostatic force formula is given by
F = k q1q2 / r 2
= 9×10 - 9 × 6.4×10 − 1 9 ×−1.6×10 − 1 9 / (2×10−6) 2
= – 2.3 ×10-16 N
CRITICAL ANGLES can be described as the angle of

incidence that off ers an angle of refraction of 90 degrees. Remember that the
critical angle is defi ned as an angle of incidence value. The critical angle will
be 48-6-degrees for water-air boundaries and 61.0-degrees for crown glass-
water boundary.
The real value of the critical angle depends completely on the combination of
materials that are available on each side of the boundary. Let us consider two
diff erent medium
1. Incident medium
2. Refractive medium
Critical angle = Θi that gives a Θr value of 90-degrees
According to Snell’s Law equation, a generic equation for fi nding the critical
angle can be derived easily.
ni *• sine(Θi) = nr • sine (Θr)
ni • sine(Θcrit) = nr • sine(90 degrees)
ni • sine(Θcrit) = nr
sine(Θcrit) = nr/ni
Θcrit= sine-1 (nr/ni) = invsine (nr/ni)

Solved Examples
Example 1
Find the critical angle for the crown glass-air boundary.
The solution to the problem requires the use of the above equation for the
critical angle.
Θcrit = sin-1 (nr/ni) = invsine (nr/ni)
Θcrit = sin-1 (1.000/1.52) = 41.1 degrees
Example 2
Find the critical angle for the diamond-air boundary.
critical angle.
Critical Angle can be described as the angle of incidence that off ers an angle
of refraction of 90 degrees. Remember that the critical angle is defi ned as an
angle of incidence value. The critical angle will be 48-6-degrees for water-air
boundaries and 61.0-degrees for crown glass-water boundary.
The real value of the critical angle depends completely on the combination of
materials that are available on each side of the boundary. Let us consider two
diff erent medium
1. Incident medium
2. Refractive medium
Critical angle = Θi that gives a Θr value of 90-degrees
According to Snell’s Law equation, a generic equation for fi nding the critical
angle can be derived easily.
ni *• sine(Θi) = nr • sine (Θr)
ni • sine(Θcrit) = nr • sine(90 degrees)
ni • sine(Θcrit) = nr
sine(Θcrit) = nr/ni
Θcrit= sine-1 (nr/ni) = invsine (nr/ni)
Solved Examples
Example 1
Find the critical angle for the crown glass-air boundary.
critical angle.
Example 2
Find the critical angle for the diamond-air boundary.
critical angle.

CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR
FORMULA
The capacitor is used to store large amounts of electric current in a small
space. Capacitors include wide applications in electric juicers, electric motors,
fl our mills and other electrical instruments. The potential diff erence between
each capacitor varies. There are many electrical circuits where capacitors are
to be grouped accordingly to get the desired capacitance. There are two
common modes including Capacitors in series and Capacitors in parallel.
It is often used to store the electric charge. The Cylindrical capacitor is a type
of capacitor that possess the shape of a cylinder having an inner radius as a
and outer radius as b.
Formula for cylindrical capacitor is
CLCL = 2πkϵoln(b/a)2πkϵoln(b/a).
Where,
a = inner radius of cylinder,
b = outer radius,
k = dielectric constant,
C/L = capacitance per unit length.
Problem 1: A Cylindrical capacitor having a length of 8 cm is made of two

concentric rings with an inner radius as 3 cm and outer radius as 6 cm. Find
the capacitance of the capacitor.
Answer:
Given:
Length L = 8 cm
inner radius a = 3 cm
outer radius b = 6 cm
CLCL = 2πkϵoln(b/a)2πkϵoln(b/a).
Capacitance, C = L 2πkϵoln(b/a)2πkϵoln(b/a)
C = 8 ×× 10−2−2 m
2π×1×8.854×10−12F/mln(6/3)2π×1×8.854×10−12F/mln(6/3)
C = 6.42 ×× 10−10−10 F.
Capacitance of the capacitor = 6.42 ×× 10−10−10 F.
Problem 2: A cylindrical air capacitor consists of two concentric rings that have
an inner radius of 4 cm and outer radius 7 cm. Find the capacitance per unit
length.
Answer:
Given:
Inner radius a = 4 cm
outer radius b = 7 cm
CLCL = 2πkϵoln(b/a)2πkϵoln(b/a)
= 2π×1×8.854×10−12F/mln(4/7)2π×1×8.854×10−12F/mln(4/7)
= -9.94 ×× 10−11−11 F/m.
Capacitance per unit length = -9.94 ×× 10−11−11 F/m.
CHARGE DENSITY FORMULA

The charge density is the measure of electric charge per unit area of a surface,
or per unit volume of a body or fi eld.
The charge density describes how much electric charge is accumulated in a

particular fi eld. Specifi cally, it fi nds the charge density per unit volume,
surface area, and length. It measures the amount of electric charge per unit
volume of space, in one, two or three dimensions. Charge density may depend
on position, but it can be negative.
The SI unit of Charge density is C.
Charge density formula is given by,
σ = q / A
Where,
q = electric charge
A = area
Similarly, the volume charge density is given by,
ρv = q / v
Where,
q = electric charge
v = volume in m3
The charge density in terms of electric fi eld is given by,
ρ = ϵo / E
Where
E = electric fi eld
ϵo = permittivity
Example1
Determine the charge density of a fi eld if the electric fi eld of 100 N/C is applied
across it.
Solution
Given parameter is,
Electric fi eld E = 100 N/C

ϵo = 8.854 ×10−12 C/N
The Charge density, q is given by
q = ϵo E
= 8.854 × 10−12 × 100
= 1770.8 × 10-12C/m2
Example 2
Determine the charge density if a charge of 6 C/m is present in a cube of 3

m3.
Solution
Charge q = 6 C/m
Volume v = 3 m3
The charge density formula is given by
ρv = q / v
= 6 / 3
Charge density = 2 C/m2
COMBUSTION FORMULA
What is combustion?
Combustion is a rapid chemical reaction of a substance with oxygen involving

the production of heat and light. Combustion is an exothermic reaction
accompanied by the development of heat so that temperature rises
considerably.
Combustion reaction with insuffi cient oxygen produces carbon monoxide

instead of carbon dioxide. In general combustion processes, oxidation-
reduction reactions where oxidizing agent is the oxidant and the reducing
agent is the fuel.
Combustion Formula is expressed by
Heat of combustion = Heat of formation of products – Heat of formation of

reactants.
The easiest way to identify a combustion reaction is that the products always
contain carbon dioxide and water.
 Complete Combustion is an oxidation of hydrocarbon producing only

carbon dioxide and water. Example for clean combustion is burning of
candle wax, where the heat from the wick vaporizes wax (a hydrocarbon),
which reacts with oxygen to release carbon dioxide and water
 Incomplete Combustion is hydrocarbon oxidation that produces carbon

monoxide and/or carbon (soot) in addition to carbon dioxide. Example of
incomplete combustion is burning of coal, where a lot of soot and carbon
monoxide is released.
Example 1
Combustion of methane
CH 4 (g) + 2 O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O(g)
Example 2
Burning of naphthalene
C 1 0 H 8 + 12 O 2 → 10 CO 2 + 4 H 2 O
Example 3
Combustion of ethane
2 C 2 H 6 + 7 O 2 → 4 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O
Example 4
Combustion of butane ( found in lighters)
2C 4 H 1 0 (g) +13O 2 (g) → 8CO 2 (g) +10H 2 O(g)
Example 5
Combustion of methanol ( wood alcohol)
2CH 3 OH(g) + 3O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g) + 4H 2 O(g)
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
FORMULA
Defi nition
For an object undergoing a circular motion or a curvilinear motion experiences

a force directed towards the centre of curvature of the path. Here, the velocity
of the object may be constant or changing throughout, but the direction of the
tangential velocity always changes throughout the motion. Since velocity is a
vector quantity, the change in direction changes the velocity. The rate of
change of tangential velocity is defi ned as the centripetal acceleration. Since
the centripetal force, responsible for the circular motion of the object acts
inwards, the centripetal acceleration also acts inwards, along the radius vector
of the circular path.
Formula
As mentioned above, the centripetal acceleration is defi ned as the rate of

change of tangential velocity, we can write it as,
Centripetal Acceleration = rate of change of tangential velocity
We can also write it as,

The centripetal force acting on an object moving on a circular or curvilinear
path is given as,
So, the acceleration acting on the object can be given as,
Also, as we know, the tangential acceleration is given as,
Where,
r = radius of curvature,
α = angular acceleration and
ω = angular speed.
The total acceleration in a circular path is
REAL LIFE EXAMPLE

The most common real life application of the centripetal acceleration and force
that you can easily relate to is that of the roller coasters. Unlike the previously
used circular loops, the roller coasters are today designed with the teardrop-
shaped clothoid loops. Centripetal acceleration is experienced in the clothoid
loops.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: A plane is circulating around a path of radius 4 km. The speed of
the jet is a constant 10 km/s. What is the centripetal acceleration?
Solution:
Radius of the circular path = 4 km = 4 × 1000 m = 4000 m

Velocity = 10 km/sec = 10 × 1000 m/sec = 10,000 m/sec
Therefore, centripetal acceleration =
Example 2: A ball has a mass of 0.2 kg. It moves around a circular path of
radius(r) 80 cm. Calculate the centripetal force given that it completes 1 round
in every 3 seconds.
Solution:
Mass of the ball = 0.2 kg
Radius of the path = 80 cm = 0.8 m,
Path velocity =
Now, we can calculate the centripetal acceleration by using the formula:
Centripetal Force is given by:
= 0.7008 kgm/s2
To learn more about centripetal acceleration and related topics by watching

video lectures and to solve more examples on them, download Byju’s The
Learning App.
CELL POTENTIAL FORMULA

The driving force of the electron fl ow from anode to cathode shows a potential
drop in the energy of the electrons moving into the wire. The diff erence in
potential energy between the anode and cathode is known as the cell potential
in a voltaic cell.
Formula for cell potential is
E∘cellcell∘ = E∘reductionreduction∘ + E∘oxidationoxidation∘

(or)
Ecellcell = 0.0591n0.0591n log10 C2C1C2C1.
Problem 1: A concentration cell was created by immersing two silver electrodes

in 0.05M and 0.1M AgNO3 solution. Write cell representation, cell reactions and
fi nd the EMF of the concentration cell.
Answer:
The cell representation
Ag|AgNO3 (0.05M) || AgNO3 (0.1M)|Ag
At anode,
Ag →→ Ag+ (0.05M) + e
At cathode,
Ag+ (0.1M) + e →→ Ag
Net cell reaction is,
Ag+ (0.1M) →→ Ag+ (0.05M)
The EMF of a concentration cell,
Ecellcell = 0.0591n0.0591n log10 C2C1C2C1
Ecellcell = 0.059110.05911 log10 0.10.050.10.05
Ecellcell = 0.12 V
Question 2: If a concentration cell of the silver electrode is represented as,
Ag/Ag+ (0.00475 M) || Ag+ (0.043 M)/Ag.

An electrode of higher concentration having Ag+ (0.043 M) acts as cathode
while the other silver electrode having Ag+ ion concentration (0.00475 M) acts
as anode.
Solution:
At anode,
Ag(s) →→ Ag+ + e
At cathode,
Ag+ + e →→ Ag(s)
The net reaction of the concentration cell is,
Ag+ (0.043 M) →→ Ag+ (0.00475 M)
The EMF of the concentration cell is,
Ecellcell = 0.0591n0.0591n log10 C2C1C2C1
Ecellcell = 0.059120.05912 log10 0.0430.004750.0430.00475
Ecellcell = 0.056 V
CALORIMETRY FORMULA
Calorimetry defi nes the act of measuring diff erent changes in state variables of
a body for deriving the heat transfer related to the changes of its states. This
Calorimetry is performed with a calorimeter.
Formula for Calorimetry

Solved Examples
Problem 1: 4.409g sample of propane was burned along with excess oxygen in
the bomb calorimeter. The temperature of the calorimeter raised by 6.85oC.
Find how much energy of heat is released per mole of propane burned under
these conditions.
Answer :
Molar mass of propane (C3H8) = 44.09g/mol.
This enables us to fi nd out the number of moles of propane burned and

therefore the amount of energy released. We need to use the heat capacity of
the calorimeter to correct the eff ect of the calorimeter.
Moles C3H8 = 4.409g C3H8 ×× 1mol C3H844.09g C3H81mol C3H844.09g C3H8

= 0.1000 mol C3H8
Energy change per mole C3H8 = 32.4KJC32.4KJC ×× 6.85oC ×× 10.1000mol

C3H810.1000mol C3H8
= −2.22×103KJ C3H8mol C3H8−2.22×103KJ

C3H8mol C3H8
We add a negative sign to the values because energy is released from this
reaction, where the reaction is exothermic.
Problem 2: What quantity of ice at 0oC can be melted by 100J of heat?
Solution:
Heat to fuse a substance = heat of fusion of the substance ×× mass of the

substance.
This can be expressed by the following formula where q is used to denote heat
measurement made in a calorimeter.
q = m (mass) ×× C (heat of fusion)
Solving for m we get
m = qCqC
= 100J/3.34 ×× 102J/g
= 29.9 ×× 10-2g or 0.299g of ice melted
Because heat is absorbed in this melting this is an endothermic reaction.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
FORMULA
Defi ned in the simplest words, energy is the ability or capacity to do work.
Practically, energy is required to perform every activity or work that you do in
your day to day life. You need energy to walk, run, drive, cook, jump, play, pull
objects, lift kids, and so on. Energy is also required for vehicles to move,
machines to run, bulbs to glow, etc. Energy is very crucial for the existence of
human beings. And it exists in various forms. Some of the most common forms
are heat energy, light energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, tidal energy,
gravitational energy and nuclear energy. One form of energy can easily be
transferred to another. In this section, we will learn about the law of
conservation of energy, the conservation of energy formula and its derivation
along with some examples.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of an isolated
system remains conserved over time. In this defi nition, the isolated system
refers to as a thermodynamic system so designed that no matter or energy can
pass through it.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY FORMULA
The statement of conservation of energy can be written as,
Energy spent in one act = Energy gained in the related act
For a given system, we can write,
As we know, the net amount of energy transfer into or out of any system
occurs in the form of heat (Q), mass (m) and work (W). Hence, we can rewrite
the aforementioned equation as:
Upon dividing all the terms on both sides of the equation by the mass of the
system, the equation represents the law of conservation of energy on a unit
mass basis, as shown below:
Thus, we can write the conservation of energy rate equation as:
REAL LIFE EXAMPLE

We can take the example of a wind mill. The mechanical energy of wind rotates
the turbines of a wind mill, which in turn rotate the shaft of an electric
generator, thus generating electrical energy. Here, we observe that the
mechanical energy of wind gets converted into electrical energy.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Problem: The initial energy and the fi nal energy of a system can be given by
2.95 × 10-3 and 5.86 × 10-3 respectively. Find the energy conservation of the
system.
Solution:
We can use the following formula to compute the energy conservation of the
system:
Problem: A particle of charge equal to that of electron and the charge is 1.67
× 10-27 and mass of the particle is 1.30 × 10-27 kg. Compute the law of
conservation of energy.
Solution:
As per the law of conservation of energy formula, we have:
To watch video lectures and solve more examples on the topic, download Byju’s
The Learning App.
COEFFICIENT OF STATIC
FRICTION FORMULA
Static Friction is a friction which is experienced when an object is placed on a
surface. And, Kinetic friction is due to the movement of an object on a surface.
Friction is well characterized by the coeffi cient of friction and is explained as
the ratio between the frictional force and the normal force. This helps the
object to lie on a surface. The coeffi cient of static friction is a scalar quantity
and denoted as μs.
Formula for coeffi cient of static friction is,
Where, μsμs = coefficient of static friction
F = static frictional force
N = normal force
Solved Examples
Question 1: An object having a mass of 10kg is placed on a smooth surface.

Static friction between these two surfaces is given as the 15N.Find the
coeffi cient of static friction?
Solution:
Given ,
m = 10kg, F = 30N and μsμs = ?
We know that,
Normal force, N = mg
So, N = 10×× 9.81 = 98.1N
μsμs = FNFN
μsμs = 3098.13098.1 = 0.305
Question 2: The normal force and the static frictional force of an object are 50N
and 80N respectively. Find the coeffi cient of static friction?
Solution:
Given,
N = 50N, F = 80N and μsμs = ?
μsμs = FNFN
μsμs = 80508050 = 1.6

DISTANCE SPEED TIME FORMULA
Speed is the rate at which an object moves. It’s a very basic concept in motion
and all about how fast or slow an object can move. Speed is simply Distance
divided by time where Distance is directly proportional to Velocity when time is
constant. Problems related to Speed, Distance, and Time, will ask you to
calculate for one of three variables given.
Formula for Speed Distance Time is mathematically given as:
Speed = Distance/Time
Where
x = Speed in m/s,
d = Distance traveled in m,
t= time taken in s.
Distance traveled formula
If any of the two values among speed, distance and time are given, we can use
this formula and fi nd the unknown quantity.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Question 1: Lilly is driving a scooty with the speed of 6 km/hr for 2hr. Calculate
the distance traveled by her?
Solution:
Given:
Speed of the scooty x = 6km/hr
Time taken t = 2 hr
Distance traveled d = ?
Speed distance time formula is given as

d=xt
Distance traveled d = x × t
= 6 km/hr × 2 hr
= 12 km.
Question 2: A man has covered a distance of 80 miles in 4 hours. Calculate the

speed of the bike?
Solution:
Given : Distance Covered d = 80 miles,
Time taken t = 4 hours
Speed is calculated using the formula: x = d/t
= 80/4
= 20 miles/hr.
Question 3: In a cycle race, a cyclist is moving with the speed of 2 km/hr. He

has to cover a distance of 5 km. Calculate the time will he need to reach his
destiny?
Solution:
Given: Speed x = 2 km/hr,
Distance Covered d = 5 km,
time taken t = ?
Speed is given by formula: x = d x t
Time taken t = x/d
= 2/5
= 0.4 hr
take en by the Cyclist = 0.4 hr
= 1440 s / 24 minutes
DOPPLER SHIFT FORMULA
A Doppler shift is a phenomenon of a change in frequency based on the
observers point of view. The most common analogy of this is standing on the
side of the road and listen to a passing car. As the car approaches, there is a
defi nitive sound. As the car passes, the sound changes to a lower frequency.
This is called a Doppler Shift. There are two types of Doppler shifts:
 Red-Shift or a shift of frequency to a lower wavelength (away from the

observer)
 Blue-Shift or a shift of frequency to a higher wavelength (toward the

observer)
Anything that emits wavelengths – light, radio, gamma rays, and the rest of the
E-M Band – and changes frequency due to movement, a Doppler shift can be
measured. This is the equation:
Question 1: A source and listener are moving towards each other with the
speed of 54 km/hr. If the true frequency of sound emitted by the source is 500
Hz, calculate the observed frequency when both source and listener are moving
towards each other.
Velocity of sound in air = 330 ms - 1 .
Solution:
Given: True frequency, f = 500 Hz,
Velocity of sound, v s = 54 km/hr = 54×1000360054×10003600 = 15 ms - 1 ,
Source and observer moving towards each other

∴∴ Apparent frequency is given by f’ = v+vov−vsv+vov−vs f
= 330+15330−15330+15330−15 ×× 500
= 547.62 Hz.
Question 2: A fi xed source emits sound of frequency 1000 Hz. What is the
frequency as heard by a observer
(i) at rest
(ii) Moving towards the source at a constant speed of 20 ms - 1 and
(iii) Moving away from the source at the same rate.
Solution:
Velocity of sound in air, v = 340 ms - 1 ,
True frequency, f = 1000 Hz,
Velocity of observer, v o = 20 ms - 1
(i) When both the source and observer are at rest, apparent frequency is same
as true frequency
∴∴ Frequency as heard by listener at rest = f = 1000 Hz
(ii) Observer is moving towards the source
∴∴ Apparent frequency f 1 = v+vovv+vov f
= 340+20340340+20340 ×× 1000
= 1059 Hz
(iii) Observer is moving away from the source

∴∴ Apparent frequency f 2 = v−vovv−vov f
= 340−20340340−20340 ×× 1000
= 941 Hz.
DECELERATION FORMULA
You must have noticed that often we slow down the speed of our bikes during
heavy traffi c when more bikes are obstructing us. So, decrease in the speed as
the body moves away from the starting point is defi ned as Deceleration.
It is expressed as
Deceleration also known as the negative acceleration. Hence it is denoted by –

a.
If starting velocity, fi nal velocity and time taken are given, Deceleration
Formula is given by
If initial velocity, fi nal velocity and distance traveled are given, deceleration is
given by
Where,
v = fi nal velocity,
U = initial velocity,
t = time taken,
s = distance covered.
Deceleration Formula is used to calculate the deceleration of the given body

in motion. It is expressed in meter per second square (m/s 2 ).
Solved Examples
Question 1: An automobile moving with with a uniform velocity of 54 Kmph is

brought to rest in traveling a distance of 5 m. Calculate the deceleration
produced by brakes?
Solution:
Given: Initial velocity u = 54 Kmph,
Final velocity v = 0,
Distance covered s = 5m
We know that v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Deceleration a = v2−u22sv2−u22s
= 02−5422×502−5422×5
= −54210−54210
= 291.6 m/s 2 .
Problem 2: A car is moving with a uniform velocity of 40 kmph which is

is then brought to rest by applying brakes after 20s. FInd the
deceleration of the train?
Solution:
Given: Initial velocity u = 40 Kmph,

Final velocity v = 0,
Time taken t = 20s,
Deceleration a = 0−402200−40220
= −160020−160020
= – 800 m/s2.
ELECTRIC FIELD FORMULA

Electric Field is the region produced by an electric charge around it whose
infl uence is observed when another charge is brought in that region where the
fi eld exists.
The force F experienced by electric charge q describes the Electric fi eld lines.
The Electric Field formula is expressed by
If q and Q are two charges separated by distance r, the Electric force is given
by
When we substitute the electric force formula in the electric fi eld formula, we
get Electric Field Formula which is given by,
If the Voltage V is supplied across the given distance r, then electric fi eld
formula is given as
Electric fi eld is measured in N/C.
Example 1
A force of 5 N is acting on the charge 6 μ C at any point. Determine the electric

fi eld intensity at that point.
Solution
Given
Force F = 5 N
Charge q = 6 μ C
Electric fi eld formula is given by
E = F / q
= 5N / 6×10 − 6 C
= 8.33 × 10 5 N/C.
Example 2
Determine the electric fi eld at a distance of 1 A 0 present from the nucleus of

an Helium atom?
Solution
Given parameter is,
Charge in nucleus q = 2 x1.6 ×10 - 1 9 C
= 3.2 ×10 - 1 9 C
Distance r is 10 - 1 0 m
The formula of electric fi eld is given as
E = Kq / r 2
= 9×10 9 × 3.2×10 − 1 9 / (10 –10

)2
= 28.8 × 10 1 0 N/c
DC VOLTAGE DROP FORMULA

Voltage Drop Formula can be used to calculate the voltage drop over an
electrical circuit. It simply defi nes the energy loss while the electric current
moves through the circuit. It often happens with the wires. It is the voltage loss
that happens due to its impedance.
Formula for DC voltage drop formula

Where I = current through the circuit
R = resistance
L= length of the circuit
Solved Examples
Question 1: Calculate the dc voltage drop if an inductor of 3 H is used and 2 A

of current fl ows in 10 s.
Solution:
Given: Inductance L = 3 Henry
current I = 2 A
time T = 10 s
Voltage drop is given by
V = L ITIT
= 3 H ×× 2A10s2A10s
= 0.6 v
Question 2: calculate the distance, if voltage drop is 3 v and current fl ow is 2

A in time 5 s?
Solution:
Given: Voltage drop = 3 v, time taken T = 5 s, current fl ow I = 2 A
Voltage drop is given by
V = L ITIT
Hence Inductance is given by
L = VTIVTI
= 3v×5s2A3v×5s2A
= 7.5 H
EFFICIENCY FORMULA
Effi ciency is the ratio of the work performed by a machine or in a process to
the total energy expended or heat consumed.
Effi ciency refers to how close we can get to a particular outcome of the given
input with as much less wastage as possible. Effi ciency is the ability to
minimize wasting materials, energy, eff orts, and time in performing something
or producing the desired result.
Effi ciency can be determined quantitatively by the ratio of useful output to

total input. The ratio of energy transferred to a useful form compared to the
total energy supplied initially is called the effi ciency of the device.
Efficiency is denoted by η.
Effi ciency formula regarding Work is given as
Effi ciency formula regarding Energy is given as
Effi ciency formula is applied to calculate the effi ciency of any given input. It
has no unit and expressed in percentage.
Example 1
If a cyclist puts 600 J of work on his bicycle and the bicycle gives out 140 J of
useful work. Calculate the effi ciency of a cyclist.
Solution:
Given:
Work Input = 600 J,
Work Output = 140 J
The effi ciency is given as
η = Work Output / Work Input × 100 %
= 140 / 600 × 100 %
= 23.3 %
Example 2
A heat engine gives out 500 J of heat energy as useful work. Determine the
energy supplied to it as input if its effi ciency is 40%.
Solution:
Given:
Energy output = 500 J
Efficiency η = 40 %
Efficiency η = Energy Output / Energy Input× 100 %
∴ Energy input = Energy Output / η

= 500 / 0.40
= 1250 J
ELECTRIC POWER FORMULA

Electric power can be described as the rate of doing work. The Power of SI unit
is watt is denoted as P . Power formula connects the time, voltage and charge.
Individuals can alter the formula using Ohm’s law. The formula for power is
articulated as,
The power formula’s alternate arrangement by making use of Ohm’s law

is
Where
the electric charge is Q
the voltage is V
the time is t
the resistance is R
Electric Power Solved Examples
Let us check out the numerical of electric power in detail in this segment.
Problem 1: If the current and voltage of an electric circuit is given as 2.5A and
10V respectively. Calculate the electrical power?
Answer:
Given measures are,

I = 2.5A and V = 10V
The formula for electric power is,
P = VI
P = 10 × 2.5 = 25watts
Problem 2: Calculate the power of an electrical circuit consisting of resistance

3Ω and a current 4A flowing through this circuit?
Answer:

I = 4A and R = 3Ω
Electric power formula is,
P = I2R
P = 4 2 ×3
P = 16×3 = 48 watts
The Energy consumption is given by,
Therefore, the energy consumption is 3600J
ENERGY DENSITY FORMULA

Energy Density is defi ned as the total amount of energy in a system per unit
volume. For example, the amount of calories per gram of food. Food stuff s that
has low energy density provide less energy per gram of food which means that
you can eat more of them since there are fewer calories.
It is denoted by letter U.
Magnetic and electric fi elds can also store the energy.
In case of electric fi eld or capacitor, the energy density formula is given by

The energy density formula in case of magnetic fi eld or inductor is given by,
Regarding electromagnetic waves, both magnetic and electric fi eld are equally
involved in contributing to energy density. Therefore, the formula of energy
density is the sum of the energy density of electric and magnetic fi eld.
Example 1:
Find the energy density of a capacitor if its electric fi eld, E = 5 V/m.
Solution:
Given,
E = 5V/m
We know that,
ϵ0 = 8.8541×10−12 F/m
The energy density formula of capacitor is given by
U = 1 / 2 ϵ0E2
= 1 / 2 × 8.8541×10 − 1 2 ×5 2
= 1.10×10 − 1 0 FV 2 /m 3
Example 2:
Find the energy density of an inductor whose magnetic fi eld is 0.7T.

Solution
Given,
B = 0.5T
We know that,
μ0= 4π×10 − 7 π NA - 2
Energy density formula for inductor is given as,
U = 1 / 2μ0B 2
U = 1 / 2×4π×10 − 7 ×0.5 2
= 9.947×10 4 A 2 T/N
FRICTION FORMULA
Friction is the hindering force that comes into play when two items are
interacting with each other.
Friction formula is typically
given as
The numeric’s are, the magnitude of friction is F f , the coeffi cient of friction is
μ and the magnitude of normal force is F n .
The Normal force is equivalent to the Weight of the given body. Therefore,
Normal force (F n ) is articulated by:
Where,
the mass of the object is m and g is the gravity.
Friction formula was made use of to compute the friction between any two
given bodies.
Friction Solved Examples
Underneath are problems on friction which helps to know where the formula
can be used:
Problem 1: A child is pulling a box of mass 10 Kg. What is the standard force
acting and also calculate the frictional force if the coeffi cient of friction μ is
0.3?
Answer:
Given: Mass, m = 10 Kg,
Normal force, F n =?
Normal force is given by Fn = mg
= 10 Kg × 9.8 m/s 2
= 98 N.
The Frictional force is articulated by F f = μ Fn
= 0.3 × 98 N.
= 29.4 N.
Problem 2: Nancy of mass 40 Kg is slipping on the frost. If the coeffi cient of

friction acting is 0.45. Find the frictional force acting between her and frost
layer?
Answer:
Given: Mass m = 40 Kg,

Coeffi cient of friction μ = 0.3,
The Normal force is articulated by Fn = mg
= 40 Kg × 9.8 m/s 2
= 392 N.
The Frictional force is articulated by F f = μ Fn
= 0.45 × 392 N
= 176.4 N.
ESCAPE SPEED FORMULA

Velocity or Escape speed is the speed of a body at which the total of the
kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is zero. In a diff erent sense, it
can be described as the speed required to break the gravitational attraction.
The formula for escape speed is articulated as,
Where, G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the planet and r is the
distance from the center of gravity.
Escape Speed Solved Examples

Let us discuss some numerical on escape speed to learn more about this
concept.
Problem 1: The mass of the Jupiter is given as 1.898×10 2 7 Kg and the radius is
given as 71492km. Compute the escape speed?
Answer:

Mass of the Jupiter, M = 1.898×10 2 7 kg and the radius, r = 71492km
G = 6.673×10 - 1 1 m 3 /kgs 2
Formula for escape speed is,
Problem 2: The mass of the Moon is given as 7.35×10 2 2 Kg and the radius is
given as 1.7×10 6 m. Compute the escape speed?
Answer:

Mass of the Moon, M = 7.35×10 2 2 kg and the radius, r = 1.7×10 6 m
G = 6.673×10 - 1 1 m 3 /kgs 2
Formula for escape speed is,
FRICTION FORCE FORMULA

Friction is a repelling force when one body is slipping through a surface.
Friction is because of the contact between two surfaces. If frictional force is
great, the movement of objects through the surface is not in a smooth manner.
All through this movement, the kinetic energy is transformed to heat
energy. Friction force is a derived force and not like gravitation i.e. a
fundamental force. The formula for friction force is,
Where F f is the friction, μ is the coeffi cient of friction force and F n is the normal
force. It is a vector quantity.
Friction Force – Solved Examples
Let us answer some problems about friction force.
Problem 1: An object of mass 10kg is moving through a surface. Compute the

friction force if the coeffi cient of friction is 0.2?
Answer:
Known variables are,

m = 10kg and μ = 0.2
Friction force formula is,
F f = μF n
Fn can be computed as,
Fn = mg
= 10×9.81 = 98.1N
So, F f = 0.2×98.1 = 19.62N
Problem 2: Calculate the friction force of a 5kg body which is moving through
a surface with a friction coeffi cient 0.3?
Answer:
Known variables are,

m = 5kg and μ = 0.3
Friction force formula is,
F f = μF n
F n can be computed as,
Fn = mg
= 5×9.81 = 49.05N
So, Ff = 0.3×49.05 = 14.715N
FORMULA DYNAMICS
FORMULA
As all of us know dynamics teaches us about the motion of any body grounded
on how the forces are exerted on it. Perhaps these equations were derived
founded on experimenting the motion.
There are four elementary equations in dynamics specifi cally,
Where, u is initial velocity in m/s,

v is fi nal velocity in m/s,
s is the distance traveled in m,
a is the acceleration in m/s 2 ,
t is time taken in s.
Dynamics Formulas are valuable in computing the unfamiliar physical

quantity when some of these quantities are known.
Dynamics Solved Examples
Underneath are given some problems based on dynamics you can refer to this
while solving your assignment problems.
Problem 1: John throws a ball and it moves along the horizontal direction. If it
travels a distance of 30 m in 2s. Calculate its acceleration.
Answer:
Known: u (Initial velocity) = 0,

s (Distance traveled) = 30 m,
t (Time taken) = 2 s
Distance travelled is given by
GRAVITY FORMULA
Gravity also termed as gravitation, is a force that occurs among all material
objects in the universe. For any two objects or units having non-zero mass, the
force of gravity has a tendency to attract them toward each other. The
Universal Law of Gravitation says that:
All mass applies an attractive force on all other mass.
If the distance between two masses m 1 and m 2 is d as shown in the diagram,
The gravity formula is articulated as
Where,
G is a constant equal to 6.67 × 10 - 1 1 N-m 2 /kg 2 ,
m 1 is the mass of the body 1,

m 2 is the mass of body 2,
r is the radius or distance amid the two bodies.
The gravitational force formula is very useful in computing gravity values,
larger mass larger, radius, etc.
Gravity Problems Solved Examples
Underneath are given some questions on gravity which helps one to

comprehend the use of this formula.
Problem 1: Calculate the force due to gravitation being applied on two objects
of mass 2 Kg and 5 Kg divided by the distance 5cm?
Answer:
Given: Mass m 1 = 2 Kg,

Mass m 2 = 5 Kg,
Radius r = 5 cm.
Gravitational Constant G = 6.67 ×× 10 - 1 1 Nm 2 /Kg 2
Problem 2: A spaceship is moving round a planet having amass of 2000 Kg. If

it is at the distance 8 × 10 6 m from the planet. Compute the mass of the
planet?
Answer:
FLOW RATE FORMULA
As we all know, liquids fl ow. One can say how slow or fast it fl ows. But can
someone tell at what rate Fluid fl ows? To compute that let’s study the fl ow
rate. The fl ow rate of a liquid is how much fl uid passes through an area in a
particular time. Flow rate can be articulated in either terms of velocity and
cross-sectional area, or time and volume. As liquids are incompressible, the
rate of fl ow into an area must be equivalent to the rate of fl ow out of an area.
This is identifi ed as the equation of continuity.
Flow rate is the quantity of fl uid fl owing in the specifi ed time. It is expressed in
liters per meter (lpm) or gallons per meter (gpm) . It is articulated as
Where,
the fl ow area is A and
the fl ow velocity is v.
Flow rate can also be articulated as in a given time (t) the capacity of fl uid
stored (C) . It is also articulated as
Where,
the capacity of fl uid stored is C and
the time taken to fl ow is t
Flow rate formula has extensive applications in fl uid dynamics to compute

the velocity, area or fl ow rate.
Flow Rate Solved Examples
Provided underneath are the questions grounded on fl ow rate which may be

useful for you.
Problem 1: Compute the fl ow rate of fl uid if it is moving with the velocity of

20 m/s through a tube of diameter 0.03 m.
Answer:
Problem 2: A tank of capacity 500 m 3 is being fi lled in half an hour. Compute
its fl ow rate.
Answer:
GAUSS LAW FORMULA

Gauss’s Law states that the total electric fl ux out of a closed surface is equal
to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity. The electric fl ux in an area
is defi ned as the electric fi eld multiplied by the area of the surface projected
in a plane and perpendicular to the fi eld.
The electric fi eld is the basic concept to know about electricity. Generally, the
electric fi eld of surface is calculated by applying coulomb’s law, but to
calculate the electric fi eld distribution in a closed surface, we need to
understand the concept of Gauss law. It explains about the electric charge
enclosed in a closed or the electric charge present in the enclosed closed
surface.
The total charge enclosed in a closed surface is proportional to the total fl ux

enclosed by the surface. If ϕ is total flux and ϵ0 is electric constant, the total
electric charge Q enclosed by the surface is
Q = ϕ ϵ0
The Gauss law formula is expressed by
ϕ = Q / ϵ0
Where,
Q = total charge within the given surface,
ϵ0 = the electric constant.
Example 1
Find the total fl ux enclosed by the surface containing three charges q1, q2,
and q3 having charge 6 C, 5 C and 4 C
Solution:
Total charge,
Q = q1 + q2 + q3
= 6 C + 5 C + 4 C
= 15 C
The total fl ux is given by
ϕ = Q / ϵ0
ϕ = 15 C / 8.854×10−12
ϕ = 1.694 Nm2 / C−1
Therefore, ϕ = 1.694 Nm2 / C−1

Example 2
Calculate the electric fl ux in a cylinder of length 5 cm, radius 3 cm having

electric fi eld intensity 2 N/C.
Solution:
Given:
Length l is 5 cm,
Radius r is 3 cm,
Electric fi eld intensity is given by
E = 2 N/C
Electric fl ux is given by
ϕ = E (2 ππ r l)
ϕ = 2 N/C (2 π × 0.03 m × 0.05 m)
ϕ = GREGORY NEWTON FORMULA

Gregory Newton’s is a forward diff erence formula which is applied to calculate
fi nite diff erence identity. Regarding the fi rst value f0 and the power of the
forward difference Δ, the Gregory Newton’s forward formula gives an
interpolated value between the tabulated points. The interpolated value
between is expressed by {fp}.By applying forward diff erence operator and
forward diff erence table, this method simplifi es the calculations involved in
polynomial approximation of functions which are called spaced data points.
The Formula states for a ∈ [0,1]
Question 1
f(a) with the following data points,

Solution:
Forward diff erence table,
Δ2f
xi fi Δfi
i
0 1
1 7 6
2
2 16 10
3
a = 2
According to Gregory Newton’s forward diff erence formula,
f(0.5) = 1 + 2 × 6 + 2(2−1)×10 / 2 + 2(2−1)×(2 – 2)x6/6
= 13 + 10 + 0
= 23
Therefore, f(2) = 23
Question 2
f(a) with the following data points,
xi 0 1 2
2
fi 1 7
3
Solution:
Forward diff erence table,
Δ2f
xi fi Δfi
i
0 1
1 7 6
2 2 16 10
3
a = 0.5
According to Gregory Newton’s forward diff erence formula,
f(0.5) = 1 + 0.5 × 6 + 0.5(0.5−1)×10 / 2 + 0.5(0.5−1)×(0.5 – 2)x6/6
= 1 + 3 + 2.5 × (-0.5) + (-0.25)(-1.5)
= (0.5)3 + 2(0.5)2 + 3(0.5) + 1
= 0.125 + 0.5 + 1.5 + 1
Therefore, f(0.5) = 3.125
0.0188 Nm2 / C−1
HEAT FORMULA
Heat is the transfer of kinetic energy from one medium or object to another or
via energy source to a medium or object. This energy transfer can occur in
three ways namely radiation, conduction and convection. Heat is a form of
energy that produces change in temperature of any substance.
Heat by conduction takes place when two objects are in direct contact and
temperature of one is higher than the other. The temperature tends to equalize
that’s the reason the heat conduction consists of the transfer of kinetic energy
from warmer medium to a cooler one.
The heat is denoted by Q.

The Heat formula is given as
Where,
m = mass of the body,
C = specifi c heat,
Δ T is the temperature difference.
Heat formula can be applied to fi nd the heat transfer, mass, specifi c heat or
temperature diff erence.
Heat is expressed in Joules (J).
Determine the heat needed to raise a half kg of iron from 250 C to 600 C?
Solution:
Mass m = 0.5 Kg,
Specifi c heat of iron C = 0.45 J/g0C, Temperature difference Δ T = 700C – 250C

= 450C
the heat formula is given by
Q = m × c × Δ T
= 0.5 × 0.45 × 103 × 450 C
= 10.125 J
Example 2
Determine how much heat energy is lost if water of 5 Kg mass is cooled from
600C to 200C. Given Specifi c heat of water C = 4.2 ×103 J/Kg0C
Solution:
Mass of water is 5 Kg,
Specifi c heat of water C is 4.2 × 103 J/Kg0C,
Temperature difference Δ T is – 400C
Heat energy formula is given by
Q = m x C x Δ T
= 5 × 4.2 × 103 × (-400 C)
= – 84.0 J
GRAM FORMULA MASS

The gram formula mass of a compound is the amount of that compound that
has the same mass in grams as the formula mass in atomic mass unit. An atom
of each element has a characteristic mass and in like manner each molecule of
a compound has a characteristic formula mass.
When the formula mass of an ionic compound is determined by the addition of

its component atomic masses and expressed in grams, it is called the Gram
Formula Mass .
Gram Formula Mass is mathematically expressed as

The gram formula mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms is a
formula unit of the compound, whether molecular or not.
GRAM FORMULA MASS PROBLEMS

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Solved problems based on gram formula mass are given below.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Question 1: Find the gram formula mass of 1mol of KAl(SO 4)2.12H2O?
Solution:
1 K = 39
1 Al = 27
2(SO4) = 192 = 2(32 + 16 ×× 4)
12 H2O = 216 = 12(2 + 16)
Therefore the gram formula mass is

1 mol = 474g
Question 2: Find the gram formula mass of 1mole of CaCO 3?

Solution:
1 Ca = 40
1 C = 12
3 O = 48 = 3 ×× 16
Therefore the gram formula mass of CaCO 3 is
CaCO 3 = 100 formula mass
CaCO 3 = 100g = gram formula weight.

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
FORMULA
The Heat of Vaporization is the quantity of heat that needs to be absorbed to
vaporize a particular quantity of liquid at a constant temperature. If the
solutions of vapor and liquid states are compared, the kinetic energy of the
steam is proved to be higher than the kinetic energy of the fl uid.
In other words, the heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to turn
particular quantity of liquid into vapor without any rise in the temperature of
the fl uid.
Heat of Vaporization Formula

Based on entropy and enthalpy of vaporization and relationship among them,
the Heat of vaporization formula can be written as
Hv = q / m
Wherein,
Hv = heat of vaporization
q =heat
m = mass
Example1
If the heat of vaporization for water is 2257 j/g, calculate the amount of heat
energy that must be applied to vaporize 145 grams of water.
Solution:
The heat of vaporization equation can be rearranged to solve for q, i.e.,
q = Hv x m
= 2257 x 145
Therefore q = 327265 J
Example 2
Determine the mass of water which can be vaporized at 100°C if 15500 J of
heat energy is applied.
Solution:
Given:
Heat q = 15500
The heat of vaporization for water can be implemented, and the equation is
rearranged to solve for mass.
= 15500 / 2257
= 6.867 g
HEAT TRANSFER FORMULA

Heat transfer is defi ned as the process of transfer of heat from a body at
higher temperature to another body at a lower temperature. Heat, as we know,
is the measure of kinetic energy possessed by the particles in a given system.
When the temperature of a system is increased, the kinetic energy possessed
by particles in the system increases. When this system is brought in contact
with another system whose temperature is lesser as compared to the fi rst, the
energy gets transferred from the particles in the fi rst system to that in the
second system.
Heat transferred from one system to another is given by the following

equation,
Here, Q is the heat supplied to the system, m is the mass of the system, c is
the specifi c heat capacity of the system and ΔT is the change in temperature of
the system.
The transfer of heat occurs through three diff erent processes, which are
mentioned below.
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation.
Conduction:
Heat transferred by the process of conduction can be expressed by the

following equation,
Convection:
Heat transferred by the process of convection can be expressed by the

following equation,
Here, Hc is the heat transfer coeffi cient.
Radiation:
The Heat transferred by the process of radiation can be given by the following
expression,
Here σ is known as Stefan Boltzmann Constant.
Derivation:
From the defi nition of specifi c heat capacity, we can say that, it is the total
amount of heat that is to be supplied to a unit mass of the system, so as to
increase its temperature by 1 degree Celsius.
Let us consider a system of mass ‘m’. In order to calculate the relation between
the rise in temperature with the amount of heat supplied, we multiply the
specifi c heat of the system by the mass of the system and the desired rise in
temperature.
Now, the total heat to be supplied to the system can be given as,
Real Life Example: Let us consider a pitcher of water that is to be heated till its
temperature rises from the room temperature to 100 degree Celsius. In this
case, as we know the mass of the water and its specifi c heat capacity at the
given conditions, we can use the above mentioned formula to calculate the
amount of heat to be supplied.
Example 1
Let us consider two water columns at diff erent temperatures , one being at
40oC and the other being at 20oC. As both the water columns are separated by
a glass wall of area 1m by 2m and a thickness of 0.003m. Calculate the amount
of heat transfer. (Thermal Conductivity of glass is 1.5 W/mK)
Solution:
According to question,
Thermal Conductivity of glass = 1.4 W/mK.
Also, the temperature of the fi rst column is Th=40 C and the temperature of
the second column is Tc=40 C.
Area of the wall separating both the columns = 1m × 2m = 2 m2
Using the heat transfer equation for conduction, we can write,
Example 2
A system weighing 5 Kgs is heated from its initial temperature of 30ᵒC to its
fi nal temperature of 60ᵒC. Calculated the total heat gained by the system.
(Specifi c heat of the system = 0.45 kJ/Kg K)
Solution:
According to question,
Initial temperature of the system, Ti = 30ᵒC,
Final temperature of the system, Tf = 60ᵒC,
Mass of the system, m = 5 kg,

The total heat gained by the system can be calculated by using the formula for
heat transfer as mentioned above,
Q=5×0.45×303=681.75 J
HEAT GAIN FORMULA

Heat is a form of energy and the power is the rate at which energy is used. The
rate at which heat energy is utilized is measured in watts which can also be
called as power loss. Heat gain via walls and roofs is aff ected by solar energy
which is absorbed at the outer surface represented by the air temperature. It is
the outdoor temperature which would generate the same heat gain through the
element without solar energy since it exists with the actual air temperature.
The heat gain formula is given by,
q = 1.10 × cfm × (to – ti)
Where,
 q = sensible heat gain from outside air in Btu/h
 cfm = flow rate of outside air entering the building
 to= outside air temperature in ∘F
 ti = inside air temperature in ∘F
Example 1
Calculate the sensible heat gain for a ventilation fl ow rate of 9,000 cfm if the
outside air temperature (to) is 88 ∘ F and the inside air temperature (ti) is 80 ∘ F.
Solution:
Given data:
cfm = 9000,
to = 88,
ti = 80.
Substitute in the given formula, we get
q = 1.10 × cfm × (to – ti)
q = 1.10 × 9000 × (88-80)
q = 110000
Therefore, the heat gain is 79200.
Example 2
Calculate the total heat gain due to the ventilation for 5000 cfm of air when
the enthalpy of outside air is 35 and the enthalpy of the inside air is 30.0.
Solution:
Given data:
cfm = 5000,
toto = 35,
titi = 30.
Substitute in the corresponding formula,
q = 1.10 × cfm × (to – ti)
q = 1.10 × 5000 × (35 – 30)

q = 27500
HEAT LOAD FORMULA

The heating load is the amount of heat energy required to be added to a
specifi c space to maintain the temperature in an acceptable range. The cooling
load is the amount of heat energy required to be removed from the space to
keep the temperature in an acceptable range.
Heat sources are considered to be two types, one resulting in an internal heat
load on the conditional space and those resulting in an external heat load.
Those belonging to the external heat load category are a source of load on the
indoor equipment, but do not aff ect the air it has passed through the
equipment.
Heat sources which result to an internal heat like heat conduction through the
glass, walls, etc. Heat sources which result in an external heat load, heat from
any source added in the air after it leaves a space.
The heat load formula is given as,
Heat load = Q = m × Cp ×ΔT
Where,
Q = Heat load,
m = mass fl ow rate,
Cp = specifi c heat,
ΔT = change in temperature.
Example 1
Determine the heat load in the electric convector in which the rate of mass
fl ow is 5.45 and Cp is 1000 and the enthalpy is from 21.5 to 26.55.
Solution:
Given:
M = 4.45,
Cp = 1000,
T1 = 26.55,
T2 = 21.5
Substituting in the formula,
Heat load , Q = m ×Cp ×ΔT
= 5.45 x 1000 x (26.55 – 21.5)
= 27522.5
Example 2
Determine the heat load if the specifi c heat is 200 and enthalphy change from
the temperature 31.5 to 26.55 and M is 4.45.
Solution:
Given:
M = 4.45,
Cp = 200,
T1 = 31.5
T2 = 26.55.
Substituting in the formula,
Heat load, Q = m × Cp ×ΔT
= 4.45 x 200 x (31.5 – 26.55)
= 4405
CONTINUOUS COMPOUND
INTEREST FORMULA
The continuous compounding formula is used to determine the interest earned
on an account that is constantly compounded, necessarily leading to an infi nite
amount of compounding periods.
The eff ect of compounding is earning interest on investment, or at times

paying interest on debt, that is reinvested to earn additional monies that would
not have been gained based on the principal balance alone. By earning interest
on prior interest, one can earn at an exponential rate.
The continuous compounding formula takes this eff ect of compounding to the
furthest limit. Instead of compounding interest on a monthly, quarterly, or
annual basis, continuous compounding will effi ciently reinvest gains
perpetually.
A=PertA=Pert
Where,
A = Amount of money after a certain amount of time
P = Principle or the amount of money you start with
e = Napier’s number, which is approximately 2.7183
r = Interest rate and is always represented as a decimal
t = Amount of time in years

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Question 1: An amount of Rs. 2340.00 is deposited in a bank paying an annual interest
rate of 3.1%, compounded continuously. Find the balance after 3 years.
Solution:
Use the continuous compound interest formula,
Given P =2340
r = 3.11003.1100 = 0.031
t=3
Use the continuous compound interest formula,

A=PertA=Pert
Given,
P=2340P=2340
r=3.1=3.1100=0.031r=3.1=3.1100=0.031
t=3t=3
Here: e stands for the Napier’s number, which is approximately 2.7183.
However, one does not have to plug this value in the formula, as the calculator
has a built-in key for e. Therefore,
A=2340e0.031(3)≈2568.06A=2340e0.031(3)≈2568.06
So, the balance after 3 years is approximately Rs. 2,568.06.
DENSITY FORMULA
What is Density?
The density of a material shows the denseness of that material in a specifi c

given area. This is taken as mass per unit volume of a given object. Thus, we
can defi ne density of an object as its mass per unit volume. It is a unique
physical property for a particular object. It is denoted by the Greek letter ρ
(rho). Mathematically, density of an object can be expressed as below:
Though its SI unit is kg/m³, for convenience we use g/cm³ for solids, g/ml for
liquids and g/L for gases. Density can be explained as the relationship between
the mass of the substance and volume it takes up. In a qualitative term, it
shows how much heavy an object is at constant volume. Diff erent substances
have diff erent density, which means for the same volume of diff erent
substances weigh diff erently.
Generally the density of water is taken as standard value for calculating the
density of substances. If a substance is less dense then it will fl oat on water
while it will sink in case of high dense than water. The density of water is
around approximately about 1 gram/cubic centimeter.
Density in Real Life:
Many applications of density are there in our real life like a few examples are in
pipe design, ship building, helium balloons, weight distribution in the airplane
and the fact that ice fl oats on water.
 The knowledge of densities of two substances helps you in separation

techniques. For example, separation of oil from water. Leakage of oil tank
in the ocean then oil drops starts to float on the water due to their less
density in the water.
 Another well-known application of density is determining whether an

object will float on water or not. Floating of ships and diving of submarines
are due to their density difference.
Solved Examples:
Question 1: Take two boxes which have same volume. Fill the fi rst box with x
balls and the second box with 6x balls. If the mass of each ball is same, which
box would weigh more?
Solution: The box that has more balls has more mass per unit of volume.
Here the fi rst box contains x number of balls and second box contains 6x
number of balls. Since the number of balls in the second box is 6 times the fi rst
box, second box would weigh more. This property of matter is called density.
Question 2: Calculate the density of water if it has mass of 1160 Kg and

volume of 1m3?
Solution: Given,
Mass = 1160 Kg
Volume = 1m3
Density is given by the formula:
Density = Mass/Volume
ρ = 1160/1 = 1160 kg/m3
Questions 3: If you fi nd a shiny rock, a carbon allotrope with a volume of

0.042cm³ and a mass of 0.14 g, is it graphite or diamond? The density of
graphite is 2.266 g/cm3 and the density of diamond is 3.51g/cm3.
Solution: Given,
Volume of the shiny rock =0.042cm³
Mass of the shiny rock = 0.15 g
Density of graphite = 2.266 g/cm3
Density of diamond = 3.51g/cm3
Use the density equation to solve for m, mass of graphite and for the mass of a
diamond.
ρ = m/V
m = ρV
m = 2.266 g/cm³ x 0.042cm³ = 0.0951g for graphite
m = 3.51g/cm3 x 0.042cm³ = 0.1474 g for diamond
The mass of the shiny rock you found is identical with the mass of diamond.
DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH
FORMULA
Louis-de-Broglie explained the De-Broglie waves in the year 1923 which were
later experimented and proved by Davisson and Germer in the year 1927.
These waves explain about the nature of the wave related with the particle.
Einstein explained the momentum (p) of a photon with the given formula
The energy (E) of a photon regarding wavelength is given by
Where h = Planck’s constant.
The formula explains the momentum of the photon (p)
Where,
h= planck’s constant,
c = velocity of light.
Hence, the De-broglie wavelength (λλ) is given by
De Broglie Wavelength Formula is used to calculate the wavelength

and momentum in any given problems based on this concept.
Question 1: Find the wavelength of an electron moving with a speed of

2 ×× 106 ms-1.
Solution:
Given:
Velocity of electron, v = 2 ×× 106 ms-1,
Mass of electron, m = 9.1 ×× 10-31 Kg
Planck’s Constant, h = 6.623 ×× 10-34 Js,
The de-broglie wavelength is given by λλ = hmvhmv
=
6.623×10−349.1×10−31×2×1066.623×10−349.1×10−31×2×106
= 3.63 ×× 10-10 m
= 3.63 A0
Question 2: Find the de-broglie wavelength of the stone of mass 0.1 Kg

moving at a speed of 5 ms-1.
Solution:
Given: Planck’s Constant h = 6.63 ×× 10-34 Js,
Mass of the stone m = 5 ms-1,
Velocity of stone v = 0.01 Kg,
De-broglie wavelength λλ = hmvhmv
= 6.23×10−345×0.016.23×10−345×0.01
= 1.32 ×× 10-32 m.
DOPPLER EFFECT FORMULA
Doppler Eff ect defi nes the apparent change in the frequency of sound when the
observer and the medium both are in relative motion. It’s a wave phenomenon
which holds not just for sound waves but also for electromagnetic waves like
microwaves, visible light, and microwaves. It depends on three factors –
Velocity of the source, Velocity of the medium and Velocity of the observer.
Solved Examples
Question:
A Submarine travels through water at a speed of 8.00 m/s, emitting a sonar

wave at a frequency of 1400 Hz. The speed of sound in the water is 530 m/s. A
second submarine is located such that both submarines are traveling directly
towards each other. The second submarine is moving at 6.00 m/s.
(A) What is the frequency detected by an observer riding on second submarine

as the fi rst submarine approaches it?
(B) The submarine barely miss each other and pass. What frequency is
detected by an observer riding on second submarine as the subs recede from
it?
(C) When both the submarine approaches each other, some of the sound from
fi rst submarine refl ects from second submarine and returns to it. If the sound
were to be detected by an fi rst submarine, what is its frequency?
Solution:
Given: Frequency f = 1400 Hz,
Velocity of Source, V s = 8 m/s,
Velocity of Screen, V o = 6 m/s.
(A) The Apparent frequency is given by,
f ‘ = v+v0v−vsv+v0v−vs
f ‘ = 530m/s+(+6.00)m/s530m/s−(+8.00m/s)530m/s+(+6.00)m/s530m/s−
(+8.00m/s) (1400 Hz)
f ‘ = 1437.54 Hz.
(B) To fi nd Doppler-shifted frequency heard by the observer in second

submarine:
f ‘ = v+v0v−vsv+v0v−vs
f ‘ = 530m/s+6m/s530m/s−(−8m/s)530m/s+6m/s530m/s−(−8m/s) (1400 Hz)
f ‘ = 1394.79 Hz.
(C)The Sound of apparent frequency 1436.5 Hz found in part (A) is refl ected
from a moving source (sub B) and detected by a moving observer
f = 530m/s+(+8m/s)530m/s−(+9m/s)530m/s+(+8m/s)530m/s−(+9m/s) (1416
Hz)
f = 1432 Hz.
DISPLACEMENT FORMULA
Displacement is calculated as the shortest distance between starting and fi nal
point which prefers straight line path over curved paths.
Suppose a body is moving in two diff erent directions x and y then Resultant
Displacement will be
It gives the shortcut paths for the given original paths.

Here,
u = Initial velocity
v = fi nal velocity
a = acceleration
t = time taken.
Solved Examples
Problem 1: The path distance from garden to a school is 5m west and then 4m
south. A builder wants to build a short distance path for it. Find
Solution:
Given: Distance to the west x = 5m
Distance to the south y = 4m.
Displacement is given by S = x2+y2−−−−−−√x2+y2
= 52+42−−−−−−√52+42
= 6.70 m.
The builder can build a path for displacement length of 6.7 m.
Question 2: A girl walks from the corridor to the gate she moves 3m to
the north opposite from her house then takes a left turn and walks for
5m. then she takes right turn and moves for 6m and reaches the gate.
What is the displacement, magnitude, and distance covered by her?
Solution:
Total distance traveled d = 3m + 5m + 6m = 14m.
A magnitude of the displacement can be obtained by visualizing the

walking :The actual path from A to B as 3m then from B to D as 5m and
fi nally from D to E as 6m.
SSo, the magnitude of resultant displacement is |S| = AC2+CE2−−−−−−−−−

−√AC2+CE2
From fi gure AC = AB + BC = 3m + 6m = 9m
BD = CE = 5m
|S| = 92+52−−−−−−√92+52 = 10.29 m.
The direction of Resultant displacement is South East.

DIFFRACTION GRATING FORMULA
A diffraction grating defines an optical component with a periodic structure which is splits the
light into various beams that travels in different directions. Its an alternative way to observe
spectra other than prism. Generally, when light is incident on grating, the splitted light will have
maxima at an angle θθ. The formula for diffraction grating is used to calculate this angle.
Diffraction grating formula
λλ = d sin θnd sin θn
Where,
n = order of grating,
D = distance between two fringes or spectra
Question 1: A diffraction grating is of width 5 cm and produces a deviation of 22 ∘∘ in the

second order with light of wavelength 580 nm. Find the slit spacing.
Solution:
Given: Angle θθ = 22 ∘∘, order n = 2, wavelength λλ = 580 nm.
The slit spacing is given by,
d = nλsin θnλsin θ
d = 2×580nmsin 22∘2×580nmsin 22∘
d = 3 ×× 10−6−6 m
Question 2: A diffraction grating has 24000 lines /cm separates a dark line at an angle of 32 ∘∘.
Find the wavelength of light.
Solution:
Given: Separation between the slits d = 1/36000 = 2.77 ×× 10−5−5/cm = 2.77 ×× 10−7−7/m
Wavelength, λλ = d sin θθ
λλ = 2.77 ×× 10−7−7 sin 32 ∘∘
λλ = 146.7 nm
Therefore, the wavelength of light is146.7 nm.
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
FORMULA
Dynamic Viscosity Formula for a fl uid defi nes its internal resistance to fl ow due
to some shearing force. A tangential force which acts when one horizontal
plane moves with another one. The viscosity acts an important fl uid property
while analyzing the liquid behaviour and fl uid motion near solid boundaries.
Formula for Dynamic Viscosity
T = μμ uyuy.
Where,
u= shear velocity (m/s),
y= distance between the layers,
T =shearing stress,
μμ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m22).
The SI unit for Dynamic Viscosity = Ns/m22, Pa s or kg/ms.
Question 1: A fl uid is fl owing between two layers. Find the shearing force if
the shear velocity is 0.25 m/s and has length 2 m and dynamic viscosity is
2Ns/m22.
Solution:
Given:
Shear velocity u = 0.25 m/s,
shear stress y = 0.125/s
dynamic viscosity μμ = 2 Ns/m^2
The shearing stress is given by,
F = μμ A uyuy
F = 2 Ns/m22 ×× 0.125 /s
F = 0.5 N/m22
Therefore, the shearing stress is 0.5 N/m22.
Question 2: A fl uid moves along length 0.75 m with velocity 2m/s and has
shearing stress of 2 N/m22. Find its dynamic viscosity.
Solution:
Given: Shear velocity u = 2m/s, length y = 0.75 m, shearing stress T = 2

N/m22
T = μμ uyuy.
μμ = T yuyu
μμ = 2 N/m22 ×× 0.375 m/s
μμ = 0.75 Ns/m22.
Therefore, the dynamic viscosity = 0.75 Ns/m22.
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
FORMULA
Dynamic Viscosity Formula for a fl uid defi nes its internal resistance to fl ow due
to some shearing force. A tangential force which acts when one horizontal
plane moves with another one. The viscosity acts an important fl uid property
while analyzing the liquid behaviour and fl uid motion near solid boundaries.
Formula for Dynamic Viscosity
T = μμ uyuy.
Where,
u= shear velocity (m/s),
y= distance between the layers,
T =shearing stress,
μμ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m22).
The SI unit for Dynamic Viscosity = Ns/m22, Pa s or kg/ms.
Question 1: A fl uid is fl owing between two layers. Find the shearing force if
the shear velocity is 0.25 m/s and has length 2 m and dynamic viscosity is
2Ns/m22.
Solution:
Given:
Shear velocity u = 0.25 m/s,
shear stress y = 0.125/s

dynamic viscosity μμ = 2 Ns/m^2
F = μμ A uyuy
F = 2 Ns/m22 ×× 0.125 /s
F = 0.5 N/m22
Therefore, the shearing stress is 0.5 N/m22.
Question 2: A fl uid moves along length 0.75 m with velocity 2m/s and has
shearing stress of 2 N/m22. Find its dynamic viscosity.
Solution:
Given: Shear velocity u = 2m/s, length y = 0.75 m, shearing stress T = 2

N/m22
T = μμ uyuy.
μμ = T yuyu
μμ = 2 N/m22 ×× 0.375 m/s
μμ = 0.75 Ns/m22.
Therefore, the dynamic viscosity = 0.75 Ns/m22.
ELASTIC COLLISION FORMULA

An encounter between two bodies in which the total kinetic energy of both the
bodies after the encounter is equal to their total kinetic energy before the
encounter is called Elastic collision. Elastic collisions occur only when there is
no net conversion of kinetic energy into diff erent forms. A perfectly elastic
collision is one wherein there no loss of kinetic energy during the collision. In
any elastic collision, conservation of momentum and conservation of kinetic
energy can be observed.
If two elastic bodies of masses m1, m2 with initial velocity u1 and u2

approaching towards each other undergo collision.
The Elastic Collision formula of momentum is given by
Where,
m1 = Mass of 1st body
m2 = Mass of 2nd body
u1 =Initial velocity of 1st body
u2 = Initial velocity of second body
v1 = Final velocity of fi rst body
v2 = Final velocity of second body
It says “Momentum before the collision is equal to momentum after the

collision.”
The Elastic Collision formula of kinetic energy is given by
Elastic Collision formula is applied to calculate the mass or velocity of the

elastic bodies.
Example 1
If the ball has a mass 5 Kg and moving with the velocity of 12 m/s collides with
a stationary ball of mass 7 kg and comes to rest. Calculate the velocity of the
ball of mass 7 Kg ball after the collision.
Solution:
Mass of 1st ball, m1 is 5 kg
Initial Velocity of the fi rst ball, U1 is 12 m/s
Mass of the second ball, m2 is 7 kg
Initial velocity of the second ball, u2 is 0
Final Velocity of fi rst ball, v1 is 0
Final Velocity of the second ball, v2 =?
The elastic collision formula is given as
1 / 2 m1u1 2 + 1 / 2 m2u2 2 = 1 / 2 m1v1 2 +1 / 2 m2 v2 2
1 / 2 × 5 × 122 + 1 / 2 x 7 × 0 = 1 / 2 × 5× 0 2 + 1 / 2 × 7 × v2 2
360 = 3.5 v 2
288 = 3 v 2
v 2 = 102.85
v = √102.85
= 10.141 m/s
Example 2
A 10 Kg block is moving with an initial velocity of 12 m/s with 8 Kg wooden
block moving towards the fi rst block with velocity 4 m/s. The second body
comes to rest after the collision. Determine the fi nal velocity of fi rst body
Solution:
Mass of 1st ball, m1 is 10 kg,
Initial Velocity of the fi rst ball, u1 is 12 m/s,
Mass of the 2nd ball, m2 is 8 kg,
Initial velocity of the second ball, u2 is 4 m/s,
Final Velocity of 2nd ball, v2 is 0
Final Velocity of the fi rst ball, v1 =?
The Elastic collision formula is given as
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
10 × 12 + 8 × 4 = 10 × v1 + 8 × 0
120 + 32 = 10 v1 + 0
152 = 10 v1
∴ v1 = 15.2 m/s
ELECTRIC CURRENT FORMULA

Electric current is nothing but the rate of change of electric charge through a circuit.
This current is related to the voltage and resistance of a circuit. It can be represented by
I and the SI unit is amperes. Electric current relates the electric charge and the time.
According to Ohm’s law, the electric current formula will be,
Where,
V is the voltage
R is the resistance
ELECTRIC CURRENT PROBLEMS

Back to Top
Let us discuss the problems related to electric current.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Question 1: Calculate the current through the circuit in which the voltage and
resistance be 15V and 3Ω respectively?
Solution:

V = 15V and R = 3Ω
The equation for current using Ohm’s law is,
I = VRVR
I = 153153 = 5A
Question 2: The voltage and resistance of a circuit is given as 10V and 4Ω

respectively. Calculate the current through the circuit?
Solution:

V = 10V and R = 4Ω
The equation for current using Ohm’s law is,
I = VRVR
I = 104104 = 2.5A
FORCE FORMULA
When one encounters the word Force they get an idea of getting energized. We
continuously come across the term push and pull associated to it. So what
precisely is this Force?
In brief Force can be described as the exterior agency which makes the body
change its state, size, position under strain. It is represented by F.
Commonly, the formula for force is articulated by
Where,
m = mass
a = acceleration.
It is articulated in Newton (N) or Kgm/s 2 .
Acceleration a is given by
Where v = Velocity and

t = time taken
So Force can be ariculated as
Inertia formula is termed as p = mv which can also be articulated as

Momentum
Therefore, Force can be articulated as the rate of change of momentum.
Force formulas are benefi cial in fi nding out the force, mass, acceleration,
momentum, velocity in any given problem.
Force Problems
Questions based on force which may be helpful are provided underneath:
Solved Samples
Problem 1: Aimmee has a toy car of mass 2kg. How much force should she
apply on the car so that it should travel with the acceleration of 8m/s 2 ?
Answer:
Known:
m (Mass of toy car) = 2 Kg,

a (Acceleration) = 8m/s 2 ,
F is Force to be applied by aimmee = m × a
= 2 Kg × 8 m/s 2 = 16 Kgm/s 2 = 16 N.
Problem 2: A hammer having a mass of 1 kg going with a speed of 6 m/s hits

a wall and comes to rest in 0.1 sec. Compute the obstacle force that makes the
hammer stop?
Answer:
FRICTION LOSS FORMULA
Friction is the resistance required for moving a body through an external
surface. But the friction loss is connected to the fl ow of liquid through a pipe.
In other sense, it is a kind of energy loss because of the friction inside the
tube. It is intimately related to the velocity and viscosity of the fl uid. Friction
loss can be articulated as h l as friction loss is nothing but the energy or head
loss. Friction loss formula is articulated as,
Where,
the friction factor is f

the length of pipe is L
the inner diameter of the pipe is D
the velocity of liquid is v
the gravitational constant is g
the friction loss is h l
Friction Loss Solved Examples
Answered problems of friction loss are stated below.
Problem 1: Compute the friction loss, if the inner diameter and length of the
pipe is 0.3m and 30m respectively. It is also given that the friction factor and
velocity of the liquid is 0.4 and 25m/s?
Answer:
Given that,
Length of the pipe, L = 30m; internal diameter of the pipe, D = 0.3m;
velocity of the liquid, v = 25m/s;
friction factor, f = 0.4
g = 9.8m/s
The friction loss formula is,
Problem 2: Compute the friction loss if the friction factor is 0.3 and velocity of
the fl ow is 50m/s. Given numerics are the length of the pipe 20m, inner
diameter 0.5m and gravitational constant 9.8m/s.
Answer:
Known factors are velocity of fl ow is 50m/s, length of the pipe 20m, inner
diameter 0.5m, friction factor 0.3 and gravitational constant 9.8m/s,
The friction loss formula is articulated as,
FROUDE NUMBER FORMULA

Froude number was termed after William Froude is a dimensionless number
defi ned as the ratio of characteristic velocity to the gravity wave velocity.
Where, the characteristic velocity is v and
the characteristic wave velocity is c,

gravity in terms of the Froude number is articulated as,
Where,
Froude number is Fr,
velocity is v,
gravity is g,
characteristic length is l.
It is used to specify the resistance of a body which is immersed partially

moving along with water.
Froude Number Solved Problems
Underneath are some of the solved problems based on Froude Number:
Problem 1: Find the Froude number if the length of the boat is 2m and velocity
is 10 m/s.
Answer:
Known: length l = 2m, velocity v = 10 m/s
The Froude number is articulated as,
Thus, the Froude number of the boat is 0.451.
Problem 2: Compute the velocity of the moving fi sh in the water if its length
0.5 m and Froude number is 0.72.
Answer:
Known: l (length) = 0.5m, Fr (Froude number) = 0.72
The Froude number is given by,
Thus, the velocity of the moving fi sh is 1.59 m/s.
GRAVITIONAL FORCE is an area of space surrounding a body in

which another body experiences a force of attraction.
A Gravitational fi eld is used to explain the infl uence of a massive body which
extends into the space around itself and produces a force on another huge
body. It describes gravitational phenomena and is measured in newtons per
kilogram (N/kg).
A gravitational fi eld is a force that exists in the space around every individual
or group of masses. This area extends in all directions, but the magnitude of
the gravitational force decreases as the distance from the body increases.
Gravitational fi eld can be described by considering the earth as a reference

body. Two objects in the gravitational fi eld experience a force which is known
as gravitational force.
The gravitational fi eld formula is expressed as,

Where,
F = gravitational force and
m = mass of the object
Example 1
If the gravitational force and mass of a substance are 10N and 5kg, determine
the gravitational fi eld.
Solution:
F = 10N
m = 5 kg
the formula for gravitational fi eld is given by
g = F / m
g = 10 / 5
= 2 N/kg
Example 2
Calculate the gravitational fi eld if the mass and force of a substance is given as
6kg and 36N respectively.
Solution:
F = 36N
m = 6kg
The formula for gravitational fi eld is expressed by,
g = F / m
g = 36 / 6
= 6 N/kg
HOOKES LAW FORMULA

Hooke’s law states that the force required to extend or compress a spring by
some distance is directly proportional to that distance. The stiff ness of the
spring is a constant factor characteristic. The property of elasticity states that
it takes twice the much force to stretch a spring twice as long. This linear
dependence of displacement on stretching is known as Hooke’s law. This law is
named after 17 t h century British physicist Robert Hooke.
It says that the amount of stress we apply on any object, that amount of stress
is observed on it, which means Stress ∝ Strain.
Hooke’s Law Formula is given as
F = -K x
Where,
F = amount of force applied in N,
x = displacement in the spring in m,
k = spring constant or force constant.

Hooke’s law formula can be applied to determine the force constant,
displacement and force in a stretched spring.
Example 1
A spring is stretched by 10 cm and has a force constant of 2 cm /dyne.

Determine the Force applied.
Solution:
Force constant k is 2 cm/dyne,
Extension x = 10 cm.
The force applied formula is given by
F = – k x
= – 2 × 10 cm
= – 20 cm/dyne
Example 2
Determine the force constant if a force of 100 N is stretching a spring by 0.8 m.
Solution:
Force F = 100 N,
Extension, x = 0.2 m.
the force constant formula is given by
k = – F / x
= – 100 / 0.8
= – 125 N/m.
HEAT OF FUSION FORMULA
Heat of fusion of a substance is the change in its enthalpy by providing energy,
typically heat, to a specifi c quantity of the substance to change its state from a
solid to a liquid keeping pressure constant.
The heat of fusion of a sample is the measure of the amount of heat that needs
to be introduced to convert its crystalline fraction into the disordered state. It
is uniquely dependent upon the degree of crystallinity of the substance and the
theoretical heat of fusion of a sample which is 100% crystalline.
For example, heat gained by ice is equal to the heat lost by the water.
The Heat of fusion is denoted by ΔHf
The heat of fusion formula is given as

q = m·ΔHf
where
q is heat energy
m is mass
ΔHf is heat of fusion
Example 1
Calculate the heat in Joules required to melt 26 grams of ice. Given that heat of
fusion of water = 334 J/g = 80 cal/g
Solution
Mass, m = 26g
We know that
q = m·ΔHf
q = (25 g) x (334 J/g)
= 8684 J
q = m·ΔHf
q = (26 g)x(80 cal/g)
q = 2080 cal
Example 2
How much quantity of ice at 0oC can be melted by 100 joules of heat.
Solution:
Heat to fuse (melt) a substance = heat of fusion of the substance × mass of

the substance
this quantity can be expressed by the formula where

q denotes the heat measurement in calorimeter.
q = m(mass) x c(heat of fusion)
Solve for m
we get
m = q / C
= 100 / 3.34×102
= 29.9 × 10-2g of ice melted
HEAT OF SOLUTION FORMULA

The change in enthalpy associated with the dissolution of a substance in a
solvent at constant pressure resulting in infi nite dilution is known as heat of
solution. The enthalpy of solution is expressed in KJ/mol at constant
temperature.
When a solute is dissolved in a solvent to make its solution, enthalpy change

occurs. The heat evolved or absorbed when a solid or gas is dissolved in the
solvent is called the heat of solution or more accurately the heat of dissolution.
It is a common experience that when a solute is dissolved in a solvent to make

its solution, enthalpy change takes place. When a solid or gas is dissolved in
the solvent the heat evolved or absorbed is called the heat of solution more
correctly the heat of dissolution.
The measurement of heat of solution is expressed in a calorimeter; practical
diffi culty is experienced in calculating the changes in temperature when a large
number of moles of the solvent are present.
The heat of solution formula is given by,
ΔHwater = masswater × ΔTwater × specifi c heatwater
Where,
ΔH = heat change,
masswater = sample mass,
ΔT = temperature diff erence,
Specifi c heat = 0.004184 kJ/g∘C.
Example 1
The heat absorbed when hydrated salt (Na2CO3.10H2O) is dissolved at 291K

isothermally in a large quantity of water is 65 KJ per mole solute. Determine
the heat of crystallization of 1kg Na2CO3.10H2O
Solution:
Given data:
m = 65 kJ per mol
ΔT = 291K
Specifi c heat = 0.004184 KJ/g ∘C
Substitute in the given formula, we get
ΔHwater= masswater × ΔTwater × specifi c heatwater

= 65 × 291 × 0.004184
Therefore, ΔHwater = 79.140 kJ/Kg solute.
Example 2
Determine the heat of solution of boric acid by applying the heat of formation
data:
m = 1095 kJ/mol,
ΔT = 298K,
Specifi c heat = 0.004184 kJ/g∘C.
Solution:
m = 1095 kJ/mol,
ΔT = 298K,
Specifi c heat = 0.004184 kJ/g∘C,
Substitute in the given formula
ΔΔHwater = masswater × ΔTwater × specifi c heatwater
= 1095 × 298 × 0.004184
Therefore, ΔHwater = 1365.28 kJ/Kg/solute.
HEAT CONDUCTION FORMULA

Heat Conduction is the fl ow of heat from one solid to another that has a
diff erent temperature when they come in contact with each other. For instance,
we warm our hands when we touch hot water bottle, or when we rub our hands.
The principle of energy conservation and Fourier’s law of heat conduction are
applied to derive diff erent forms of the diff erential equation which govern the
temperature distribution in a stationary medium. Fourier’s law of heat
conduction is an empirical law based on the observation. The mathematical
expression is given by
Q ∝ A dt / dx
Where,
Q is Heat fl ow through a body per unit time (in watts) W,
A is Surface area of heat fl ow m2,
dt is Temperature diff erence in oC or K
dx is Thickness of the body in the direction of fl ow, m.
Hence, we can express Heat Conduction formula by
Q = – k . A dt / dx
Where,
k = Constant of proportionality, known as the thermal conductivity of the body.
Example1
Asbestos layer whose thickness is 20 mm is used as an insulator over a boiler

wall. Consider an area of 0.9m2 and calculate the rate of heat fl ow over this
area if the temperatures on either side of the insulation are 400oC and 30oC.
Given K = 0.116 W/mK
Solution:
To calculate heat fl ow, we need to fi nd the heat fl ux.

Heat fl ux is given by,
q = – k dt / dx. m2
= – 0.116 × (30 – 400)/0.02
q = 1566 W/m2
Rate of heat fl ow Q is expressed by,

Q = Heat fl ux × Area
= 1566 × 0.9
Q = 1409.4 W
Example 2
Calculate the rate of heat transfer per square meter of surface of a cork board
having 5 cm thickness, and a temperature diff erence of 85oC is applied across
the board. The value of thermal conductivity (k) is -0.4 W/mc.
Solution:
k = – 0.4
A = 5 cm
dt / dx = 75oC
By Substituting in the corresponding formula, we get

Q = – k . A dt / dx
= – (- 0.4) (5) (75)
Hence, Q = 150 W
HEAT OF HYDRATION FORMULA

Heat of hydration is defi ned as the amount of energy released when one mole
of ions undergo hydration. It is a special type of dissolution energy where in
the solvent is water.
The enthalpy of a hydrated salt is the change in heat, when 1 mole of an

anhydrous substance combines with requisite number of water molecules to
form the hydrate. The heat of hydration can be determined if the heat of the
solutions of anhydrous salt and the hydrated forms are known.
Anhydrous salts readily combine with water to form hydrates and dissolve with
the evolution of heat. The only diff erence between hydrate and anhydrous salt
is the heat is evolved as heat of hydration in the formation of hydrates.
The heat of hydration formula is given by:

Heat of hydration = ΔH solution – ΔH lattice energy
Where,
ΔH solution = Heat of the solution
ΔH lattice energy = Lattice energy of the solution
Example 1
The heat of solution of anhydrous and hydrated copper sulphate are – 65 and
lattice energy is 11 KJ respectively. Determine the heat of hydration.
Solution:
Heat of solution = – 65
Lattice energy = 11 KJ
Substitute the values in the given formula,
Heat of hydration = ΔHsolution – ΔHlattice energy
= – 65 – 11
Heat of hydration = -56
Example 2
The lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride ΔH for NaCl →→ Na+ + Cl– is 700
kJ/mol. The heat of solution in making up 1 M NaCl is +5.0kJ/mol. Determine
the heat of hydration of Na+ and Cl–, where the heat of hydration of Cl– is
-300kJ/mol.
Solution:
Given data,
Lattice energy = 700 kJ/mol
Heat of solution = 5.0kJ/mol
Heat of hydration = ΔHsolution – ΔHlattice energy
= 5 – 700
Therefore, Heat of hydration = -695
Heat of hydration of Na+ + Cl– = -695
Heat of hydration of Na+ = -695 – (-300)
Therefore, Heat of hydration of Na+ = -395
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FORMULA

Defi nition: Electric potential energy of any given charge or system of changes
is defi ned as the total work done by an external agent in bringing the charge or
the system of charges from infi nity to the present confi guration without
undergoing any acceleration. Electric potential energy is also defi ned as the
total potential energy a unit charge will possess if located at any point in the
outer space. Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity, and possesses only
magnitude and no direction. It is measured in terms of Joules and is denoted by
V.
An object is said to possess electric potential energy by virtue of two elements,

those being, the charge possessed by the object itself and the relative position
of the object with respect to other electrically charged objects.
Formula:
The electric potential energy of a unit charge ‘q’ present in an electric fi eld of
magnitude E, at a position ‘r’ is given by the negative of work done by an
external force, given by Fext in bringing the charge from infi nity to the present
confi guration.
Where, E is the electrostatic fi eld and ds is the displacement vector.
The electric potential energy of a point charge given by q1 present at a

distance r from another point charge q2 is given using the following formula.
Here, Ur is the electric potential energy that is to be calculated, q1 and q2 are

the two charges between which the electric potential is to be calculated and r
is the distance between these two charges.
Derivation:
Let us consider a charge q1. Let us say, they are placed at a distance r from
each other. The total electric potential of the charge is defi ned as the total
work done by an external force in bringing the charge from infi nity to the given
point.
We can write it as,
Here, we see that the point rb is present at infi nity and the point ra is r.
Substituting the values we can write,
As we know that is equal to zero.
Using Coulomb’s Law, between the two charges we can write.

Example 1: Let us say we have two charges of magnitude 1 C and 2C placed at
a distance 2 metre from each other. Calculate the electric potential between
these two charges. (k= 1)
Solution:
Given that, the magnitude of charges are q1 = 1C, and q2 = 2C. The distance
between these two charges is r = 2m.
The electric potential between these two charges is given by,
Substituting the values we get,
= -1 J
Example 2:
How much work is required to be done, in order to bring two charges of

magnitude 3 C and 5 C from a separation of infi nite distance to a separation of
0.5 m?
Solution:
∆E=E0–Eg
DRAG FORCE FORMULA

Drag Force (D) is defi ned as the force that resists the motion of a body
with fl uid. If the motion of the body exists in fl uid like air it is known
as aerodynamic drag. And, if the fl uid is water it is known as
hydrodynamic drag. The drag force always acts in the opposite
direction to the fl ow of velocity.
Drag equation is given as
D =Cd×ρ×V2×A2Cd×ρ×V2×A2.
Where,
the Cd = drag coeffi cient,
ρρ = density of the medium,
V = velocity of body,
A = cross-sectional area.
Question 1: A car travels with a speed of 90 km/h is with a drag

coeffi cient as 0.26. If the area of cross section is 5 m2, Find the drag
force.
Answer:
Given:
Velocity V = 90 km/h
drag coeffi cient Cd = 0.26
Area A = 5 m2
density of fluid ρρ = 1.2 kg/m3
The drag force is given by,
D = Cd×ρ×V2×A2Cd×ρ×V2×A2
D =
0.26×1.2kg/m3×8100m/km×5m22×36000.26×1.2kg/m3×8100m/km×5m
22×3600
D = 1.755 N
Therefore, the drag force of the car = 1.755 N.

Question 2: A plane moves with a speed of 800 km/h. If the area of a
cross section of the plane is 100 m2, Find the drag force.
Solution:
Given:
Velocity V = 800 km/h
drag coeffi cient Cd = 0.26
Area A = 100 m^2
density of fluid ρρ = 1.2 kg/m3
The drag force is given by,
D = Cd×ρ×V2×A2Cd×ρ×V2×A2
D = 0.26×1.2kg/m3640000×100m220.26×1.2kg/m3640000×100m22
D = 9984000 N.
Therefore, the drag force of plane is 9984000 N
HEAT INPUT FORMULA

Under arc welding process, heat input and arc energy are the measures of
energy that has been supplied to the piece to form a weld. Both are measured
in units of energy per unit length.
It refers to a characteristic or dimension such as weld length, a bead, the
diameter of a weld spot or cross section. The amount of heat input which goes
into a weld is determined as a function of time.
The heat input formula is given by,

Heat input = Voltage(V) × current(A) x time / distance travelled×1000
The accurate measurement of arc voltage is the diffi culty here, but we mostly
measure load voltage at the output terminals of the current source.
Example1
Determine the heat input of the engine which operates in 2000 V with a current
of 5500 calories. The distance is 10 ft with time 40 sec.
Solution:
Given data parameters are
Voltage = 2000 V
Current (A) = 5500
Distance travelled = 10 ft
Time = 40 sec
Substitute all the values in the given formula.
Heat input = Voltage × current × time / distance travelled × 1000
= 2000×5500×40 / 10 ×1000
Therefore, Heat input = 44000 Joules / ft.
Example 2
A heat engine operates at a voltage of 1500 V with a current of 3400 A.
Determine the heat input if the distance is 24 ft with time 80 sec.
Solution:
Voltage = 1500 V
Current (A) = 3400 A
Distance = 24 ft
Time = 80 sec
Heat input = Voltage × current ×time / distance travelled×1000
= 1500 × 3400 × 80 / 24 x 1000

Therefore, Heat input = 17000 joules / ft.
HEAT RATE FORMULA
The heat rate is the amount of energy required by an electrical generator or a
power plant to produce one kilowatt hour (kWh) of electricity.
It is the rate of heat input required to generate unit power. Heat rate can also
be defi ned as the ratio between thermal power inputs to electrical power
output. If the heat rate is low, the effi ciency is higher. In thermal generating
units, the input and output exists normally in same units. In other words, heat
range is equal to chemical energy input divided by the electrical energy
released.
The heat rate formula is given by,
Rh = Ws × c × ΔT
Where,
Rh is heat rate in btu/hr,
Ws is steam fl ow in lb/hr,
c = specifi c heat capacity in btu/lb ∘F,
ΔT is the temperature difference in ∘F.
Question 1: Calculate the heat rate if steam enters a turbine at 400oF at

atmospheric pressure. Steam at 500 lb fl ows through the turbine each hour
during normal operation.
Solution:
Ws = 500 lbs/hr
c = 0.48
Tin = 400oF
Tout = 200oF
ΔT = 400 – 200
= 200oF
We have the Formula,
Rh = Ws × c ×ΔT
= 500 × 0.48 × 200
Therefore, Rh = 48000 btu/hr
Example 2
Determine the horsepower output by using the heat rate value in the question
2 above.
Solution:
Horsepower can be calculated by,
HP = heat rate × 0.000393.
= 48000 × 0.000393
Therefore, HP= 18.864
INDUCTANCE FORMULA
The property of a conductor by which an alteration in current passing through
it creates (induces) voltage or electromotive force in any nearby conductors
(mutual inductance) and in both the conductor itself (self-inductance) is termed
asInductance. Inductance is described as opposing of changes of current. The
inductance value is represented as L and its unit is Henry. One Henry value is
equivalent to the induced one volt by changing of current in one ampere per
second in an inductance value. The inductance value is of two types. One is
mutual inductance and another one is self-inductance. Let us see the
applications of inductance value.
The self-inductance in an electrical circuit is
Where,
voltage is V in volts,
inductance value is L,
the current is i represented by A,
time taken is t
The reactance of inductance is given by
Where,
Reactance is X in Henry,
the frequency is f in Hz,
Inductance is L in Henry
The total series inductance is
The parallel inductance is
Where, L 1 , L 2 , L 3 … . . L n are the inductance values.
Inductance – Solved Examples
Let’s see some examples on inductance:

Problem 1: Compute the equivalent resistance if inductors of 5H, 2H and 7 H
are linked in series?
Answer:
Known: L 1 = 5H, L 2 = 2H, L 3 = 7H

The series inductance is articulated as
L = L1 + L2 + L3
= 5H + 2H + 7H = 14 H.
Question 2: An inductor of 50 H is linked to a circuit and a frequency of 200
Hz is provided. Compute the reactance?
Solution:
Known:
Reactance x= ?,
frequency f = 200 Hz,
inductance L = 50 Henry
The reactance is articulated as
X = 2 π f L
= 2 × π 200 Hz × 50 H
= 4000 Ω.
DISTANCE TRAVELED
FORMULA
Distance Traveled defi nes how much path an object has covered to reach its
destination in a given period. Formula for distance traveled is given
d=rt
Where,
r = rate of travel
t = time taken to travel
The distance-traveled formula can be applied to calculate the distance of

driving a car or swimming laps in a pool. While driving a car, the distance will
be calculated in miles or kilometers, the rate is in miles per hour or kilometers
per hour, and time is in hours. While swimming laps in a pool, the distance will
be calculated in laps.
Solved Examples
Question 1: A heavy loaded truck travels at the rate of 60 miles per hour.
Calculate the total distance truck will take to travel 200 miles?
Answer:
Given: Rate of the journey r = 60 miles per hour
Displacement d = 200 miles
we know,
displacement d = rt
The time taken is given by
t = drdr
= 200 miles60 miles200 miles60 miles
= 3.33 hours
Problem 2: An athlete runs 50 m in 10 s while other runs at 200 m in 30 s. Who

is running fastest?
Answer:
First athlete displacement d1 = 50 m, time taken t1 = 10 s
Displacement by the fi rst athlete is d1 = r1 t1

Rate of speed r1 = 50 m10 s50 m10 s = 5 m/s
2nd athlete displacement d2 = 200 m, time taken t2 = 30 s
Displacement by the second athlete( d2) = r2 t2
Rate of speed (r2) = 200 m30 s200 m30 s = 6.67 m/s
Therefore, 2nd athlete travels the fastest.
INELASTIC COLLISION
FORMULA
The crash in which kinetic energy of the system is not conserved but the
momentum is conserved, then that collision is termed as Inelastic Collision.
Inelastic Collision Formula is articulated as

Where,
mass of body 1 = m 1
mass of body 2 = m 2
Initial velocity of body 1 = u 1
Initial velocity of body 2 = u 2
Final velocity of both the bodies = v
The fi nal velocity for Inelastic collision is articulated as
Inelastic collision formula is made use of to fi nd the velocity and mass related
to the inelastic collision.
Inelastic Collision – Solved Examples
Underneath are some questions based on inelastic collision which may be

helpful for you.
Problem 1: The bullet of mass 0.02 Kg is fi red from a gun of mass 5 Kg recoils
with the speed of 8 ms - 1 . Compute the Velocity after the collision?
Answer:
Known:
m (Mass of bullet)= 0.020 Kg,

M (Mass of gun) = 5 Kg
Let v be the fi nal velocity, to calculate it we use the formula
M(0.08) = m(v)
Problem 2: Compute the fi nal velocity if an object of mass 2 Kg with initial

velocity 3 ms - 1 hits an other object of mass 3 Kg at rest? (Collision is inelastic)
Answer:
Known:
m 1 (Mass)= 2 Kg,
m 2 (Mass) = 3 Kg
u 1 (Initial Velocity of fi rst mass)= 3 ms - 1 ,
u 2 (Initial velocity of second mass) = 0
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
FORMULA
Equivalent resistance is where the aggregate resistance connected either in
parallel or series is calculated. Essentially, the circuit is designed either in
Series or Parallel. Electrical resistance shows how much energy one needs
when you move the charges/current through your devices. If you require lots of
energy, then the resistance necessary is also high. The equivalent resistance of
a network is that single resistor that could replace the entire network in such a
way that for a certain applied voltage V you get the same current I as you were
getting for a network.
Equivalent resistance formula for series resistance is given by,
Equivalent resistance formula for parallel resistance is articulated as,

Where, R1, R2…..Rn the given resistors.
Equivalent Resistance Examples
Let’s see some examples of equivalent resistance numerical:
Solved Examples
Problem 1: What is the equivalent resistance if 3Ω, 20Ω and 32Ω are
connected in series.
Answer:
Equivalent resistance in series is given by

R = R 1 + R 2 + …… + R n
= 3 ΩΩ + 20 ΩΩ + 32 ΩΩ
= 55 ΩΩ.
Problem 2: What is the equivalent resistance if 34 Ω and 20 Ω is connected in

parallel.
Answer:
Equivalent resistance in parallel is given by

INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF
CHANGE FORMULA
The rate of change at one known instant is the Instantaneous rate of change,
and it is equivalent to the value of the derivative at that specifi c point. So it
can be said that, in a function, the slope, m of the tangent is equivalent to the
instantaneous rate of change at a specifi c point. One more method to
comprehend this concept clearly is with the diff erence quotient and limits. The
average rate of change of y with respect to x is the diff erence quotient. Now if
one looks at the diff erence quotient and lets Delta x->0, this will be the
instantaneous rate of change. In guileless words, the time interval gets lesser
and lesser.
The Instantaneous Rate of Change Formula provided with limit exists in,
When y = f(x), with regards to x, when x = a.
Instantaneous Rate of Change – Solved Examples
Underneath are given the problems on Instantaneous Rate of Change:
Problem 1: Compute the Instantaneous rate of change of the function f(x) =

3x 2 + 12 at x = 4 ?
Answer:
Known Function,
f(x) = 3x 2 + 12
f'(x) = 3(2x) + 0 = 6x
Thus, the instantaneous rate of change at x = 4
f'(4) = 6(4) = 24
Problem 2: Compute the Instantaneous rate of change of the function f(x) =

5x 3 – 4x 2 + 2x + 1 at x = 2?
Answer:
Known Function, f(x) = 5x 3 – 4x 2 + 2x + 1

f'(x) = 5(3x 2 ) – 4(2x) + 2 + 0 = 15x 2 – 8x + 2
Thus, the instantaneous rate of change at x = 2
f'(2) = 15(2) 2 – 8(2) + 2 = 60 – 16 + 2 = 46
Motion and ELECTRICITY FORMULAS

Electricity is the fl ow of charge in a conductor from anode to cathode.
Electricity has varied applications It acts as a tool to provide power to
electrical devices. We can say the fl ow of charge builds up the current which
we call as Electricity. To understand how the Electricity is generated, we need
to understand the various basic parameters related to it like voltage, Current,
resistance, conductivity and relation among them.
Some of the commonly used Electricity formula are listed below.
(TABLE NEEDS TO BE CREATED)
Quantity Formulas Unit
I = Q / t
Current I
Q = Charge Amperes (A)
t = time taken
V = E / Q
or
Voltage V V = W / Q Volts (V)
E = Energy, W
= Work done
R = ρl / A
ρ = Resistivity,
Resistance
Ohm (Ω)
R l = length,
A = Area
Resistance
R = V / I ohm (Ω)
R
Power P P = VI Watts (W)
Conductivi sigma = 1 / ρ Siemens per

ty σ meter (S/m)
Electricity Formulas are applied in calculating the unknown electrical

parameters from the known in electric circuits.
Example 1
Determine the current fl owing through the electric heater have p.d of 220 V
and resistance is 70 Ω.
Solution:
Given:
Resistance R = 70 Ω
Voltage V = 220 V
The current formula is given by
I = V / R
= 220 / 70
= 3.1428 A
It's Types
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
FORMULA
Inductive reactance or simply reactance is not anything but the resistance of
an inductive circuit. An inductor competes against the current in a coil which
alters the direction and Instantaneous magnitude. This opposition is
comparable to resistance but always possesses a phase shift between voltage
and current and dissipate zero power. As it has some alteration from the
resistance, it is termed as reactance. And it is denoted as XL. The SI unit is
ohm. The formula for reactance is given as
Where, the frequency is f, L is the inductance and XL is the inductive

reactance.
Inductive Reactance Solved Examples
Cracked problems of inductive reactance is provided below:
Problem 1: An inductor of 2H is connected to a circuit at a frequency of 50Hz.

Compute the inductive reactance of this circuit?
Answer:

f = 50Hz and L = 2H
Inductive reactance formula is given as,
XL = 2πfL
XL = 2×3.14×50×2 = 628Ω
Problem 2: At what frequency does a 250mH inductor have 3.5kΩ of
reactance?
Answer:
The known parameters are,

XL = 3.5kΩ = 3500Ω,
f =? and
L = 250mH = 0.25H
Inductive reactance formula is articulated as,
XL = 2π fL
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
FORMULA
Inductive reactance or simply reactance is not anything but the resistance of
an inductive circuit. An inductor competes against the current in a coil which
alters the direction and Instantaneous magnitude. This opposition is
comparable to resistance but always possesses a phase shift between voltage
and current and dissipate zero power. As it has some alteration from the
resistance, it is termed as reactance. And it is denoted as XL. The SI unit is
ohm. The formula for reactance is given as
Where, the frequency is f, L is the inductance and XL is the inductive

reactance.
Inductive Reactance Solved Examples
Cracked problems of inductive reactance is provided below:

Problem 1: An inductor of 2H is connected to a circuit at a frequency of 50Hz.
Compute the inductive reactance of this circuit?
Answer:

f = 50Hz and L = 2H
Inductive reactance formula is given as,
XL = 2πfL
XL = 2×3.14×50×2 = 628Ω
Problem 2: At what frequency does a 250mH inductor have 3.5kΩ of
reactance?
Answer:
The known parameters are,

XL = 3.5kΩ = 3500Ω,
f =? and
L = 250mH = 0.25H
Inductive reactance formula is articulated as,
XL = 2π fL
INTENSITY FORMULA
Intensity is the quantity of energy the wave conveys per unit time across a
surface of unit area and it is also equivalent to the energy density multiplied
by the wave speed. It is generally measured with units of watts per square
meter. Intensity will depend on the strength and amplitude of a wave. Intensity
is represented as I. The formula for intensity is articulated by,
Where I is the intensity, P is the power and A is the area of cross section.
Intensity Solved Examples
Let us discuss the questions related to intensity.
Problem 1: Calculate the intensity of a wave whose power is 25KW and the
area of cross section is 35×10 6 m 2 ?
Answer:
Known measures are,

P = 25KW = 25×103×103W, A = 35×106m2×106m2
Intensity formula is,
=7.14×10 - 2 W/m 2
Problem 2: Calculate the power of a wave whose intensity and area of cross
section are 30×10 - 5 W/m 2 and 50m 2 respectively?
Answer:
Known quantities are,
I = 30×10 - 5 W/m 2 and A = 50m 2
Intensity formula is,
P= I x A
P = 30 x 10 - 5 x 50
= 0.015W
FORCE OF ATTRACTION
FORMULA
Force of attraction is a force that pulls the body near due to its
attraction. There are numerous attractive forces prevailing in nature. Some of
them magnetic force, electric force, electrostatic force and gravitational
force. Gravitational force is very well identifi ed instance force of attraction as
it draws objects towards itself regardless of its distance. The Newton’s
universal law of gravitation clarifi es a lot more about how this force performs.
It states that every mass that occurs in the universe attracts some or the other
mass in the universe. It validates the fact that anyone thrown up comes down.
Let’s take two masses m 1 and m 2 parted by a spaced.

The formula for force of attraction is articulated as,
Where,
G is the gravitational constant (6.67 × 10 - 1 1 Nm 2 /kg 2 ),
the mass of object 1 is m 1 ,
the mass of object 2 is m 2 ,
the distance between two objects is d.
This formula aids out in calculating the force acting amongst any two bodies
having a greater mass since in smaller masses this force is insignifi cant.
Force of Attraction Solve Problems
Underneath are given some samples on force of attraction:
Problem 1: Compute the gravitational force acts amongst two bodies of

masses 20,000 kg and 50,000 kg parted by a distance of 50 m.
Answer:
Known:
mass m 1 = 20000 kg,
mass m 2 = 50000 kg,
radius r = 50 m,
Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10 - 1 1 Nm 2 /kg 2
The force due to gravity is articulated as,

Problem 2: A body of weight 80 kg is 2 m far away from the body of weight 50
kg. Calculate the gravitational force acting between them.
Answer:
Known:
mass m 1 = 80 kg,
mass m 2 = 50 kg,
radius r = 2 m,
Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10 - 1 1 Nm 2 /kg 2
FLUID MECHANICS FORMULA

Fluid mechanics could be defi ned as the division of engineering science which
deals with the fl uids behavior in both motion and rest situations.
Fluid mechanics is one of the four divisions of mechanics namely quantum
mechanics, relative mechanism, fl uid mechanics and elastic body mechanics.
Fluid mechanics is separated into three distinct classes. These are statics,
kinematics, and the dynamics out of which static and dynamics are then
divided into compressible and incompressible fl ow. These are furthermore split
into turbulent and laminar forms.
Fluid mechanics is grounded upon fi ve great principles of physics and

they are as follows:
1. Conservation of linear momentum
2. Conservation of angular momentum
3. Conservation of energy
4. Conservation of mass
5. Conservation of thermodynamics
In fl uid mechanics if the speed of fl ow of a liquid if not too huge then it

generally fl ows in coats with regular gradation in their respective velocities and
therefore called streamline fl ow. While if the rate of fl ow is too high then
numerous irregularities begin to show and do not fl ow in layers which we term
as turbulent fl ow. The turbulence commences after the critical velocity which
is given by a relation
Solved Example
Some Examples on Fluid Mechanics Formula are:
Problem: The distance amid two pistons is 0.015 mm and the viscous fl uid
fl owing through produces a force of 1.2 N per square meter to keep these two
plates move at a speed 35 cm/s. Calculate the fl uid viscosity in the middle of
the plates?
Answer:
Transforming every unit into meters.

Distance in the middle of the pistons = 0.015 × 10 - 3 m or 0.015 mm
The speed of the pistons at which they travel = 0.35 m/s or 35 cm/s
Force in the middle of the two pistons = 1.2 N / m 2
ESCAPE VELOCITY FORMULA

What is escape velocity?
Escape Velocity is the minimum velocity required by a body to be projected

overcome the gravitational pull of the earth. It is the minimum velocity
required by an object to escape the gravitational fi eld that is, escape the land
without ever falling back. An object that has this velocity at the earth’s surface
will totally escape the earth’s gravitational fi eld ignoring the losses due to the
atmosphere.
For example, a spacecraft leaving the surface of Earth needs to go at 7 miles

per second, or around 25,000 miles per hour to leave without falling back to
the surface.
Escape velocity formula is given as
Wherein,
Vesc = escape velocity,
G = gravitational constant is 6.673 × 10-11m3kg-1s-2,
M = mass of the planet,
R = radius from center of gravity
Acceleration due to gravity formula is given by
Where, g is acceleration due to gravity of earth.
Hence Escape velocity is also given by

It is expressed in m/s and escape velocity of earth is 11,200 m/s.
Escape velocity formula is applied in fi nding escape velocity of anybody or

planet, if mass and radius is known.
Example 1
Determine the escape velocity of the Jupitor if its radius is 7149 Km and mass
is 1.898 × 1027 Kg.
Solution:
Given: Mass M = 1.898 × 1027 Kg,
Radius R = 7149 Km
Gravitational Constant G = 6.673 × 10-11m3kg-1s-2
Escape Velocity is given as
Vesc = √2GM / R
=√2 x 6.673 × 10-11 x 1.898 × 1027 Kg / 7149
50.3 km/s
Example 2
Determine the escape velocity of the moon if Mass is 7.35 × 1022 Kg and
radius is 1.5 × 106 m.
Solution:
Given
M = 7.35 × 1022 Kg,
R = 1.5 × 106 m
Escape Velocity formula is given by
Vesc = √2GMR
= √2×6.673×10−11×7.35×1022 / 1.5×106
= 7.59 × 105 m/s
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY FORMULA

Viscosity is a concept where fl uid shows struggle against fl owing, which is
being distorted due to extensional stress forces or shear stress. Kinematic
viscosity is the sort which is computed by calculating the ratio of the fl uid
mass density to the dynamic fl uid, viscosity or absolute fl uid viscosity. It is
from time to time known as momentum diff usivity. The units of kinematic
viscosity are established on time and area. It is the ratio of the area of time;
henceforth it is m22/s or ft22/s.
The kinematic viscosity formula is articulated by,
ν = μρ
Where, μ is dynamic or absolute viscosity,
ρ is the density
Kinematic Viscosity Solved Problems
Underneath are some of the solved questions based on Kinematic

Viscosity:
Problem 1: The absolute viscosity of a fl owing fl uid is 0.67 Ns/m22, if the

density is 10 kg/m33. Calculate its kinematic viscosity.
Answer:
Known: Absolute viscosity νν = 0.67 Ns/m22, density ρρ = 10 kg/m33.
The kinematic viscosity is given by,

v=0.067m 2
/s
Therefore the kinetic viscosity is 0.067m 2 / s
Problem 2: Calculate the density of fl uid having an absolute viscosity of 0.89

Ns/m22 and kinematic viscosity of 2 m22/s.
Answer:
Known: Absolute viscosity μμ = 0.89 Ns/m22, kinematic viscosity νν = 2 m22/s.
The density is given by,
p= 0.445kg/m 3
Therefore, the density of fl uid is 0.445kg/m3
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
ENERGY FORMULA
Gravitational Potential Energy Formula
The energy possessed by an object because of its position in the gravitational
fi eld is called Gravitational potential energy. The most common application of
gravitational potential energy can be applied to the objects that are over the
Earth’s surface where the gravitational acceleration can be assumed to be
constant at 9.8 m/s 2 .
The zero of gravitational potential energy can be chosen at any point like zero
of a coordinate system, the potential energy at a height h above the point is
the amount of work required to lift the object to the desired height with no net
change in kinetic energy. Since the force needed to lift is equal to its weight, it
uses that gravitational potential energy which is equal to the weight times the
height to which it is lifted.
The Gravitational potential energy of the object of mass m is defi ned as the
work done in moving that object from infi nity to a particular point by the eff ect
of gravity.
Gravitational Potential Energy Formula is expressed as
Where,
U is Gravitational Potential energy,
G is gravitational constant,
M is Mass of body 1,
m is Mass of body 2,
r is the distance between two bodies.
Gravitational Potential energy formula on earth’s surface is expressed as
Where,
m is the mass of the body
g is acceleration due to gravity
h is height.
Gravitational Potential Energy is usually expressed in Joules (J).
Calculate the potential energy of a body of mass 10Kg and is 25m above the
ground.
Solution:
Given:
Mass m = 10Kg,
Height h = 25 m,
The Potential energy is given as
U = mgh
= 10 Kg × 9.8 m/s 2 × 25 m
= 2450 J
Example 2
If mass of earth is 5.98 ×10 2 4 Kgs and mass of sun is 1.99 × 10 3 0 Kgs and earth
is 160 million Kms away from sun. Calculatethe gravitational Potential energy
of the earth.
Solution:
Given:
Mass of earth m = 5.98 × 10 2 4 Kgs,

Mass of sun M = 1.99 × 10 3 0 Kgs
The Gravitational potential energy is given by
U = Gm / r
= 6.673×10 − 1 1 ×1.99×10 3 0 / 160×10 9
= 8.29 x 10 8 J
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
FORMULA
Energy consumption is the use of power or energy of a system by making use
of supply. The consumption is done in Giga Joule per year, kilograms of oil
equivalent per year (kg/a) and in Watts.
The energy consumption formula is articulated as,
Where,
E is energy in kilowatt-hours(kWh),
P is power in Watts,
t is hours per day.
Energy Consumption Solved Problems
Here are some cracked examples based on Energy Consumption:
Problem 1: Compute the energy consumption in a system that consumes 190

Watts of power and works for 3 hrs a day.
Answer:
Given: Power P = 190 W, t h /day = 3 hrs
Therefore, the energy consumption is 2052J
Problem 2: A toy car consumes energy of 500 Watts of power if it works for 2
hrs a day using it. Calculate the energy consumption a day.
Answer:
Given: Power P = 500 W, t h /day = 2 hrs
KINETIC ENERGY FORMULA

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. Kinetic
Energy Formula is articulated as
Where,
mass of the body = m,
the velocity with which the body is traveling is v .
The Kinetic energy is articulated in Kgm 2 /s 2 .

Kinetic energy formula is used to compute the mass, velocity or Kinetic energy
of the body if any of the two numerics are given.
Kinetic Energy Solved Examples
Underneath are questions on Kinetic energy which aids one to understand

where they can use these questions.
Problem 1: A car is traveling at a velocity of 10 m/s and is has a mass of 250

Kg. Compute its Kinetic energy?
Answer:
Given: Mass of the body m = 250 Kg,

Velocity v = 10 m/s,
Kinetic energy is given by
=12500 kgm 2 s 2
Problem 2: A man is transporting a trolley of mass 6 Kg and having Kinetic

energy of 40 J. Compute its Velocity with which he is running?
Answer:
Given: Mass m = 6 Kg,

Kinetic energy K.E = 60 J,
Velocity v=
=3.65m/s
The man is running with the velocity of 3.65m/s
GRAVITATIONAL
ACCELERATION FORMULA
Defi nition:
Any object placed in the fi eld of gravitational pull of the Earth experiences
gravitational force. Gravitational acceleration is defi ned as the acceleration
gained by an object because of the force of gravity acting on it. It is
represented by ‘g’ and is measured in terms of m/s2. Gravitational acceleration
is a vector quantity, that is, it possesses both magnitude as well as direction.
Formula: The gravitational acceleration acting on any object can be given using
the following equation,
Here, G is the universal gravitational constant whose value is fi xed and is equal
to 6.673×10-11 N.m2/Kg2, M is the mass of the body whose gravitational pull
is acting on the object under consideration, r is the radius of the planet and h
is the height of the object from the surface of the body.
When the object is on or near the surface of the body, the force of gravity
acting on the object is almost constant and the following equation can be used.
Derivation:
From the Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we can write
F=ma
Here, F is the force acting on the object, m is its mass and ‘a’ is the
acceleration.
Also, as per Newton’s Law of Gravity, we can write,
It is the gravitational force acting between two bodies lying in the gravitational
fi eld of each other. This force acts inwards and is attractive in nature. Each of
the two bodies experience the same force directed towards the other.
Using the Newton’s second law of motion, in order to fi nd the acceleration of

the body under this condition,
Here, m is the mass of the object for which the gravitational acceleration is to
be calculated.
Also, when the object is on or near to the surface the value of g becomes
constant and does not change considerably with the height. Hence, we can
write,
Real Life examples: Let us consider a satellite that has to revolve in the upper
part of the atmosphere surrounding the Earth. In order to calculate the velocity
with which it has to move so as to remain in its path, we must know the
gravitational acceleration acting on the object.
Solved examples
Example 1:
Calculate the acceleration due to gravity for an object placed at the surface of
the Earth, given that, the radius of the Moon is 1.74 × 106 m and its mass is
7.35 × 1022 kg.
Solution:
As given in the question, the radius of the moon, r = 1.74 × 106m = 1740000
m.
Also, the mass of moon = 7.35 × 1022 kg
The acceleration due to gravity is calculated to be 1.620 m/s2.
Example 2:
The radius of the Earth is 6.38 x 106 m. The mass of the Earth is 5.98x
1024 kg. If a satellite is orbiting the Earth 250 km above the surface, what
acceleration due to gravity does it experience?
Solution:
It can be seen that, the satellite is present at a considerable height from the
surface of the Earth, hence the height cannot be neglected. Using the fi rst
formula, we can write,
R=r+h = (6.38 x 106 m) + (250 km)
R = 6 380 000 + 250 000 m

R = 6 630 000 m
The acceleration due to gravity of the satellite can be found from the formula:
LINEAR SPEED FORMULA

The speed with which an object moves in the linear path is termed as Linear
speed. In easy words, it is the distance covered for a linear path in given time.
Linear Speed Formula is articulated as:
Where,
the distance traveled is s and

the time taken is t
Linear Speed Formula in the sense of angular speed is articulated as
v = wr
Where,
the angular speed is ω and

the radius of circular path is r
The Linear speed formula is made use of to compute the linear speed of any
given object if its angular velocity and radius of the circular path are provided.
Linear speed is articulated in meter per speed (m/s).
Linear Speed Solved Examples
Underneath are some problems based on linear speed which may be helpful for
you.
Problem 1: A body starting from rest moves with the acceleration of 5 rad s -
2
in a circle of radius 3m. Compute the linear speed after 5 s.
Answer:
Acceleration a = 5 rad s-2,

Radius r = 3 m,
Time t = 5 s
The angular velocity is given by
ω = ω0 + at
= 0 + 5(5)
= 25 rads - 1
The linear speed is given by
v = r ω
= 3 m ×× 25 rad s - 1
= 75 m/s.
Problem 2: Compute the linear speed of a body moving at 50 rpm in a

circular path having a radius of 2 m?
Answer:
Given – Angular velocity = 50rpm
=5.237rad/s
Radius r = 2 m
The linear speed is given by
v = r ω
= 2 m × 5.237 rad/s
= 10.473 m/s
LATEST the heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapor phase,
or a liquid into a vapor phase. According to diff erent phase, it has diff erent
names like heat of condensation, heat of vaporization etc. The amount of heat
energy absorbed or released for a phase change is known as latent heat.
The latent heat formula is given by,
L = Q / M
Where,
Q = amount of heat
M = mass of the substance
Example 1
Determine the latent heat of 5kg substance if the amount of heat for a phase
change is 300k.cal.
Solution:
Q = 300k.cal
M = 5 kg
Formula for latent heat is given by,
L = Q / M
= 300 / 5
= 60k.cal/kg
Example 2
The heat needed for a phase transfer of 2kg substance is 400k.cal. Determine
its latent heat.
Solution:
Q = 400k.cal
M = 2 kg
Formula for latent heat is given by,
L = Q / M
= 400 / 2
= 200k.cal/kg
FREQUENCY FORMULA
Frequency is the revolutions per second or number of wave cycles. The Formula
for period (T) in terms of frequency is articulated as:
If one considers any wave in terms of wavelength and velocity the Frequency
Formula is articulated as
Where,
the frequency of the wave is f,
the wave velocity or wave speed is V,
the wavelength of the wave is λ.
If light wave is considered, then frequency is articulated as
Where C is the velocity of light.
Frequency in terms of angular frequency is articulated as

Where ω is the angular frequency.
The formula for the frequency of a wave is used to fi nd frequency(f), time

period(T), wave speed (V) and wavelength (λ). The Frequency is expressed
in Hertz (Hz).
Frequency Formula Solved Examples
Underneath are given some questions based on frequency formula which may
be useful for you.
Problem 1: Find the number of oscillations if the time taken is 3 s?

Answer:
Given: Time taken by T = 3 s,
Frequency f = ?
Frequency Formula is given by
Problem 2: The light wave has a wavelength of 500 nm. Compute its
frequency?
Answer:
Given: Velocity of light, V = 3 ×× 10 8 m/s,

Wavelength, λλ = 500 nm
Frequency is given by
HEAT CAPACITY FORMULA

Heat capacity is the heat required to raise the temperature of an object by one
degree.
Heat gain or loss results to changes in temperature, state and performance of
the work. Heat is a transfer of energy. The heat capacity of a defi ned object is
usually expressed in joules or calories and temperature in Celsius or Kelvin.
Heat Capacity formula is expressed by,
Wherein,
Δ Q = amount of heat transferred,

ΔT = temperature difference.
Heat Capacity problem can be applied to calculate the heat capacity, mass or
temperature diff erence of any given substance.
Heat Capacity is described in Joule per Kelvin (J/K).
Please note that in Heat capacity, we consider the specifi c amount of mass and
that mass can be any amount.
Example 1
Determine the heat capacity of copper of mass 70 g and the temperature
diff erence is 20oC, if 300 J of heat is lost.
Solution:

Mass m = 70 g,
Temperature diff erence T = 20oC,
Heat lost Δ Q = 300 J
the Heat capacity formula is given by
c = Q / mΔT
= 300 / 20
= 15 J/oC
Example 2
Determine the heat capacity of 3000 J of heat is used to heat the iron rod of
mass 10 Kg from 20oC to 40oC.
Solution:

Mass m = 10 Kg,
Temperature difference Δ T = 20oC,
Heat lost Δ Q = 3000 J
The Heat capacity formula is given by
c = Q / ΔT
= 3000 / 20
= 150 J/oC
MAGNETISM FORMULA
More topics in Magnetism Formula
Magnetic Force
Magnetic Flux Formula
Formula
Ampere’s Law Formula Magnetic Field Formula
FREE FALL FORMULA

Free fall as the term says, is a body falling freely because of the gravitational
pull of our earth.
Imagine a body is falling freely for time t seconds, with velocity v, from a
height h, due to gravity g.
Free Fall Formulas are three in number and are articulated as
Free fall is autonomous of the body’s mass. It only depends on height and the
time period for which body is fl ung.
Free fall Problems Solved Examples
Underneath are given questions on free fall which may be useful for you.
Problem 1: Compute the height of the body if it is has a mass of 2 Kg and

touches the ground after 5 seconds?
Answer:
Given: Height h = ?
Time t = 5s
We all are acquainted with the fact that free fall is independent of mass.
Problem 2: The cotton falls after 3 s and iron falls after 5 s. Which is moving
with higher velocity?
Answer:
The Velocity in free fall is autonomous of mass.

V (Velocity of iron) = gt = 9.8 m/s 2 × 5s = 49 m/s
V (Velocity of cotton) = gt = 9.8 m/s 2 × 3s = 29.4 m/s.
The Velocity of iron is more than cotton.
HEAT LOSS FORMULA

Decrease of heat existing in space, resulting from heat transfer through walls,
roof, windows and buildings surfaces or other factors is known as heat loss.
Heat loss is determined by multiplying the values of the surface area,

diff erence in temperatures of indoors and outdoors and value of heat loss of
the material.
The heat loss interests in ventilation of hot processes which is known as

convectional heat loss. The total heat loss of the object involves losses
occurring by radiation, convection, and conduction.
Heat loss is measured by the units called Watts.
Heat loss formula is expressed by,
q = (U × A) ×Δt
Where,
q = total heat loss through the building in Btu/hr,
U = Overall coeffi cient of heat transmission through the building,

A = the area in sq.ft of the building assembly with coeffi cient of heat
transmission U,
Δt = temperature difference between inside and outside temperatures.
Example 1
Determine the total heat loss from the building whose Area is 6.0 sq.ft,
coeffi cient of heat transfer is 0.7 and the temperature diff erence is 25 ∘C.
Solution:
Given:
U = 0.7
A = 6.0
Δt = 25∘C
Substitute these values in the given formula,
q = (U × A) ×Δt
= 0.7 x 6.0 x 25
Therefore, q = 105 watts
Example 2
Determine the total heat loss from the building whose coeffi cient of heat value
is 265 watt; the Area is 4.30 meters and the value for ΔT is 1135 watts.
Solution:
Given:
U = 265 watt
A = 4.30 metres
ΔT = 1135 watts.
q = (U × A) ×Δt
= 265 x 4.30 x 1135
Therefore, q = 1293332.5 watts
MOMENTUM FORMULA
According to newton’s law of motion, all moving bodies continue to be in the
state of rest or motion unless interfered by some external force. The same
principle can be applied to momentum i.e, if the mass and velocity of an object
remains same, then the momentum of the object remains constant.
Momentum is associated with the mass of the moving body and can be defi ned
as the quantity of motion measured as a product of mass and velocity.
The momentum formula is given by,
Where,
p is the momentum of the body,

m is the mass of the body and
v is the velocity of the body.
The S.I unit for momentum is Kgms - 1 .
Example 1
A car of mass 600 Kg is moving with a velocity of 10 m/s. Determine its

Momentum.
Solution:
Given:
Mass, m = 600 Kg,
Velocity, v = 10 m/s
Momentum is given as
p = mv
= 600 × 10
= 6000 Kgms - 1 .
Example 2
A bike is moving at the rate of 30 m/s carrying a momentum of 5000 kgm/s.

Determine its mass.
Solution:
Given:
Velocity v = 30m/s,
Momentum p = 5000 kgm/s,
Momentum is given as
p = m × v
Mass, m = p / v
= 5000 / 30
= 166.66 Kg
MECHANICAL ENERGY FORMULA

Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy in an
object that is used to do a particular work. In other words, it describes the
energy of an object because of its motion or position, or both. Potential energy
is possessed by the object’s position whereas kinetic energy is possessed by
the movement. When an object is moving, its potential energy is zero. When
it’s at rest, the kinetic energy is zero.
The mechanical energy formula is given by,
M.E = K. E + P.E
M.E = ½ mv2 + mgh
Where,
m = mass of an object,
v = velocity of that object,
g = acceleration due to gravity and
h = height of an object.
Example 1
A person is sitting on a building of height 10m and the mass of the person is
50kg, determine the mechanical energy.
Solution:
m = 50 kg
h = 10m
the person is not moving, therefore, K. E = 0
Mechanical energy formula is given by,
1. E = 1 / 2mv2 + mgh
Since K.E is 0, the equation becomes,
M.E = mgh
= 50 ×9.81 ×10
= 4905 J
Example 2
Determine the mechanical energy of a 20 kg object which is moving with a

speed of 10m/s.
Solution:
m = 20kg
v = 10m/s
the person is moving, therefore P. E = 0
Mechanical energy formula is given by
1. E = 1 / 2 mv2 + mgh
Since P.E is 0, the equation becomes,
M.E = 1 / 2mv2
= 1 / 2 × 20 ×102
= 1000 J
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
FORMULA
The universe has numerous forces, a lot of pushes and pulls. One is always
pushing or pulling something, even if only the ground. In Physics, there are
actually only four essential forces from which everything new is derived: the
gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the strong force and the weak
force.
Newton’s law of gravity says that the gravitational force amidst two objects is
proportionate to the result of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance amongst them. All bodies, counting you, are tugging on
every other body in the whole universe! This is termed as Newton’s Universal
Law of Gravitation.
The universal law of gravitation states that:
Every object in the universe pulls every other object with a force which
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The Gravitational force formula is given by

Where,
G is universal gravitational constant,
m 1 and m 2 are mass of bodies
r is the radius between the two masses
Gravitational Force Problems
Let’s go through some gravitational force problems:
Solved Examples
Problem 1: Calculate the gravitational force if the mass of the sun is

1.99 × 1030 kg and earth is 5.97 × 10 2 4 kg separated by the distance
1.5 × 10 1 1 m?(Gravitational constant G = 6.673 × 10 - 1 1 Nm 2 /Kg 2 )
Answer:
Problem 2: What will be the force of gravity in between two balls of mass 2kg
and 3kg separated by 2m distance?
Answer:
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
FORMULA
The universe has numerous forces, a lot of pushes and pulls. One is always
pushing or pulling something, even if only the ground. In Physics, there are
actually only four essential forces from which everything new is derived: the
gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the strong force and the weak
force.
Newton’s law of gravity says that the gravitational force amidst two objects is
proportionate to the result of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance amongst them. All bodies, counting you, are tugging on
every other body in the whole universe! This is termed as Newton’s Universal
Law of Gravitation.
The universal law of gravitation states that:
Every object in the universe pulls every other object with a force which
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The Gravitational force formula is given by
Where,
G is universal gravitational constant,
m 1 and m 2 are mass of bodies
r is the radius between the two masses
Gravitational Force Problems

Let’s go through some gravitational force problems:
Solved Examples
Problem 1: Calculate the gravitational force if the mass of the sun is

1.99 × 1030 kg and earth is 5.97 × 10 2 4 kg separated by the distance
1.5 × 10 1 1 m?(Gravitational constant G = 6.673 × 10 - 1 1 Nm 2 /Kg 2 )
Answer:
Problem 2: What will be the force of gravity in between two balls of mass 2kg
and 3kg separated by 2m distance?
Answer:
MAGNETIC FORCE FORMULA

Magnetic force is the force of attraction or repulsion that arises between
electrically charged particles due to their motion. It is the basic force
responsible for eff ects like action of electric motors or attraction of iron pieces
towards magnet.
In other words, magnetic force is the force experienced because of the

magnetic fi eld. It can be positive or negative depending whether the force is
attractive or repulsive.
Magnetic force is based on the charge, velocity and magnetic fi eld of the
object.
The magnetic force formula is given by,
Wherein,
FB = magnetic force,
q = charge,
v = velocity,
B = magnetic fi eld and
θ = angle between the track of the second particle and direction of magnetic
fi eld.
Example1
Determine the magnetic force of a 5C charged particle moving with a velocity

of 10m/s in a magnetic fi eld of 1T. The direction of magnetic fi eld is
perpendicular to the track of the second particle.
Solution:

q = 5C,
v = 10m/s,
B = 1T
Since the path of second particle is perpendicular magnetic fi eld direction,
θ = 90°
The magnetic force formula is given by,
FB = q v B sinθ
FBFB = 5 × 10 × 1 × sin 90
= 50N
Example 2
Determine the magnetic force of 50C charged particle moving with a velocity of
3m/s in an magnetic fi eld of 1T? The direction of magnetic fi eld is same as path
of the second particle.
Solution:
q = 50C,
v = 3m/s,
B = 1T
Since the path of second particle is same as magnetic fi eld direction,
θ = 0°
The magnetic force formula is given by
FB = q v B sinθ
= 50 × 3 ×1 × sin 0
=0
MOMENTUM AND ITS

CONSERVATION FORMULA
Momentum is the tendency of the object to be in motion and therefore is a
vector quantity. It is determined by the product of the mass of the object and
its velocity. If both the objects are not experiencing any external forces, then
the total momentum of the objects before and after the interaction is the same.
This relation under the fundamental law of physics is known as the
conservation of momentum.
This fundamental law of physics can be applied to explain the phenomenon of

collision and explosion.The momentum formula is given by,
Momentum (P) = mass (m) x velocity (v)
Conservation of momentum can be described by
P1 (before) + P2 (before) = P1 (after) + P2 (after)
This equation is valid for the object that undergoes collision.
Example 1
A 0.55 Kg cricket ball moving at a speed of 3.5 m / s collides with a cricket bat
of 3.5 Kg swung at a speed of 1.5 m / s. after the collision the cricket bat
swings at a speed of 0.5 m / s. Calculate the magnitude and the velocity of the
cricket ball.
Solution:
Given:
m1 = 0.55 kg
m2 = 3.5 kg
v1 = 3.5 m/s
v2 = 1.5 m/s
The relation between the colliding bodies is given by,
P1 ( before ) + P2 (before ) = P1 ( after ) + P2 ( after )
The momentum relation stands as,
( m1 v1 ) before + ( m2 v2 ) before = ( m1 v1 ) after + ( m2 v2 ) after
Therefore, v1 (after) = [(m1v1)before+(m2v2)before−(m2v2)after] / (m1)after
= 0.5 x 3.5 + 3.5 x -1.5 – 3.5 x 0.5 / 0.55
= 1.875 – 5.25 – 1.75 / 0.55
= -9.318
Therefore, v1 (after) = – 9.31 m/s
The negative sign shows that it travels in the opposite direction.
Example 1
A ball of 1 kg is moving at a speed of 5 m / s collides with a cricket bat of 2.5

Kg swung at a speed of 1.5 m / s. right after the collision the cricket bat swings
at a speed of 1.5 m / s. Calculate the magnitude and the velocity of the cricket
ball.
Solution:
Given:
m1 = 1 kg
m2 = 2.5 kg
v1 = 5 m/s
v2 = 1.5 m/s
The relation between the colliding bodies is given by,
P1 (before) + P2 (before ) = P1 ( after ) + P2 ( after )
The momentum relation is expressed by,
(m1 v1) before + ( m2 v2 ) before = ( m1 v1 ) after + ( m2 v2 ) after
v1 (after) = [(m1v1)before+(m2v2)before−(m2v2)after] / (m1)after
= 1 x 5 + 2.5 x -1.5 – 2.5 x 1.5 / 1
= -2.5
Therefore, v1 (after) = – 2.5 m/s
The negative sign shows that it travels in the opposite direction.
HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE FORMULA
Quantum mechanics is the discipline of measurements on the minuscule scale.
That measurements are in macro and micro physics can lead to very diverse
consequences. Heisenberg uncertainty principle or basically uncertainty
principle is a vital concept in Quantum mechanics. Uncertainty principle says
that both position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined at the
same time and accurately. The result of position and momentum is at all times
greater than h/4π. The formula for Heisenberg Uncertainty principle is
articulated as,
Where, the Planck’s constant (6.626×10−34×10−34Js) is h , Δp is the

uncertainty in momentum and Δx is the uncertainty in position
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Problems
We’ll go through the questions of Heisenberg Uncertainty principle.
Solved Examples
Problem 1: The uncertainty in the momentum Δp of a ball traveling at 20m/s

is 1×10−6×10−6 of its momentum. Calculate the uncertainty in position Δx?
Mass of the ball is given as 0.5kg.
Answer:
Known numerics are,

v = 20m/s,
m = 0.5kg,
h = 6.626×10−34×10−34Js and
Δp = P×1×10−6×10−6
As we know that,
P = m×v = 0.5×20 = 10kgm/s
Δp = 10×1×10−6×10−6
Δp = 10−510−5
Heisenberg Uncertainty principle formula is given as,
Problem 2: An electron in a molecule travels at a speed of 40m/s. The
uncertainty in the momentum Δp of the electron is 10−610−6 of its
momentum. Compute the uncertainty in position Δx if the mass of an electron
is 9.1×10−319.1×10−31kg?
Answer:
Given measurements are,

v = 40m/s, m = 9.1×10−31×10−31kg, h = 6.626×10−34×10−34Js and Δp =
P×10−6×10−6
We know that,
P = m×v
P = 9.1×10−31×40=364×10−31×10−31×40=364×10−31kgm/s
Δp = 364×10−31×10−6= 364×10−37×10−31×10−6 = 364×10−37
Heisenberg Uncertainty principle formula is given as,
MASS FLOW RATE FORMULA

The mass fl ow rate is the mass of a liquid substance passing per unit time. In
other words, Mass fl ow rate is defi ned as the rate of movement of liquid mass
through a unit area. The mass fl ow is directly depended on the density, velocity
of the liquid and area of cross section. It is the movement of mass per unit
time.The mass fl ow is denoted by m and the units in kg/s.
The mass fl ow formula is given by,
Where,
ρ = density of fluid,
V = velocity of the liquid, and
A = area of cross section
Example 1
Determine the mass fl ow rate of a given fl uid whose density is 700 kg/m3,
velocity and area of cross section are 20m/s and 20cm2 respectively.
Solution:
Given values are,
ρ = 700kg/m3,
V = 20m/s, and
A = 20cm2
= 0.20m2
The mass fl ow rate formula is given by,
m = ρVA
= 700 × 20 × 0.20
= 2800 kg/s
Example 2
The density and velocity of a given fl uid is 900kg/m3 and 5m/s. If this fl uid
fl ows through an area of 20cm2, determine the mass fl ow rate.
Solution:
Given values are,
ρ = 900kg/m3,
V = 5m/s, and
A = 20cm2
= 0.20m2
The mass fl ow rate formula is given by,
m = ρVA
= 900 × 5 ×0.20
= 900 kg/s
NEWTONS SECOND LAW

FORMULA
Newton’s second law of motion is formally stated as The acceleration of an
object generated by a net force is directly proportional to its magnitude and in
the same direction as the net force and inversely proportional to the mass of
the object.
Newton’s second law is among the most important laws of motion in Physics,
under the study of forces and matter. It describes the relationship between
mass and acceleration of a body towards the force.
According to Newton’s second law, the force is expressed by the product of

mass and acceleration of the body.
Newton’s second law Formula is given by,
F = m a
Wherein,
m = mass
a = acceleration
Example 1
Determine the applied force of an object of 5kg moving with a velocity of

10m/s?
Solution:
Given values are,
m = 5kg and
a = 10m/s
F = ma
= 5 ×10
= 50N
Example 2
An object of 6kg is moving with a velocity of 30m/s. Determine its force.
Solution:
Given values are,
m = 6kg and
a = 30m/s
F = ma
= 6 × 30
= 180N
INDUCED VOLTAGE FORMULA

Induced voltage is produced as a product of electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic induction is the procedure of producing emf (induced voltage)
by exposing a conductor into a magnetic fi eld. Induced voltage is described by
making use of the Faraday’s law of induction. Induced voltage of a closed-
circuit is described as the rate of change of magnetic fl ux through that closed
circuit. Induced voltage formula is articulated as,
Where, ε is the induced voltage, N is the total number of turns of the loop,
Magnetic fl ux, ΦBΦB = B.A, (B is the magnetic fi eld and A is the area of the
loop), t is the time.
Induced Voltage Solved Examples
Solved questions of induced voltage is provided below:
Problem 1: Consider a rectangular coil of 5 turns with a side length 0.5m. This
coil reaches the magnetic fi eld 0.3T within 10s. Compute the induced voltage?
Answer:
Known values are,

N = 5, l = 0.5m, B = 0.3T, dt = 10s
The formula for induced voltage is articulated as,
Problem 2: Imagine a circular loop of radius 0.05m and the magnetic fi eld of
0.5T is attained by 8s. Compute the induced voltage if there are 10 number of
turns?
Answer:

N = 10, r = 0.05m, B = 0.5T, dt = 8s
The formula for induced voltage is articulated by,
NORMAL FORCE FORMULA
The normal force is the force component vertical to any contact surface. It
decides the amount of force the body applies on the ground. The normal force
will be the weight of the object only if the object is not accelerating
(decelerating). When a object is about to fall, it depends on which position the
object falls on the ground. It is denoted by F N and is given in newtons (N).
For a body resting on the fl at surface the normal force FNN is equal to the
weight,
F N = mg
Where,
gravitational force is g and

mass is m,
If a force acts on a dropping body that falls at an angle of θ the normal force is
greater than the weight articulated as,
F N = mg + F sin θ
Where,
the normal force is F N ,
gravitational force is g,
the angle with which body falls is θ.
If a force tugs the body in the upward direction, the normal force is less than
its weight and is given by,
F N = mg – F sin θ
Where,
the angle with which body moves up is θ
For the body placed on an inclined plane the normal force FNN is given by,
F N = mg cos θ
Where,
the angle of the inclined surface is θ
Normal Force Solved Problems
Let’s see some examples of normal force:
Problem 1: The body drops down with a force of 200 N. If the mass of the
object is 10 kg at an angle of 36 0 . Compute the normal force being applied on
the body.
Answer:
Known:
m (Mass) = 10 kg,
F (Force) = 200 N,
angle θ = 36 0
The normal force formula is articulated as,

F N = mg + F sin θ
F N = 10 kg × 9.8 ms - 2 + 200 N × sin 36 0
F N = 215.55 N
Thus, the normal force being applied on the body is 215.55 N.
Problem 2: A book of mass 1.7 kg is lying on the fl oor. Compute the normal
force being applied on the book.
Answer:
Known:
m (Mass) = 1.7 kg,
w.k.t g (gravitational force) = 9.8 ms - 2
The normal force is articulated as,

F N = mg
F N = 1.7 kg × 9.8 ms - 2
F N = 16.66 N.
Thus, the normal force being applied on the book is 16.66 N.
ORBITAL VELOCITY FORMULA

Orbital velocity is the velocity at which a body revolves around the other body.
Objects that travel in uniform circular motion around the Earth are called to be
in orbit. The velocity of this orbit depends on the distance between the object
and the center of the earth.
This velocity is usually given to the artifi cial satellites so that it revolves
around any particular planet.
The orbital velocity formula is given by,
Vorbit = √GM / R
It is given by
Where,
G = gravitational constant,
M = mass of the body at center,
R = radius of orbit.
Orbital Velocity Formula is applied to calculate the orbital velocity of the

any planet if mass M and radius R are known.
Orbital Velocity is expressed in meter per second (m/s).
Question 1:
Calculate the orbital velocity of earth so that the satellite revolves round the
earth if radius of earth R = 6.5 × 106 m, mass of earth M = 5.5 × 1024 kg and
Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10-11 m3/s2 kg.
Solution:
Given:
R = 6.5 × 106 m
M = 5.5 × 1024 kg
G = 6.6 × 10-11 m3/s2 kg
The Orbital velocity formula is given by
Vorbit = √GM / R
= √6.67 ×10−11 × 5.5×1024 / 6.5 ×106
= √36.68 x 1013 / 6.5 x 106
= 7.5 km/s
Example 2:
A satellite launch is made for the study of Jupiter.Determine its velocity so that
it orbit round the Jupiter.
Given: Radius of Jupiter R = 70.5 × 106 m,
Mass of jupiter M = 1.5 × 1027 Kg,
Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10-11 m3/s2 kg
Solution:
When the given parameters are substituted in the orbital velocity

formula, we get
Vorbit = √GM / R
= √6.673×10−11×1.5×1027 / 70.5×106
= √10.0095 x 1016 / 70.5 x 106

= √0.141 x 1010
3.754 x 109 m/s.
INITIAL VELOCITY FORMULA

The velocity at which motion start is termed as Initial Velocity. It is velocity at
time interval t = 0. It is represented by u.Three initial velocity formulas are
there-
If fi nal time, acceleration and velocity are provided. The initial velocity is
articulated as,
u =v – at
If fi nal velocity, acceleration, and distance are provided we make use of
u 2 = v 2 – 2as
If distance, acceleration and time are provided. The initial velocity is
Where,
Initial velocity = u,
Final Velocity = v,
time taken = t,
distance traveled or displacement = s,
acceleration = a
Initial Velocity formula is made use of to fi nd the initial velocity of the body if
some of the quantities are given. Initial velocity is articulated in meter per
second (m/s).
Initial Velocity Solved Examples
Below are some problems based on Initial velocity which may be helpful for
you.
Problem 1: Johny completes the bicycle ride with the fi nal velocity of 10 ms -
1
and acceleration 2 ms - 2 within 3s. Calculate the initial velocity.
Answer:
Given: v (Final velocity) = 10 ms - 1 ,

a (Acceleration) = 2ms - 2 ,
t (Time taken) = 3 s
u (Initial velocity) = ?
v (Final velocity) = u + at
u (Initial velocity) = v – at = 10 ms - 1 – (2ms - 2 )3s
= 4 ms - 1
∴ (Initial velocity) u = 4ms - 1
Problem 2: A man covers a distance of 100 m. If he has a fi nal velocity of 40
ms - 1 and has acceleration of 6 ms - 2 . Compute his initial velocity?
Answer:
Given: Distance s = 100m,

(Final velocity) v = 40 ms - 1 ,
(Acceleration) a = 6ms - 2
(Initial velocity) u 2 = v 2 – 2as
= 1600 – 2 ×× 6 ×× 100
= 1600 – 1200
= 400 ms - 1
∴ (Initial velocity) u = 20 ms - 1 .
OPTICS FORMULA
Optics describe the light propagation in terms of light ray. The light ray in
geometrical optics is an instrument which is used to approximate models of
how a light will propagate. Light rays tend to bend at the interface of two
diff erent medium where re\fractive index changes. The geometrical optics gives
us the rules for light propagating through optical devices.
The geometrical optics could be made used to explain the geometrical imaging
and aberrations.
Lens is one of such optical device with axial symmetry which allows and
re\fracts light ray to either converge or diverge the light beam.
The formula for thin lens is as follows:
1f=1v+1u1f=1v+1u
Where, f is the focal length of the thin lens, v is the image distance and u is
the object distance.
Magnification of lens is the process by which an object is enlarged in appearance
without increasing the size physically.
The formula which helps in getting the thin lens magnifi cation is given by m
= hihohiho
heightofimageheightofobjectheightofimageheightofobject
Power of lens (dioptre) = 1f1f (in meters)
EXAMPLES
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Some Examples on Optics Formula are:
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Question 1: For a short sighted person the far point is 60 cm. Calculate the lens power
essential to correct the defect ?
Solution:
The power required for a far point of 60 cm is
left(1vright)+left(1inftyright)=left(1feright)+left(1fright)left(1vright)
+left(1inftyright)=left(1feright)+left(1fright)
left(1vright)+left(180right)=left(1feright)left(1vright)+left(180right)=left(1feright)
By using both equation we get,
left(1fright)left(1fright)=−180−180
Therefore the power ( D ) = −10.8−10.8 = – 1.25 D
Question 2: A man is suffering from short sight disease is not able to view any objects
distinctly beyond anything more than 1.5 m. Find the required power to correct the eye
defect?
Solution:
(focal length of eye) 1fe1fe = ( 1v1v ) + ( 11501150)
left(1vright)+left(1inftyright)=left(1feright)+left(1fright)left(1vright)
+left(1inftyright)=left(1feright)+left(1fright)
By substituting both the equation we get
left(1fright)=−1150left(1fright)=−1150 cm
left(1fright)=−11.5left(1fright)=−11.5 m
Power ( D ) = – 0.66
POWER FORMULA
The capacity to do work is termed as Energy. The Energy expended to do work
in unit time is termed as Power. It is represented as P.
Power Formula is articulated as,
or,
Where,
The Energy Consumed to do work = E
Work done = W and
Time taken= t
In any electrical circuit, the power is computed making use of these three
formulas
In regards of Voltage and current, it is articulated as

In regards to current and resistance, it is articulated as
In regards to voltage and resistance, it is articulated as
Where,
Voltage applied across the two ends =V,
Current fl owing in the circuit = I and

Resistance = R.
The Power Formula is made use of to compute the Power, Resistance, Voltage
or current in any electrical circuit. It is articulated in watts.
Power Solved Examples
Underneath are some solved samples on Power which help comprehend these
formulas.
Problem 1: An electric machine makes use of 300 J of energy to do work in

10s. How much power does it use?
Answer:
Known: Work done = W = 300 J,

Time taken t = 10 s.
Problem 2: John is who has a mass of 60 kg runs up to 12m high in 40

seconds. Compute his power.
Answer:
Known: m (mass) = 60 kg,

h (Height) = 12 m,
t (time taken) = 40 seconds.
KELVIN TO CELSIUS FORMULA

Kelvin and Celsius scales are the most frequently used temperature assessing
scales in thermometer business.The size of 1 degree on Kelvin scale is similar
to the size of 1 degree on Celsius scale that is, the diff erence or alteration in
temperature is similar on both the balances. The Kelvin and Celsius
Relation on the scale is articulated as
To transform Celsius into Kelvin, this relation can be used:
Celsius = Kelvin – 273.15

Kelvin to Celsius formula is made use of to change the temperature given in
Kelvin to degree Celsius.
Kelvin to Celsius – Solved Examples
Underneath are problems based on Kelvin to Celsius conversion.
Problem 1: Convert the following into Celsius.

(a) 45 K
(b) 290 K
(c) 313 K
Answer:
(a) 45 K = 45 – 273 = – 228 o C

(b) 290 K = 290 – 273 = 17 o C
(c) 313 K = 313 – 273 = 40 o C
Problem 2: The boiling point of hydrogen is 20.28 K and its melting point is
14.01 K. Compute its temperature in Celsius.
Answer:
Known :
Melting point of hydrogen is 14.01 K

Boiling point of hydrogen = 20.28 K
In Celsius,
Hydrogen’s melting point is 14.01 K = 14.01 – 273.15 = -259.14 0 C
Hydrogen’s boiling point is 20.28 K = 20.28 – 273.15 = -252.87 0 C
PRESSURE FORMULA
Pressure is the force applied by one object on the another. It is symbolized
by P.
Pressure is articulated as force per unit area articulated as
Where,
F = Force applied by the body,
A = Total area of the object.
Pressure Formula is given by
Where,
the height is h,
density is ρ,
gravity is g
Pressure Formula is made use of to compute pressure, force, area, density,
height and gravity if some of these numerics are provided. Pressure is
articulated in Pascal (Pa).
Pressure Solved Examples

Underneath are problems based on pressure which may be helpful for you.
Problem 1: A 60 Kg girl wearing high heel shoes stabilizes herself on a single

heel. The heel is rounded with a diameter of 1.5 cm. Calculate the pressure
applied by the heel on the horizontal fl oor?
Answer:
Problem 2: A tank is fi lled with water is of height 1 m. Compute the pressure

exerted on the bottom of the tank.
(Acceleration due to Gravity = 9.8 m/s 2 , Density of water = 1000 kg / m 3 ).
Answer:
Known:
Acceleration due to Gravity = 9.8 m/s 2

Density of water = 1000 kg / m 3 ,
The pressure is articulated as
P = ρ × g × h
P = 1000 × 9.8 × 1m
P = 9800 Pascal.
PRESSURE DROP FORMULA

Pressure drop describes the diff erence in the pressure between two points of a
network carrying fl uid. Pressure drop occurs when the frictional force caused by
the resistance to fl ow acting on the fl uid as it fl ows through the tube.
It has a relation between viscosity and velocity of the liquid. The main factors
that determine the resistance to the liquid fl ow are fl uid velocity through the
pipe and the fl uid viscosity. Pressure drop is proportional to the frictional shear
forces within the pipe network.
The Pressure drop is denoted by J.
The pressure drop formula is given by
J = fLv2 / 2gD
Where,
J = pressure drop
f = friction factor
L = length of the tube

v = velocity of the fl uid
g = acceleration due to gravity
D = inner diameter of the tube
Example 1
Determine the pressure drop of a fl uid whose velocity is 60m/s. The

length of the tube is 20m; the inner diameter is given as 0.1m, and the
friction factor is 0.5.
Solution:
f = 0.5,
L = 20m,
v = 60m/s,
g = 9.8m/s,
D = 0.1m
Pressure drop formula is given by,
J = fLv2 / 2gD
J = 0.5×20×602 / 2 x 9.8 × 0.1
36000 / 1.96
= 18367.34 Pa
Example 2
Determine the pressure drop of a liquid whose velocity is 10m/s. The
length of the tube is 4m; the inner diameter is given as 0.5m, and the
friction factor is 0.3.
Solution:
f = 0.3,
L = 4m,
v = 10m/s,
g = 9.8m/s,
D = 0.5m
Pressure drop formula is given by,
J = fLv2 / 2gD
J = 0.3×4×100 / 2 x 9.8×0.5
120 / 9.8
= 12.24 Pa.
PENDULUM FORMULA
Pendulum
A simple pendulum is a mechanical arrangement that demonstrates periodic

motion. The simple pendulum comprises of a small bob of mass ‘m’ suspended
by a thin string secured to a platform at its upper end of length L.
The string’s mass is thought of to be negligible paralleled to the mass of the
bob and is disregarded. The bob when released from a specifi c height swings
back and forth over the same path.
The pendulum bob travels along a circular arc instead of to and fro in a straight
line. Though when the oscillations are minor, the motion of the bob is straight.
The restoring force that causes the pendulum to go through simple harmonic
motion is essentially the gravitational force constituent which is tangent to the
path of motion.
Frequency= 1T
The period of such pendulum is articulated as
T = 2πLg−−√2πLg
Where, period of pendulum(seconds) = T
Length of the pendulum string (m) =L And
acceleration due to gravity (m/s 2 ) = ‘g’
Solved Examples
Some sample problems on Pendulum are:
Problem 1: Find the time period of the bob with a string length of 0.75 m. The
gravitational constant = 9.8 m/s 2 ?
Answer:
Problem 2: Find the length of the string when the time period of the simple
pendulum is found to be 1.5 seconds. The gravitational constant is taken as
9.8 m/s 2 ?
Answer:
LINEAR MOMENTUM FORMULA

Linear momentum is the vector quantity and defi ned as the product of mass of
an object, m, and its velocity, v. The letter ‘p’ is applied to express it and used
as momentum for short. Please note that the body’s momentum is always in
the same direction as its velocity vector. It’s a conserved quantity which means
that the total momentum of a system is constant. The units of linear
momentum are kg m/s.
The linear momentum formula is given by,
P = M V
Where,
m = mass
v = velocity
Example 1
Determine the linear momentum of a body whose mass is 10kg moving with a
speed of 20m/s.
Solution:
m = 10 kg
v = 20m/s
Linear momentum formula is expressed as,
P = mv
= 10 x 20
= 200 kgm/s
Example 2
The linear momentum of a body is 40 kg m/s and mass of the object is 5kg.
Determine the velocity of the object.
Solution:
m = 5 kg
P = 40 kgm/s
Linear momentum formula is given by,
P = mv
v = P / m
= 40 / 5
= 8 m/s
POISEUILLES LAW FORMULA

The Poiseuille’s law states that the fl ow of liquid depends on following factors
like the pressure gradient (∆P), the length of the narrow tube (L) of radius (r)
and the viscosity of the fl uid (η) along with relationship among them.
The entire relation or the Poiseuille’s Law formula is given by,
Q = ΔPπr4 / 8ηl
Wherein,
The Pressure Gradient (∆P) : Shows the diff erence in the pressure between
the two ends of the tube, determined by the fact any fl uid will always fl ow from
high pressure (p1) to low pressure region(p2) and the fl ow rate is determined
by the pressure gradient (P1 – P2)
Radius of tube: The liquid fl ow varies directly with the radius to the power 4.
Viscosity (η): The fl ow of the fl uid varies inversely with the viscosity of the
fl uid and as the viscosity of the fl uid increases, the fl ow decreases vice versa.
Length of the Tube (L): The liquid fl ow is inversely proportional to the length
of the tube, therefore longer the tube, greater is the resistance to the fl ow.
Resistance(R): The resistance is described by 8Ln / πr4 and therefore the

Poiseuille’s law becomes
Q= (ΔP) R
Example 1:
The blood fl ow through a large artery of radius 2.5 mm is found to be

20 cm long. The pressure across the artery ends is 380 Pa, calculate
the blood’s average speed.
Solution:
The blood viscosity η = 0.0027 N .s/m2
Radius = 2.5 mm
Diff erence of pressure = 380 Pa ( P1 – P2)
The average speed is given by, =
380 x (0.0025)2 / 8(0.0027)(0.20m)
The average speed becomes 1.6031 m / s

The water fl ow through a large tube of radius 3 mm is found to be 10
cm long. The pressure across the two ends of the tube is 300 Pa,
calculate the water’s average speed.
Solution:
The viscosity η = 0.0027 N .s/m2
Radius = 3 mm
Diff erence of pressure = 300 Pa ( P1 – P2)
The average speed is given by, =
300 x (0.0003)2 / 8(0.0027)(0.10m)
The average speed becomes 0.911 m / s
REYNOLDS NUMBER FORMULA

Reynolds number is a dimensionless value which is applied in fl uid mechanics
to represent whether the fl uid fl ow in a duct or pat a body is steady or
turbulent. This value is obtained by comparing the inertial force with the
viscous force.
The Reynolds number id denoted by Re.
Reynolds number is given by,
Reynolds Number = Inertial Force / Viscous Force
The Reynolds number formula is expressed by,
Where,
ρ = density of the fl uid,
V = velocity of the fl uid,
μ = viscosity of fl uid,
L = length or diameter of the fl uid.
Reynolds number formula can be used in the problems to calculate the

Velocity (V), density (ρ), Viscosity (μ) and diameter (L) of the liquid.
The Kind of fl ow is based on the value of Re
1. If Re < 2000, the flow is called Laminar
2. If Re > 4000, the flow is called turbulent
3. If 2000 < Re < 4000, the flow is called transition.
Example 1
Calculate the Reynolds number if a liquid of viscosity 0.5 Ns/m2 and relative
density of 500 Kg/m3 through a 10 mm pipe fl ows with a Velocity of 3 m/s.
Solution
Given:
Viscosity of fl uid, μ = 0.5 Ns/m2,
Density of fluid, ρ = 500 Kg/m3,
Diameter of the fl uid, L = 10 × 10-3 m
The Reynolds formula is given by,
Re = ρVL / μ
= 500×3×10×10−3 / 0.5
= 15000 x 10-3 / 0.5
= 30
Here, we notice that the value of Reynolds number is less than 2000, therefore
the fl ow of liquid is laminar.
Example 2
Determine the Reynolds number if a liquid fl ows through a diameter of 50 mm

with velocity 5 m/s having density of 1500 Kg/m3 and viscosity of 0.9 Kg/ms.
Solution:
Given:
Diameter of pipe L = 50 mm,
Velocity of the fl uid v = 5 m/s,
Density of fl uid ρ = 1500 Kg/m3,
Viscosity of fl uid μ = 0.9 Kg/ms
The Reynolds number is given by
Re = ρVL / μ
= 1500×5×0.050 / 0.9
= 416.66
Hence, the fl ow is laminar.

MEASUREMENT FORMULAS
Measurements are used to measure something. It is the estimation of ratios of
quantity. It is made by comparing a quantity with a standard unit. They are
used to fi nd the size, length or amount of something. Measurement Formulas
are used to fi nd the distance, area, surface area, volume, circumference etc.
They also include some conversion formulas like conversion of inch to feet,
meter to miles etc.
Some of the Measurement Formulas are given below:
MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS
Back to Top
Some solved problems based on measurements are given below:
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Question 1: Fine the area of a triangle with base 3 units and height 8 units?
Solution:
Base = 3 units
Height = 8 units
Area of a Triangle= bh2bh2
= 3×823×82
= 242242
= 12 sq.units
Question 2: Find the distance between two points (2, 3) and (7, 5)?
Solution:
(x1, y1) = (2, 3)

(x2, y2) = (7, 5)
Distance between the points= (x2–x1)2+(y2–y1)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−√(x2–x1)2+(y2–y1)2
= (7–2)2+(5–3)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−√(7–2)2+(5–3)2
= 29−−√29
= 5.39 units
More topics in Measurement Formulas
Square Footage Formula Temperature Conversion For
Degree and Radian Measure

Unit Rate Formula
Formula
RESULTANT FORCE FORMULA

The Resultant force is defi ned as the total force acting on a body along with
their directions. When the object is at rest or travelling with the same velocity,
the resultant force has to be zero. Since all the forces are acting towards the
same direction, the resultant force should be same for all the forces.
If one force is acting perpendicular to another, the resultant force is

determined by using Pythagorean theorem.The Resultant force formula is given
by,
FR = F1 + F2 + F3
Where,
F1, F2, F3 are the forces acting in the same direction on a body.
If force F2 is perpendicular to force F1, the resultant force formula is

given as,
Problem 1
If three forces 50N, 60N and 20N are acting on a body simultaneously and 20N
is opposite to the direction of other two. Determine the resultant force.
Solution:
Given:
F1 = 50N,
F2 = 60N
F3 = 20N
(F3 is opposite to the other two, therefore F3 = -20N)
Resultant force formula is given by,
FR = F1+F2+F3
= 50+60-20
= 90N
Example 2
If 4N and 9N forces act perpendicular to an object, determine the resultant

force.
Solution:
Given:
F1 = 4N
F2 = 9N
Because they are perpendicular to each other, the resultant force formula is
given by,
FR = √F12+F22
FR = √16+81
FR = √97
= 9.84N
RELATIVE MOTION FORMULA

Relative motion is the motion which is computed on the grounds of motion of
an object in contrast to
another moving motion. The relative term is not conferring to earth but is
basically the velocity of the
object taken as static when equated to other moving bodies.
Similarly, when an object moves it also alters its position constantly and that is
in relative to some
reference point generally a detection instrument or may be a spectator.
Let’s assume the velocity of object A comparative to B is v then the velocity of

object B comparative to A
is – v
Situation One: Two objects are moving in the same direction then the relative
motion is an object with a
greater speed – object with minor speed.
Relative speed: Speed of object A (better speed) – speed of object B (lesser

speed)
Situation Two: One object is moving, though the other one is being stationary.
Speed of moving object – stationary object (zero) = Relative speed
Situation Three: Both objects moving in opposite direction
Relative speed: Speed of object A + speed of object B
HEAT ENGINE EFFICIENCY

FORMULA
Under Thermodynamics, Heat engine is a system that converts heat energy and
chemical energy into mechanical energy. This occurs by bringing a working
substance from higher temperature state to a lower temperature state.
The heat engine effi ciency is the measure of energy which can be converted to
work as a fraction of the total energy. The mathematical representation of an
equation for calculating the effi ciency is expressed by
The heat engine effi ciency is a measure of the energy that can be converted to
work as a fraction of the total energy. The concept can be expressed
mathematically in an equation for calculating effi ciency. Accordingly the heat
engine effi ciency formula is given by
η = (Th − Tl / Th )
Where,
η = Heat Engine Efficiency

Th = Higher temperature
Tl = Lower temperature state
The numerical value of effi ciency is a fraction having a value between 0 and 1.
Sometimes it is more convenient to express effi ciency as a percentage rather
than a fraction. This is done by applying the comparable formula.
%η = 100 (Th−Tl / Th)
Here, the effi ciency is a value between 0% and 100%. Both the equations are
equivalent and represent the same information. The ratio of the available
energy to the total energy describes the maximum effi ciency of a heat engine.
Example 1
Water near the surface of a tropical ocean has a temperature of 298.5 K,

whereas the temperature of the water 700m underground is 290 K. Determine
the effi ciency of such an engine.
Solution:
Th = 298.5 K
TI = 290 K
The maximum effi ciency is the effi ciency that an engine would possess
operating between these two temperatures.
Substitute the value in the given formula, we get
η = (Th − Tl / Th)
= (298.5 − 290 / 298.5)
Therefore, maximum efficiency, η = 0.028 (2.8%)

Example 2
The minimum power to drive a heat pump which maintains a house at 30oC is
5KW. If the temperature outside is 5oC, calculate the amount of heat the house
loses per minute.
Solution:
The given parameters are
Th= 303.15 K
TI= 278.15 K
The heat effi ciency formula is given by,
η = (Th − Tl / Th)
= (303.15 − 278.15 / 303.15)
Therefore, η = 0.082 (8.2%)
GAY LUSSAC LAW FORMULA

In 1808, the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac reported the results of
new experiments together with a generalization known today as Gay-Lussac’s
law of combining gases.
The volume of gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature if the volume is kept
constant.
V1T1=V2T2V1T1=V2T2.
Where,
V1 = original volume
V2 = final volume
T1 = original temperature (K)
T2 = final temperature (K)
Gay-Lussac’s Law is applicable only to gases. The volumes of liquids or solids involved
in the reactants or products are not governed by Gay Lussac’s law.
GAY LUSSAC LAW FORMULA SOLVED

EXAMPLES
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Some of the solved problems based on Gay Lussac Law Formula are given
below.
Question 1: What is the volume of a quantity of a gas at 27 o C if its volume

was 400mL at 0 o C? The pressure remains constant.
Solution:
Since the temperature increased, the volume increased. Here we must use a
temperature factor greater than 1, that is 300/273
The temperature must be in degrees kelvin.
20oC + 273 = 300 K
0oC + 273 = 273 K
400mL ×× 300K273K300K273K = 438mL
Question 2: Solve Gay-Lussac’s Law to get an expression for the unknown

volume. Substitute the appropriate data into the formula.
V1 = 400mL
V2 = ? mL
T1 = 0oC
T2 = 27oC
Solution:
V1 = 400mL
V2 = ? mL
T1 = 0oC + 273 = 273K
T2 = 27oC + 273 = 300K
Substitute all the values in the corresponding formula
V1T1=V2T2V1T1=V2T2
V2 = (400mL)(300K)273K(400mL)(300K)273K
V2 = 438 mL
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
FORMULA
Mechanical advantage is a type of measure which calculates the amplifi ed
force gained by the mechanical system. It provides the ratio between the force
applied to the load and the force needed to overcome the given force. Since
the two quantities are a force, it is a unitless parameter.
In other words, the mechanical advantage is the force generated by a machine

to the force applied to it which is applied in assessing the performance of the
machine. The mechanical advantage formula is given by
Wherein,
MA is the mechanical advantage,
FB = force of the object and
FA = eff ort to overcome the force of the object.
Example 1
Determine the mechanical advantage if 300N force is required to overcome a

load of 700N.
Solution:
FA = 300N
FB = 700N
Mechanical advantage formula is given by,
MA = FB / FA
= 700 / 300
= 2.33
Example 2
Calculate the mechanical advantage if 600N force is required to overcome a

load of 1000N.
Solution:
FA = 600N
FB = 1000N
Mechanical advantage formula is by,
MA = FB / FA
MA = 1000 / 600
= 1.66
Simply resistivity or Electrical
resistivity is the resistance of the fl ow of current from one end to the
other in a material. Electrical resistivity is a simply accessible and informative
quantity to describe the material. It is the reciprocal of electrical conductivity.
Resistivity is symbolized by ρ. It is directly proportional to the resistance of the
material and the length of the material and inversely proportional to the area
of cross section of the provided material. Formula for resistivity is,
Where, ρ is the resistivity, R is the resistance, l is the length of the material

and A is the area of cross-section.
Resistivity Solved Examples
Let us take a look on some of the numerical of resistivity in this segment.
Problem 1: Compute the resistivity of the given material whose resistance is

2Ω; area of cross section and length are 25cm 2 and 15cm respectively?
Answer:
It is known that,
R = 2Ω, l = 15cm = 0.15m and
A = 25cm 2 = 0.25m 2
Resistivity formula is articulated as,
Problem 2: The length and area of a wire is given as 0.2m and

0.5m 2 respectively. The resistance of that wire is 3Ω, Compute the resistivity?
Answer:
It is known that,
R = 3Ω, l = 0.2m and A = 0.5m 2
Resistivity formula is articulated as,
RELATIVISTIC DOPPLER
EFFECT FORMULA
The Doppler Eff ect is the eff ect perceived when energy waves like light waves
or sound waves travel with regards to an observer. There will be an alteration
in frequency. An upward shift in frequency for an approaching source and a
downward shift in frequency in the case of a retreating source. The relativistic
Doppler Eff ect is some alteration in frequency caused when there is relativistic
motion between observer and source.
The relativistic doppler eff ect formula is articulated as,
if β = v/c then relativistic doppler eff ect formula is articulated as,
Where,
The Apparent frequency (the frequency of observer) is ν’,
The Real frequency (frequency of the source) is ν.
The observers velocity v is,
The speed of light is c.
The Doppler eff ect of a moving source can also be articulated as,
Where,
The source velocity is vs,
The observer velocity v is,
The Apparent frequency (the frequency of observer) is ν’,
The Real frequency (frequency of the source) is ν.
Solved Problems Relativistic Doppler Eff ect
Grounded on Relativistic Doppler Eff ect, some of the solved samples are
provided underneath:
Problem 1: A bus is moving towards john at 1.5 ×× 1088 m/s. The bus fl ashes
a headlight of frequency 4200 Hz on john. At what frequency will John receive
the light?
Answer:
Source velocity v s = 1.5 × 1088 m/s = 0.5 c, Observer velocity v = c,

frequency νν = 4200 Hz
The frequency of light john receives is,
ν’ = ν/(1 ± v s /v)
ν’ = 4200/(1 – 0.5 c/ c)
ν’ = 2100 Hz.
Thus, the frequency of light john receives is 2100 Hz.
Problem 2: A train leaves the station with a velocity of 40 m/s. What will be its
frequency if the passenger standing still perceives the frequency at 440 Hz?
Answer:
Observed frequency ν’ = 40 m/s,
Real frequency ν = ?
The speed of sound is v = 343 m/s.
The frequency of train is,
ν’ = ν/(1 ± v s /v)
440 = ν/(1 ±± 40/343)
∴ frequency ν = 498.08 Hz
Thus, the frequency of train is 498.08 Hz.
HEAT RELEASE RATE FORMULA

The Heat Release Rate is the crucial parameter to characterize a fi re. There is a
variety of methods to estimate Heat release rate. The most used techniques
are based on mass balance. When the heat of combustion of fuel is known, the
measure of mass loss can be evaluated.
The heat produced by the burning sample is precisely accompanied by the

reduction in the heat generated by the burner. The rate of heat release of the
sample is measured by recording the decrease in the fl ow of gas. The constant
temperature of the system removes the impact of inertia and permits a rapid
change in the heat release rate.
The record of heat release rate is a measure of what would be released into the
lit room. The heat release rate formula from the fi rst law of thermodynamics is
given by,
ΔQc = ΔW + ΔQh + ΔU
Wherein,
Qc is the Chemical energy released in KJ/Kg,
W is the Work output in KJ/Kg,
Qh is the Heat transfer in KJ/Kg,
U is the Internal energy of the contents in KJ/Kg.
Example 1
Determine the heat released of a cylinder whose internal energy is 245 KJ/Kg
and heat transfer is 420 KJ/Kg for the work 280 KJ/Kg.
Solution:
Work = 280 KJ/Kg
Internal energy = 245 KJ/Kg
Heat transfer = 420 KJ/Kg
ΔQc= ΔW + ΔQh + ΔU
= 280 + 420 + 245
= 945 KJ/Kg
Therefore, Heat release rate = 945 KJ/Kg
Example 2
The heat produced in a burner is 280 KJ/Kg and internal energy is 430 KJ/Kg.
Determine the heat transfer for the work done 260 KJ/Kg.
Solution:
Work = 260 KJ/Kg
Internal energy = 430 KJ/Kg
Heat transfer = 280 KJ/Kg
ΔQc = ΔW + ΔQh + ΔU
= 260+ 430 + 280
Therefore, heat release rate = 970 KJ/Kg
HORSEPOWER FORMULA
Horse power is an imperial unit of power of an engine. It is defi ned as the work
done per unit time. The term Horsepower was invented by James Watt. It is a
unit power that compares the power of a machine to the horse muscle power.
Earlier it was used to measure steam engine power output compared to power
of draft horses. Later it was expanded to diff erent types of piston engines,
electric motors, turbines and other machinery.
One Horse power equals to 33,000 lb. ft/min.
Horsepower formula is given as
There is another Horse power formula related to weight given as

This formula is applied to calculate the speed or velocity at the end of the run.
Weight includes mass of the whole body.
Example 1
Determine the horsepower of a car which moves with a speed of 600
revolutions per minute and has a torque of 100 pound foot.
Solution:

Torque is 100 pound foot,
Speed is 500 revolutions per minute
Horsepower formula is given by

Horse power = Torque × Speed / 5252
= 100 × 600 / 5252
= 1.142 hp
Example 2
Calculate the speed of the vehicle if its horsepower is 0.865 hp and torque is
250 pound foot.
Solution:

Torque is 250 pound foot,
Horse power is 0.867 hp
The speed is given as
Speed = Horsepower × 5252 / Torque
= 0.865 × 5252 / 250
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REFRACTIVE INDEX FORMULA
The refractive index of a medium is defi ned as how the light travels through
that medium. It is a dimensionless measure. It defi nes how much a light ray
can bent when it enters from one medium to the other. Snell’s law clarifi es the
relation between the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. So, there are
two formulas for calculating the refractive index of a medium. Let us imagine
that a ray of light is traveling from a medium a to another medium b. Then
conferring from Snell’s law,
n here, is a constant value which is recognized as the refractive index

of medium b in regards to medium a.
The refractive index has no units as it is a ratio of two similar quantities.
Refractive index of a medium is also defi ned as the ratio of the speed of light
in air or vacuum and the speed of light in that medium. If the speed of light in
air is c and the speed of light in the medium is v then the refractive index of
the medium is articulated as,
Refractive Index Solved Examples
Let us discuss the questions of refractive index of a medium.
Problem 1: A light ray is transient through a medium to another one. The

angle of incident is provided as 30° and the angle of refraction is 50°. Compute
the refractive index of the second medium?
Answer:

i (Angle of incidence) = 30° and
r (angle of refraction) = 50°

Formula for refractive index is articulated as,
Problem 2: Compute the refractive index of the medium if the speed of light in
a medium is 2×10 8 m/s?
Answer:
It is known that,
v (Speed of light in medium) = 2×10 8 m/s,
c (Speed of light in vacuum) = 3×10 8 m/s
The formula of refractive index is,
REFLECTION AND RAY MODEL

OF LIGHT FORMULA
Refl ection and Ray Model of Light
A light ray will be refl ected from a smooth surface in such a manner that the
angle incident ray makes normal to the refl ecting surface at the point of
incidence which is precisely equal to the angle that the refl ected ray makes
with normal. Also, the refl ected ray along with the incident ray and the normal
to the refl ecting surface all lie on the same plane defi ned at the incident point
and it shows θi=θr.
The optical ability of humans and other animals is the consequence of the
complex interaction of light, eyes and brain. People are able to see because
light from an object can move through space and infl uence our eyes. When
light reaches our eyes, signals are sent to our gray matter, and our brain
deciphers the information in order to perceive the appearance, location and
movement of the objects we are looking at. If a ray of light could be witnessed
approaching and refl ecting off of a fl at mirror, then the manner of the lights
refl ection would follow a predictable law known as the law of refl ection.
The ray model is extremely useful while studying refl ection of light, refraction
of light and various images created by lenses, spherical mirrors and plane
mirrors.
Regular Refl ection:
If the refl ection takes place from a perfect plane surface, then we term it as
regular refl ection. The refl ected light has larger intensity in a particular
direction and negligible intensity in all other directions.
Diff used Refl ection:
If the refl ection takes place from an irregular or rough surface the regular
feature of light is not observed and although at every point the light ray gets
refl ected the overall eff ect observed is basically cancellation and overlapping
of all refl ected rays resulting in a diff used refl ection.
Solved Examples
Some Examples on Refl ection and Ray Model of Light
Problem 1: Angle of incident for a plane mirror at the point of incidence is

perceived to be 48 degrees with the normal. What is the angle of refl ection?
Answer:
(at the point of incident with normal) Angle of incidence = angle of refl ection
Thus, angle of refl ection = 48 degrees (with normal)
Problem 2: The angle of refl ection with the normal at the point of incident is
perceived to be 108 degrees. What is the angle of incidence?
Answer:
Angle of incidence = angle of refl ection

Thus, angle of incidence = 108 degrees (with normal)
MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULA

Magnetic fi eld is a region surrounding a magnetic material or within a moving
electric charge where the force of magnetism acts. In other words, the force
experienced by the fi eld due to the magnet is known as magnetic force and
this kind of fi eld is known as magnetic fi eld. Magnetic fi eld varies from one
shape to another just like solenoid has a diff erent magnetic fi eld than toroid.
There are three magnetic fi eld formulas:
The magnetic fi eld formula for current in an infi nite straight fi lament is
given by,
Wherein,
B is the magnetic fi eld,
r is the radius of the loop,
μ is the permeability constant, and
i is the current
Magnetic fi eld formula in a solenoid is expressed by,
B = μo i n.
Wherein,
μo is the constant of permeability,
i is current in amperes,
n is the number of turns done by the wire per unit length of the solenoid,
Magnetic fi eld formula in a toroid coil is given by,
B = μoiN / 2πr
Wherein,
B is the magnetic fi eld in teslas,
i is the current in amperes,
N is the total number of turns made by the wire in the toroid
Example 1
Determine the magnetic fi eld in a solenoid having 20 turns and current of 5 A.
Solution:
Given:
Number of turns, n = 20,
Current I = 5 A.
Magnetic fi eld formula in a solenoid is given by,
B = μo i n
= 1.26 × 10−6 H/m × 5 × 20
= 126 x 10-6 tesla
Example 2
A toroid of radius 5 cm has 30 turns. If a current of 5 A is passed through it,
determine the magnetic fi eld around it.
Solution:
Given:
No of turns, N = 30,
Radius r = 5 cm
= 0.05 m,
Current I = 5A.
Magnetic fi eld formula in a toroid coil is given by,
B = μoiN / 2πr
= 1.26×10−6 × 5 × 30 / 2π × 0.05
= 1.504 x 10-6 tesla
INVERSE SQUARE LAW

FORMULA
Inverse Square Law says that the strength of light (intensity) is proportional
inversely to the square of the distance.
Inverse Square Law Formula is articulated as
Where the distance is d, the intensity of the radiation is I.
At distances d 1 and d 2 , I 1 and I 2 are intensities of light respectively. Then Inverse

square law is articulated as:
Inverse square law formula is handy in fi nding distance or intensity of any

given radiation. The intensity is articulated in Lumen or candela and distance is
given in meters. It has widespread applications in problems grounded on light.
Inverse Square Law Solved Examples
Underneath are some problems based on an inverse square law which may be
useful for you.
Problem 1: The intensity of a monochromatic light are in the ratio 16:1.

Calculate the second distance if the fi rst distance is 6m?
Answer:
Known:
I 1 : I 2 = 16 : 1,
d 1 = 6m,
d 2 =?
Problem 2: Compute the intensity of radioactive source antimony 124 if it has

the intensity of 80 milliroentgen/hour for 50 feet. At 10 foot, what will be its
intensity?
Answer:
Known:
I 1 = 80 milliroentgens/hour,
d 1 = 50 feet,
I 2 =?
d 2 = 10 feet.
HEAT INDEX FORMULA
The Heat Index is a measure of heat which feels when relative humidity is
factored in with the air temperature.
The heat index formula is based upon the temperature and relative humidity to
indicate the air temperature perceived by the body. For instance, if the
temperature is 32°C and 70% relative humidity, the heat index is 41°C. This
heat index has an implied humidity of 20%. It’s the value of the relative
humidity for which the heat index formula shows 41°C. A heat index
temperature of 32°C holds implied relative humidity of 38%.
The heat index formula is expressed as,
The heat index formula is expressed as,

HI= c1+c2T+c3R+c4TR+c5T2+c6R2+c7T2R+c8TR2+c9T2R2
In this formula,
HI = heat index in degrees Fahrenheit,
R = Relative humidity,
T = Temperature in ∘F,
c1 = -42.379,
c2= -2.04901523,
c3 = -10.14333127,
c4 = -0.22475541,
c5 = -6.83783 x 10−3,
c6 = -5.481717 x 10−2,
c7 = -1.22874 x 10−3,
c8 = 8.5282 x 10−4,
c9 = -1.99 x 10−6
It is found that whenev er HI values exceed above 40 ∘C during different temperature and
humidity ranges, there is a threat of heatstroke.
Example 1
Determine the heat index if the temperature is 197 ∘F and the relative humidity is
80%.
Solution:
Given:
T = 197∘F,
R = 80%
Substituting the values in the given formula,

Heat Index = 1410.25 oF

Therefore, the heat index is 1410.25 Fahrenheit.
Example 2
Determine the heat index for the relative humidity of 86% and the temperature
of 85oC.
Solution:
Given:
T = 85∘C
= 185∘F,
R = 86%
Substituting the values in the given formula,

Heat Index = 1273.47 oF
SPRING FORCE FORMULA

Spring is a tool used daily by many of us and their inertia are frequently
neglected by assuming it as massless. It’s an extremely casual activity that a
Spring, when strained, undergoes displacement when it is compacted it gets
compressed and when its free it comes to its equilibrium position. This fact
tells us that spring exerts an equal as well as an opposite force on a body
which compresses or stretches it.
The Spring force formula is given by,
F = k(x – x00).
Where,
the spring force is F,
the equilibrium position is x o ,
the displacement of the spring from its position at equilibrium is x,
the spring constant is k.
The negative sign tells that the visualized spring force is a restoring force and
acts in the opposite direction.
Spring Force Solved Problems
Underneath are some of the samples based on Spring force:

Problem 1: A spring has length 22 cm/s. If it is loaded with 2 kg, it gets
stretched by 38 cm/s. Compute its spring constant.
Answer:
Knwn:
(Mass) m = 2 kg,
(initial length) xo = 22 cm,
(displacement) x = 38 cm
Final displacement = x – xo = 38 cm – 22 cm = 16 cm = 0.16 m

The spring force is articulated as,
F = ma
F = 2 kg × 0.16 m
F = 0.32 N
The spring constant is articulated as,
k = – 2 N/m
Thus, the spring constant is -2 N/m.
Problem 2: If a body is stretched by 2m with force 100 N. Calculate its spring

constant.
Answer:
Known:
(Displacement) x = 2m,
(force) F = 100 N
The spring constant is articulated as,
k = – 50 N/m
Thus, the spring constant is -50 N/m.
MACH NUMBER FORMULA

In fl uid dynamics, the Mach number (M) named after Ernst Mach is a
dimensionless quantity which describes the ratio of the fl ow of velocity past a
boundary to the local speed or sound; wherein c is the speed of the sound in
the medium.It shows how fast the object can move if it is moving equally or
faster than the speed of the sound.
The Mach number formula is expressed by,
Mach number = Object Speed / Speed of Sound
This term is commonly applied in aeronautics when two objects move at high
speed for e.g., wind channels and nozzles. The speeds of sound are termed on
the basis the mach numbers.
If the Mach number < 1, the speed is said to be subsonic.

When the Mach number ∼ 1, the speed is transonic.
If the Mach number >1, the speed is supersonic
If the Mach number >>>, the speed is hypersonic.
Example 1
The speed of the aircraft is 800 ft/sec, determine the Mach number.
Solution:
Given:
speed = 800 ft/sec,
speed of sound = 980 ft/s.
Mach number formula is given by,
Mach number = Speed of Object / Speed of sound
Mach number = 800 / 980
Therefore, Mach number = 0.816
Hence, the speed is subsonic.
Example 2
If the Mach number is 1.15, determine the speed of the object.
Solution:
Given:
Mach number M = 1.15,

speed of sound = 980 ft/s
Mach number formula is given by,
Mach number = Speed of Object / Speed of sound
Speed of object = Mach number × Speed of sound
= 1.15 × 980 ft/sec
Therefore, Speed of object = 1127
Hence, the speed is supersonic.
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
FORMULA
Let us imagine a cyclist riding; his velocities diff ers unceasingly dependent on
distance, time etc. At one particular moment if we want to fi nd his velocity it’s
not anything but instantaneous velocity.Instantaneous Velocity Formula is
made use of to determine the instantaneous velocity of the given body at any
specifi c instant. It is articulated as:
Where with respect to time t, x is th=e given function. The Instantaneous

Velocity is articulated in m/s. If any numerical contains the function of
form f(x), the instantaneous velocity is calculated using the overhead formula.
Instantaneous Velocity Solved Examples
Underneath are some numerical grounded on instantaneous velocity which aids

in understanding the formula properly.
Problem 1: Calculate the Instantaneous Velocity of a particle traveling along a
straight line for time t = 3s with a function x = 5t 2 + 2t + 3?
Answer:
Known: The function is x = 5t 2 + 2t + 3 2t

Distinguishing the given function with respect to t, we get Instantaneous
Velocity
=10t + 2
For time t=3s, the instaneous velocity is V(t)= 10t + 2
V(3)=10(3)+ 2=32m/s
instaneous Velocity for the given function is 32m/s
Problem 2: The motion of the car is provided by the function x = 4t 2 + 10t +

6. Compute its Instantaneous Velocity at time t = 5s.
Answer:
Given: The function is x = 4t 2 + 10t + 6.

Diff erentiating the provided function with respect to t, we get
For time t = 5s, the Instantaneous Velocity is articulated as,

V(t) = 8t + 10
V(5) = 8(5) + 10
= 50 m/s.
Thus for the known function, Instantaneous Velocity is 50 m/s.
HEAT FLUX FORMULA

Heat fl ux is the amount of heat transferred per unit area per unit time to or
from a surface. Basically, it is a derived quantity since it involves the principle
of two quantities viz. the amount of heat transfer per unit time and the area to
or from which the heat transfer occurs.
The derived SI unit of heat rate is joule per second or watt. Heat fl ux density
describes the heat rate per unit area. In SI unit of heat fl ux density is
measured in W/m2. Heat fl ux is a vector quantity.
Fourier’s law is an important application of these concepts. For a pure solid
substance, the conductive heat fl ux JHc in one dimension is expressed by
Fourier’s law.
JHc = λ dT / dZ
Where,
JHc = conductive heat fl ux,
T = temperature,
λ = thermal conductivity constant.
Example 1
One face of a copper plate is 5 cm thick and maintained at 500 ∘C, and the other
face is maintained at 100∘C. Calculate the heat transferred through the plate.
Solution:

λ = 370,
dT = 500-100
= 300
dx = 5.

JHc = λ dT / dZ
JHc= 370 x 400 / 5
JHc = 29600 MW
Example 2
Air at 40oC blows over a hot plate by 75 cm maintained at 250 ∘C. The convection
heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2. Determine the heat transfer.
Solution:
Given data,
λ = 370,
dT = 250-40 = 210,
dx = 75

JHc = λ dT / dZ
JHc = 370 x 210 / 75
JHc = 1036 MW
HEAT FLUX FORMULA

Heat fl ux is the amount of heat transferred per unit area per unit time to or
from a surface. Basically, it is a derived quantity since it involves the principle
of two quantities viz. the amount of heat transfer per unit time and the area to
or from which the heat transfer occurs.
The derived SI unit of heat rate is joule per second or watt. Heat fl ux density
describes the heat rate per unit area. In SI unit of heat fl ux density is
measured in W/m2. Heat fl ux is a vector quantity.
Fourier’s law is an important application of these concepts. For a pure solid
substance, the conductive heat fl ux JHc in one dimension is expressed by
Fourier’s law.
JHc = λ dT / dZ
Where,
JHc = conductive heat fl ux,
T = temperature,
λ = thermal conductivity constant.
Example 1
One face of a copper plate is 5 cm thick and maintained at 500 ∘C, and the other
face is maintained at 100∘C. Calculate the heat transferred through the plate.
Solution:

λ = 370,
dT = 500-100
= 300
dx = 5.

JHc = λ dT / dZ
JHc= 370 x 400 / 5
JHc = 29600 MW
Example 2
Air at 40oC blows over a hot plate by 75 cm maintained at 250 ∘C. The convection
heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2. Determine the heat transfer.
Solution:
Given data,
λ = 370,
dT = 250-40 = 210,
dx = 75

JHc = λ dT / dZ
JHc = 370 x 210 / 75
JHc = 1036 MW
STRAIN ENERGY FORMULA

Strain energy is defi ned as the energy stored in a body due to deformation. The
strain energy per unit volume is known as strain energy density and the area
under the stress-strain curve towards the point of deformation. When the
applied force is released, the whole system returns to its original shape. It is
usually denoted by U.
The strain energy formula is given as,

U = Fδ / 2
Where,
δ = compression,
F = force applied.
When stress σ is proportional to strain ϵ, the strain energy formula is

given by,
U = 1 / 2 V σ ϵ
Where,
σ = stress,
ϵ = strain,
V = volume of body
Regarding young’s modulus E, the strain energy formula is given as,
U = σ 2 / 2E × V.
Where,
σ = stress,
E = young’s modulus,
V = volume of body.
Example 1
When a force of 1000 N is applied on a body, it gets compressed by 1.2 mm.

Determine the strain energy.
Solution:
Given:
Force F = 1000 N,
Compression δ = 1.2 mm
Strain energy formula is given by,
U = Fδ / 2
= 1000 ×1.2×10 − 3 / 2
Therefore, U = 0.6 J.
Example 2
A rod of area 90 mm 2 has a length of 3 m. Determine the strain energy if a

stress of 300 MPa is applied when stretched. Young’s modulus is given as 200
GPa.
Solution:
Given:
Area A = 90 mm 2 ,
Length l = 3m,
Stress σ = 300 MPa,
Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa.
Volume V is given by the formula,
V = AL
= (90 × 10 − 6 ) × 3
V = 27 x10 − 6 m 3
The strain energy formula is given as,
U = σ 2 / 2E× V
= (300×10 6 ) 2 / 2 x 200×10 9 x 27 x 10 - 6
Therefore, U = 12.15 J.
Therefore, the strain energy of rod is 12.15 J.
KINETIC FRICTION FORMULA

We witness in our day-to-day life the frictional force taking place in moving
bodies which are in interaction. This is called kinetic friction. Rolling friction
and sliding friction falls under this topic .
The Retarding force witnessed in the two moving planes when they are in
interaction with each other is termed as Kinetic Friction. Kinetic Friction
Formula is articulated as:
Where,
the coefficient of kinetic friction is μk ,
the normal force is F n
Kinetic friction formula is handy for questions to compute the friction amid the
bodies which are in motion.
Kinetic Friction Solved Examples
Underneath are problems on kinetic friction which may be useful to you.
Problem 1: A boy is playing with football. Compute the kinetic friction if the
friction coeffi cient is 0.5 and is kicked with the force of 150 N?
Answer:
Given:
Coeffi cient of friction μk = 0.5,

Normal force F n = 150 N,
The Kinetic friction is articulated by F k = μk F n
= 0.5 × 150
= 75 N.
Problem 2: A car is traveling at a uniform speed with normal force of 1000 N.
If the kinetic friction applied on the car is 500 N. Compute the coeffi cient of
kinetic friction?
Answer:
Known:
Normal force Fn = 1000 N,

Kinetic friction F k = 500 N,
The coeffi cient of kinetic energy is given by
=0.5
HEAT OF REACTION FORMULA

The heat of reaction which is also known as Enthalpy of Reaction is the change
in the enthalpy of a particular chemical reaction that occurs at a constant
pressure. It is the thermodynamic unit of measurement applied in calculating
the amount of energy per mole either released or produced in a reaction.
Heat of a chemical reaction can therefore be defi ned as the heat evolved in the
surroundings or absorbed when the reaction takes place at constant pressure
and temperature. The amount of heat absorbed or evolved is measured in Joule
(J). Mostly heat transfer takes place between the reacting system as one
medium and surrounding as the other in chemical reactions.
Please note that the amount of heat energy before and after the chemical
change remains same. In other words, the heat lost or gained in a reacting
system is equal to heat lost or gained in the surrounding.
Therefore, the heat of reaction formula is given by
Q = mcΔT
Where,
m is the mass of the medium,
c is the specifi c heat capacity of the medium,
ΔT is the difference in temperature of the medium.
Example 1
Calculate the heat change which accompanies the combustion of ethanol when
a certain mass of substance is burnt in air to raise the temperature of 200g of
water initially at 28oC to 42oC, given that the specifi c heat capacity of water is
4.2Jg-1K-1.
Solution:
m = 200g
c = 4.2 Jg-1K-1
ΔT = 42 – 28
= 14oC or 14 K
According to the question, a certain mass of ethanol is burnt to raise the

temperature of water, which means heat absorbed by water is evolved from the
combustion reaction of ethanol.
Heat lost in the combustion reaction is equal to heat gain by water.
Quantity of heat changed can be given by
mcΔT
Q = 200 × 4.2 × 14
Therefore, Q = 11760 J
Example 2:
If Sodium chloride is dissolved in 100g of water at 25oC, the solution obtained

after proper stirring have a temperature of 21oC. Determine the heat change
during the process of dissolution if specifi c heat capacity of the solution is
assumed to be 4.18 Jg-1K-1.
Solution:
m= 100g
c= 4.18 J g-1K-1
ΔT = 25 – 21
= 4 K
The process involves drop in temperature which indicates that dissolution of

salt absorbed heat from the system.
Since Heat absorbed by the salt is equal to Heat lost by water
We have the formula,
Q = mCΔT
= 100 × 4.18 × 4
Therefore, Q = -1672J
OHMS LAW FORMULA

Ohms law says that the current running through the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential diff erence across its extremities as long as the
temperature and other physical conditions are constant.
Ohms Law Formula is articulated as
Where
Voltage is V and is measured in Volts,
The current fl owing through the conductor is I and it represented in amperes,
the resistance is R and is measured in ohms
Ohm’s law formula (potential diff erence formula) is made use of to

calculate the Resistance,Current and Voltage in any given circuit if any of the
two quantities are given.
Ohm’s Law Solved Examples
Underneath are some numerical on ohms law which might be useful for you.
Problem 1: A potential diff erence of 10 V is applied across a conductor whose

resistance is 25 ω. Calculate the current flowing through it?
Answer:
Given: Potential diff erence V = 10 V,

Resistance R = 25 ω,
Problem 2: If a conductors conductance is 50 ω and current passing through
the is 5 A. Calculate the potential diff erence?
Answer:
Current I = 5 A,
Resistance R = 50 ω,
Potential diff erence V = IR
= 5A × 50 ω
= 250 v.
SOUND INTENSITY FORMULA

Sound intensity is defi ned as sound per unit area perpendicular to direction of
sound waves represented by I. The SI unit of sound intensity is watt per square
meter (W/m2). The standard text is the measurement of sound intensity of the
noise in the air at the location of the listener as a sound energy quantity.
The sound intensity formula is given as,
Where,
P = sound power,
A = area
To measure Sound intensity level, you need to compare the given sound
intensity with the standard intensity.
Sound Intensity Level Formula is given as,
Where I = sound intensity and
Io = reference intensity
It is expressed in decibels (dB).
Example 1
A person whistles with the power of 0.9 × 10-4 W. Calculate the sound intensity
at a distance of 7m.
Solution:
Given:
Sound power P = 0.9 × 10-4 W,
Area A = 7m
Sound intensity formula is given by I = P / A
= 0.9×10−4 / 7
= 1.28 x 10-5 W/m2.
Example 2
Determine the intensity level which is equivalent to an intensity 1 nW/m2.
Solution:
Intensity Level formula is given by

IL = 10 log10 I / I0
Here
I = 1 nWm-2 = 1 × 10-9 Wm-2,
Io = 10-12 Wm-2
IL= 10 log10 1×10−9 / 10−12
= 10 log10 103
= 3.
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL

FORMULA
Sound pressure is the pressure applied by the sound waves. Sound pressure
level is the is the ratio of the actual sound pressure and the reference level
which is the lowest intensity sound that can be heard by maximum people. In
other words, sound pressure level decides the amount of pressure on the
sound. It provides the logarithmic measures of rms value of the sound
pressure to the reference value of the sound.
It is expressed in (dB).
The sound pressure level formula is expressed by,
L p = 20 log10 (p r m s / p r e f )
Where,
p = root mean square sound pressure in Pa,
p o = reference sound pressure in P a . (20 μP a )

Example 1: Calculate the rms pressure level if the sound pressure level is 40
dB?
Solution:
Given:
Sound pressure level = 40 dB,
p r e f = 20 μP a .
The sound pressure level formula is given as,
L p = 20 log10 (p r m s / p r e f )
The pressure level is given by,
e(L p / 20) = (p r m s / p r e f )
e(40 / 20) = p r m s / (20×10−6)
4.85 × 108 = p r m s / (20×10−6)
Therefore, prms = 9.703 × 103 Pa.
Example 2: Determine the sound pressure level if the rms pressure value is
given as 30 μP a .
Solution:
Given:
P r m s = 30 μP a ,
p r e f = 20 μP a .
The sound pressure level formula is given by,

L p = 20 log10 (p r m s / p r e f )
= 20 log10 (30 / 20)
Therefore, L p = 3.52 dB
LATTICE ENERGY FORMULA

The overall potential energy of an ionic compound, which is frequently referred
to as the lattice energy, U L per mole might be represented as the total of the
electrostatic and repulsive energy terms. The Born-Lande equation provides
lattice energy.
Lattice Energy Formula per mole is symbolized as
Where
 the equilibrium value of the inter ionic separation is r o
 the equilibrium value of the lattice energy is UL and
Lattice Energy Solved Examples
Solved questions based on lattice energy are provided below.
Problem 1: Compute the Lattice energy of NaCl by using Born-Lande equation.

Given
α = 1.74756
Z – = -1 (the Cl – ions charge)
Z + = +1 (the charge of the Na + ion)
N A = 6.022 × 10 2 3 ion pairs mol - 1
C = 1.60210 × 10 - 1 9 C (the charge on the electron)

π = 3.14159
εo = 8.854185 × 10 - 1 2 C 2 J - 1 m - 1
r o = 2.81 × 10 - 1 0 m, the sum of radii of Na + and Cl –
n = 8 the average of the values for Na + and Cl – .
Answer:
Using the Born-Lande equation.
Substitute all the values in the equation
U L = – 755 KJ m o l - 1
Problem 2: The lattice energy of AgBr is 895 KJ mol - 1 . Predict the Lattice
energy of the isomorphous AgI using Born-Lande equation. The numerics of r c +
r a is 321pm for AgBr and 342pm for AgI.
Answer:
If the only variance between AgBr and AgI were in the size of the anion, one
would expect the lattice energies to be relational to the inverse ratio of r c + r a .
Henceforth we expect the Lattice energy of AgI to be
IMPULSE FORMULA
A car is traveling at full speed. It crashes into the barrier, because of the
negligence of the driver.
Here huge force is applied on the wall by the car in a very little time interval
which we term as an impulse.
Impulse is the big force acting for a very small interval of time. It is
represented by J⃗ J→.
Impulse Formula is articulated as
Where,
Force applied = F⃗ ,
Time interval throughout which force is applied = t.
Impulse can also be articulated as the rate of change of momentum.
Where,
Mass of the body = m and
Velocity with which body is moving = v.
Velocity is articulated as
Where,
Initial Velocity = v i and
Final Velocity = v f .
Therefore, the Impulsive force is articulated as
Impulse is articulated in Kgms - 1 and Impulsive force is articulated in Newton(N).

Solved Samples – Impulse
Below are some problems on impulse:
Problem 1: A batsman knocks back a ball straight in the direction towards the
bowler without altering its initial speed of 12 m/s. If the mass of the ball is
0.15kg, calculate the impulse imparted to the ball?
Answer:
Known:
v i (Initial Velocity) = 12 m/s,

v f (Final Velocity) = -12m/s,
m (mass) = 0.15kg,
J (Impulse) = ?
Impulse is articulated as
J = mv f – mv i
= m(v f – v i )
= 0.15 Kg (-12 -12) m/s
= -3.6N.
Problem 2: A golfer hits a ball of mass 45g at a speed of 40m/s. The golf club
is in contact with the ball for 3 s. Compute the average force applied by the
club on the ball?
Answer:
m (Mass)= 0.045 kg,

v i (Initial Velocity) = 0,
v f (Final Velocity) = 40m/s,
TORQUE FORMULA
When we take a wrench and fi x a bolt; the force exerted alters the rotational
moment along an axis. This is what is termed as Torque.
Torque is described as the turning eff ect of force on the axis of rotation. In
brief, it is a moment of force. It is characterized by τ.
Torque formula is articulated as
Where,
Force applied = F and
From the axis of rotation the perpendicular distance of force = d
The Magnitude of torque is articulated as
Where θ is the angle between the force applied and the axis of rotation.
Torque formula is every valuable for a clear understanding of problems related
to rotational dynamics. It is articulated in Newton-meter (Nm).
Torque Solved Examples
Underneath are some problems on torque which gives one an idea of how to
calculate the terminologies related to torque.
Problem 1: The width of a door is 40 cm. If it is released by exerting a force of

2 N at its edge (away from the hinges), compute the torque produced which
causes the door to open?
Answer:
Force applied = F = 2 N
Length of lever arm = d = 40 cm
= 0.40 m (as distance amid the line of action of force and axis of rotation is 40
cm)
Torque = F × d
= 0.40 × 20
= 8 Nm.
Problem 2: The Classroom door is of width 50 cm. If the Handle of the door is
20 cm from the edge and Force of 5N is applied on the handle. Compute the
torque?
Answer:
The handle of the door is located at 20 cm. Thus, the line of action is 20/2 = 10
cm.
Measurement of the lever arm = d = 50 – 10 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Force exerted = 2N
Torque = F × d
= 2N × 0.4 m
= 0.8 Nm.
POTENTIAL ENERGY FORMULA

Defi nition:
Potential energy is defi ned as the energy stored in an object. Potential energy
can be divided into many types; Gravitational potential energy, Electric
Potential Energy, Elastic Potential energy etc. Here the gravitational potential
energy is defi ned as the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its position
relative to others. Elastic potential energy is defi ned as the energy possessed
by virtue of stresses within its body and electric potential is defi ned as the
energy possessed by an object by virtue of the total charge stored within.
Formula for Potential Energy
The formula for gravitational potential energy is given below.
PE=mgh
Here, PE is the potential energy of the object that is to be calculated. It is

measured in terms of Joules. ‘m’ is the mass of the object under consideration,
measured in terms of kg, g is the acceleration due to gravity, given in terms of
m/s2 and h is the height at which the object is placed with respect to the
reference point, given in terms of metre.
Real life example: We all know that dams are constructed on rivers for the
generation of electricity. But do you know the reason behind this. Here, the
potential energy possessed by water is used to harness electrical energy. Water
raised to a certain height gains potential energy with respect to the ground due
to the gravitational force acting on it. This energy is used to turn the blades of
turbines positioned in the dams that eventually helps in the generation of
electricity.
Derivation:
As per the potential energy function for a conservative force, the force acting
on an object can be given as,
Here the force acting on the object can be given as F=mg, and the distance
from the point of reference can be given as h.
Substituting these values, we get,
Here, h1 is the height of the point of reference and h2 is the height at which
the object is positioned.
Solved Examples
Example 1: A ball of mass 0.8 kg is dragged in the upward direction on an
inclined plane. Calculate the total potential energy gained by this ball given
that the height of the height of the wedge is 0.2 metre.
Solution:
It is given that mass of the object m = 0.8 kg.
Since, the potential energy of the object is only dependent on its height from
the reference position, we can say that,
PE=mgh
Where, m = 0.2 kg, g = 10 m/s2 and h = 0.2 m.
PE=0.8×10×0.2
PE=1.6 J
Example 2: A wagon loaded with iron blocks is pushed up an inclined plane to

its highest point. The total mass of the wagon is 50 kg and the height of the
top most point from the ground is 5 metres. What is the total potential energy
of the wagon at the top?
Solution:
Given that m = 50 kg, g = 10 m/s2 and h = 5 m.
Substituting the above values in the formula, we get,
PE=50×10×5
PE=250 J
LIGHT WAVES AND COLOR

FORMULA
The visible light is emitted and absorbed by tiny packets called photons and
exhibit properties of both waves and particles. This property is known as wave-
particle duality.
Light waves can be measured in two diff erent ways,

 Amplitude of the wave
 Frequency of the wave along with the number of waves per second.
These waves are categorized according to the frequencies that have similar
characteristics in the electromagnetic spectrum of the light. The subcategories
of each spectrum vary according to the wave frequency.
The color of these lights depends on the refl ection quality from the objects on
which the white light falls on. For example, the white wall appears because the
wall refl ects back all the colors.
Any particular color that looks from any surface is the color that is refl ected
from the object when the light falls on it.
The light wave and color formula is given by:
c = ν x λ
where,
c = speed of light
v = frequency
λ= wavelength
Example 1
Calculate the frequency of the violet color whose wavelength is 400 nm.
Solution
Given: Wavelength = 400 nm
We know that, C (Speed of Light ) = ν (Frequency ) × λ ( Wavelength)
ν = C / λ
= 3×108 / 4.00×107
Therefore, frequency = 7.5 Hz
Example 2:
Determine the wavelength and predict the color of light which has a frequency
of 6.00 × 1014 Hz, given the speed of light is 3 × 108 m / s.
Solution:
Given: Frequency = 6.00 x 1014 Hz
We know that, C (speed of light ) = ν (frequency ) × λ ( wavelength)
λ = C / ν
= 3×108 / 6.00 × 1014
Therefore, λ (wavelength) = 0.5 × 10 -6
= 5000 × 10-9 m
= 5000 nm
The color of the wavelength of 5000 nm is green.
INSTANTANEOUS SPEED FORMULA

The speedometer gives the record of speed for each instant of time. This
gives the illustration of instantaneous speed.Instantaneous speed is the
speed of a particle in movement at any desired instant of time. Its formula is
articulated as
Where, t is the time taken and x is the displacement.
Instantaneous speed formula is made use of to calculate the rate of change

of displacement for any given instant of time. It is articulated in meter per
second (m/s).
Instantaneous Speed Solved Examples
Below are some problems based on instantaneous speed which may be helpful
for you.
Problem 1: A particle experiences the displacement given by the function x(t)

= 10 t 2 – 5t + 1. Compute its instantaneous speed at time t = 3s.
Answer:
Given : The function is given by x(t) = 10 t 2 – 5t + 1
The instantaneous speed is given by
=(20(3)-5)
= 60-5
= 55m/s
Problem 2: A honey bee is alongside a path. Its position is provided by x =

t 2 + b. Compute its Instantaneous speed at time t = 2 s.
Answer:
The position of honey bee is x = t 2 + b
Its instantaneous speed is given by
= 2(2)
=4 m/s
The instaneous speed of honey bee is 4m/s
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
FORMULA
Every object has its own capacity to conduct heat. To determine how much it is
we use this term. Thermal conductivity (λ or k) is the capacity of the body to
conduct or spread heat.
Where,
thermal conductivity is k in W/m K,
the amount of heat transfer through the material is Q in J/S or W,
the area of the body is A in m 2 ,
the difference in temperature is ΔT in K.
Thermal Conductivity Solved Examples

Let’sexplore some numerical on thermal conductivity :
Problem 1: Compute the thermal conductivity through a conductor when 30

kW of heat fl ows through it having length of 4 m and area of 12 m 2 if the
temperature gradient is 40 K.
Answer:
Known:
Q (Heat fl ow)= 30 kW, L (length) = 4 m, A (Area )= 12 m 2 , Δ T (temperature
diff erence) = 40 K.
The thermal conductivity is articulated as,
Problem 2: What is the temperature gradient if a conductor at 70 K after a

fl ow of heat of 20 kW reaches a temperature of 100 K?
Answer:
Known:
Q (Heat fl ow) = 20 kW, L (length) = 4 m, T i (initial temperature)= 70 K, T f (Final
temperature) = 100 K, ΔT (temperature gradient) = ?
The temperature gradient is articulated as

Δ T = Ti- Tf
= 100 K – 70 K
= 30 K
TRANSFORMER FORMULA
In other words, transformer transforms the energy from one circuit to another.
This occurs through electromagnetic induction. It is known as an effi cient
voltage converter, which can reduce the high voltage to low voltage and vice
versa. A good-condition transformer consists of two windings, namely primary
winding and secondary winding. There are two types of transformer; step up
and step down transformers.
The transformer formula is given by,
Where
Vp = primary voltage,
Vs = secondary voltage,
Np = number of turns in the primary
Ns = number of turns in the secondary.
Example 1:
The number of primary and secondary windings is 60 and 100 respectively. The
secondary voltage is given by 250V, determine the primary voltage.
Solution:
Given:
Np = 60,
Ns = 100
Vs = 250V
Vp / Vs = Np / Ns
Vp = Np / Ns ×Vs
= 60 / 100 x 250
= 150 V
Example 2
The number of primary and secondary windings is 100 and 350 respectively.
The primary voltage is given by 200V, determine the secondary voltage.
Solution:
Given:
Np = 100,
Ns = 350 and
Vp = 200V
Vp / Vs = Np / Ns
Vs = Vp×Ns / Np
Vs = 200 × 350 / 100
= 700V
MOMENT FORMULA
Moment refers to a very short period of time. If you consider a see-saw, putting
weights on both the sides makes it to be in a balanced moment. If you put
extra weight or less weight on one hand, the see-saw is no more balanced, and
this is known as the unbalanced moment.
The measure of turning eff ect is known as torque. The force which acts on the
body of the torque is known as moment of force.
The moment formula is given by
Moment of force = F x d
Wherein,
F is the force applied, and
d is the distance from the fi xed axis.
Moment of force is expressed in Nm.
Moment of force formula can be applied to calculate the moment of force for
balanced as well as unbalanced forces.
Example 1
A 200 cm meter rule is pivoted at the middle point (at 50 cm point). If a weight
of 10 N is hanged from the 30 cm mark and a weight of 20 N is hanged from its
60 cm mark, identify whether the meter rule will remain balanced over its pivot
or not.
Solution:
According to the principle of moments, when an object is in rotational
equilibrium, then
Total anticlockwise moments = Total clockwise moments
Total anticlockwise moments:
Length of lever arm = (50 – 30) = 20 cm
= 0.20 m
Since length of lever arm is the distance from its mid point, where its balanced
force applied = 10 N
Anticlockwise moment = Lever arm x Force applied
= 0.20 x 10 = 2 Nm
Clockwise moment: Length of lever arm = (60 – 50)
= 10 cm
= 0.10 m.
Since length of lever arm is the distance from the mid point, about which
balanced Force applied = 20 N
Clockwise moment = lever arm x force applied
= 0.10 × 20 = 2 Nm
Therefore,
Since the total anti clockwise moment = total clockwise moment = 2 Nm,
according to the principle of moments, it is in rotational equilibrium ie, the
meter rule remains balanced about its pivot.
Example 2
A 500 cm meter rule is pivoted at its middle point. If a weight of 2 N is hanged
from the 20 cm point, Calculate the amount of weight required to be applied at
the 80 cm mark to keep it in a balanced position.
Solution:
According to the principle of moments, To keep an object in rotational

equilibrium, the sum of anticlockwise moments and clockwise moments acting
should be be equal. Therefore, the amount of weight to be hanged from the 80
cm mark must be able to generate a clockwise moment equal to the
anticlockwise moment generated by the weight hanged on the left side of the
meter rule.
Anticlockwise moment :
Length of lever arm = (50 – 20)
= 30 cm
= 0.30 m
Since the length of lever arm is the distance from its mid point, where it is
balanced
Force applied = 2 N
Anticlockwise moment = lever arm x force applied
= 0.30 x 2 N
= 0.6 Nm
Clockwise moment:
length of lever arm = (80 – 50)
= 30 cm
= 0.30 m
Since the length of lever arm is the distance from its Force applied.
Let it be ‘F’.
Thus, clockwise moment = F x 0.30
= 0.30 F Nm
Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment
0.30 F = 0.6
F = 2 N
A weight of 2 N needs to be hanged from 80 cm point to keep the meter rule

balanced.
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

FORMULA
When two parallel plates are connected across a battery, the plates are
charged and an electric fi eld is established between them, and this setup is
known as the parallel plate capacitor. The direction of the electric fi eld is
defi ned as the direction in which the positive test charge would
fl ow.Capacitance is the limitation of the body to store the electric charge.
Every capacitor has its capacitance. The typical parallel-plate capacitor
consists of two metallic plates of area A, separated by the distance d.
The parallel plate capacitor formula is given by,
Where,
ϵo = permittivity of space (8.54 × 10−12 F/m),
k = relative permittivity of dielectric material,
d = separation between the plates,
A = area of plates.
Example 1
A parallel plate capacitor is kept in the air has an area of 0.50m2 and
separated from each other by distance 0.04m. Calculate the parallel plate
capacitor.
Solution:
Given:
Area A = 0.50 m2,
Distance d = 0.04 m,
relative permittivity k = 1,
ϵo = 8.54 × 10−12 F/m
The parallel plate capacitor formula is expressed by,
C = kϵoA / d
= 8.54×10−12 × 0.50 / 0.04
= 4.27 x 10−12 / 0.04
Therefore, C = 106.75 x 10−12 F
Example 2:
Determine the area of parallel plate capacitor in the air if the capacitance is 25
nF and separation between the plates is 0.04m.
Solution:
Given:
Capacitance = 25 nF,
Distance d = 0.04 m,
Relative permittivity k = 1,
ϵo = 8.54 × 10−12 F/m
The parallel plate capacitor formula is expressed by,
C = kϵoA / d
A = dc / kϵo
= 0.04 × 25×10−9 / 1×8.54×10−12
A = 1 x10−9 / 8.54 ×10−12
Therefore, area of parallel plate capacitor is 117.09 m2.
KINEMATICS FORMULAS
Kinematics Formula is altogether about the motion of bodies at points,
devoid of considering the cause because of which it happens.
Kinematic formulas are three to be precise:
v=v o +at
v 2 =v 2 o+2a(x-x o )
At this juncture,
x and x o are Final and Initial displacements articulated in m,

v o and v are initial and fi nal velocity articulated in m/s,
acceleration is a and articulated in m/s 2 ,
the time taken is t in s.
Kinematics Formulas – 2D
2 dimensional or 2D kinematics equations is all about expressing the same

equations in x and y directions:
In x direction the Kinematics formulas is articulated as:
vx = v xo + axt
x = x o + v x o t + 1212 a x t 2
v x 2 = v x o + 2ax(x-x o )
In y-direction the Kinematic formula is articulated as:
vy = vyo + ayt
y = x o + v y o t + 1212 a y t 2
v y 2 = v y o 2 + 2ay(y – y o )
Kinematics Formulas for Projectile Motion
Imagine a projectile motion as presented in the fi gure.Thus, the kinematics

formulas are:
In x-direction:
vx = v xo
x = xo + v xo
In y-direction:
v y = v y o – gt
y = y o + v y o t – 1212 gt 2
v y 2 = v y o 2 – 2g(y – y o )
Kinematics Solved Examples
Underneath are solved Kinematics problems which helps you in understanding

the use of these equations.
Problem 1: A guy is riding a bike with an initial velocity of 2 m/s. He reaches

his destiny after 3s having a fi nal velocity of 10m/s. Compute its acceleration?
Answer:
Given: Initial Velocity v o = 2 m/s

Final velocity v = 10 m/s
Time period t = 3s
To fi nd the acceleration a
Using the formula v = v o + at
Acceleration is given as:
=2.76m/s 2
Problem 2: A car with initial velocity zero experiences a uniform acceleration

of 7 m/s 2 for the time interval t= 5s. Compute its distance covered?
Answer:
Initial Velocity v o = 0,
time taken t = 5s,
Acceleration a = 7 m/s 2 ,
To fi nd the Distance covered S.
By using the Kinematic Equation, one can determine that,
=100m
TANGENTIAL ACCELERATION
FORMULA
Tangential acceleration concept is applied to measure how the tangential
velocity of a point at a certain radius changes with time. Tangential
acceleration is similar to linear acceleration but specifi c to the tangential
direction which relates to circular motion.
In other words, the rate of change of tangential velocity of a particle in a

circular orbit is known as Tangential acceleration. It directs towards tangent to
the path of the body.
Tangential acceleration formula is expressed as

Where
at = tangential acceleration,
dv = change in angular velocity,
dt = change in time.
Tangential acceleration in terms of distance is given by,
Or
Where,
v = linear velocity,
s = distance covered,
t = time taken
Tangential acceleration formula is applied to calculate the tangential

acceleration and the parameters related to it.
It is expressed in meter per sec square (m/s2).
Example 1: A body accelerates uniformly on a circular path with a speed of 30

m/s to 70m/s in 20s. Calculate its tangential acceleration.
Solution:
Given:
Initial velocity vi = 30 m/s,
Final velocity vf = 70 m/s,
Change in velocity dv = vf – vi = 70 – 30 = 40 m/s
Time taken dt = tf – ti = 20 – 0 = 20s
The tangential acceleration is given by at = dv / dt
= 40 / 20
= 2 m/s2.
Example2:
A runner starts from rest and accelerates at a uniform rate 10m/s in the time
interval of 5s, running on a circular track of radius 50m. Determine the
tangential acceleration.
Solution:
Given:
Initial velocity vi = 0,
Final velocity vf = 10 m/s,
Change in velocity dv = vf – vi = 10 – 0 = 10 m/s
Time taken dt = 5s
The tangential acceleration is given by at = dv / dt
= 10 / 5
= 2m/s.
The law of universal gravitation states that any two objects in the universe
attract each other with a force which is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
It’s a general Physics law derived from the observations by Isaac Newton. In
modern language, the law states: every point mass attracts another single
point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both the ends.
The universal gravitation formula is given by
Where,
G = universal gravitational constant = 6.673×10-11m3/kgs2
m1m1 = two diff erent masses
r = is the distance between them
Example 1
Determine the gravitational force if two masses are 30kg and 50kg separated
by a distance 4m.
G = 6.673×10-11m3/kgs2
Solution:
Given:
m1 = 30 kg, m2 = 50kg,
r = 4m and
G = 6.673×10-11m3/kgs2
Universal gravitation formula is given by,
F = Gm1m2 / r2
= 6.673×10-11 ×30×30 / 16
F = 375.35 x 10-11N
Example 2
Determine the gravitational force if the mass of two bodies are 80 kg and 200
kg and they are separated by a distance of 6m.
Solution:
Given:
m1 = 80 kg, m2 = 100 kg,
r = 6m and
G = 6.673×10-11m3/kgs2
Universal gravitation formula is given by,
F=Gm1m2 / r2
=6.673×10-11× 80×200 / 36
F =2965.77×10-11N
POLARIZATION FORMULA
The electromagnetic wave is characterized by its wave phase, frequency, and
direction of propagation of transverse fi eld oscillation which consists of
transverse electric and magnetic components. The plane that uses the
transverse electric vector is associated with a quantity known as polarization
plane. Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave, but any natural light can be
considered as unpolarized since the propagation of all the planes are equally
probable. Therefore, based on the position of the polarizer we get horizontal or
vertical polarized light.Polarized light is a condition where when each light
waves are placed parallel to each other. It is possible to polarize only
transverse waves and that light is built up by transverse waves.
The degree of polarization completely depends on the matter and the angle at
which the light is refl ected. All the substances that could polarize light are
known as polarizer and the phenomenon is known as polarization.
Polarization angle or Brewster’s angle formula is given by:
tanθ = n2 / n1
Where,
n1 = initial medium
n2 = other medium.
I = Io cos2θ
Example 1
Determine the value of polarizing light angles when the refractive index of
green color glass is 1.515 and that of violet color is 1.521.
Solution:
Given:
n1 = 1.55
n2 = 1.52
The in1 = tan -1 (1.515 )
= 56o 57’
The in2 = tan -1 (1.521 )
= 56o 68’
Example 2
A plane polarized light beam is passed through an analyzer and the intensity is
measured at 0.075 of the desired initial value. Identify the angle.
Solution:
Given:
I = 0.075
We know that,
I = Iocos2θ or cos2θ = I / Io = 0.075
Therefore, θ = 74.1
LENGTH CONTRACTION
FORMULA
Length contraction is considered when an object has traveled with the velocity
of light. So, relativity arrives into the picture. Therefore, one can say that
length contraction happens when an object is traveling at the speed of light.
This is described as the decrease in length if a body is traveling with the
velocity of light linked to the observer. The formula for length contraction is
articulated as,
Where, L is the length of an object with is in relativistic speed, L 0 is the length

of an object at rest, c is the velocity of light and v is the velocity of the object.
Length Contraction Solved Examples
Solved problems of given topic are described underneath:

Problem 1: Compute the contracted length of an object whose initial
length 10m and travel with a velocity 0.75c?
Answer:

L0L0 = 10m and v = 0.75c
Formula for length contraction is,
10x 0.6614=6.614 m
Problem 2: If L0 is 15m and velocity is 0.85c, compute the length contraction

of a given object?
Answer:

L0L0 = 15m and v = 0.85c
Formula for length contraction is,
L= 15 X 0.5267=7.901m
VELOCITY FORMULA
The speed of a body in a specifi c direction is the measure of Velocity.
It is represented by V and is articulated as
Where,
the displacement is S and

the time taken is t
Since displacement is conveyed in meters and time taken in seconds. Velocity

is articulated in meters/second or m/s.
In any numerical if any of these two quantities are given we can calculate the
missing quantity by making use of this formula.
Velocity Solved Examples
Underneath are given the velocity based problems which helps you to
understand more about it.
Problem 1: A plane moves the distance of 500 Km in 1 hr. Calculate its
velocity?
Answer:
Displacement S = 500 km = 500 × 103 m,

Time taken t = 1hr = 60 × 60 = 3600 s.
Problem 2: A submarine descends 150 ft in 3 seconds. Find the Velocity of

submarine?
Answer:
Known:
Distance traveled S = – 150 ft,

Time taken t = 3 seconds
WORK FORMULA
Work is said to be done when an object experiences displacement. It is
represented by W.
Work Formula is articulated as,
Where,
force applied = F and
displacement = d
Work formula is made use of to compute work done, force or displacement in

any problem. It is articulated in Nm.
Work Solved Examples
Underneath are numerical on work which helps out to comprehend the concept
better.
Problem 1: Compute the work done if 10 N of force acts on the body showing
the displacement of 2m?
Answer:
Known:
F (Force) = 10 N,
d (Displacement) = 2m,
W (Work done) = F × d
= 10 N × 2m
= 20 Nm.
Problem 2: Compute work done for 2-newton force and 3-metre displacement
and angle between force and displacement is 45 degree?
Answer:
Known: Force F = 2N,

Displacement d = 3m,
θ = 45 o
Work done,
W = Fd cos θ
= 2N × 3m cos 45 o
= 3.51 Nm.
ROTATIONAL INERTIA
FORMULA
The rotational inertia is defi ned as an analog of mass in the case of linear
motion. It describes the relationship under dynamics of rotational motion. The
moment of inertia needs to be specifi ed with respect to a chosen axis of
rotation.It depends on the shape of the object and the axis of rotation. The
rotational inertia diff ers for diff erent objects and varies according to its
rotational axis.
The rotational inertia formula is given by,

I = mr2
Where,
I = rotational inertia,
m = mass of the object,
r = radius of the circular path.
Example 1
Determine the rotational inertia if a 10kg object is rotating around a circular

path of radius 7m?
Solution:
Given:
m = 10kg
r = 7m
Rotational inertia Formula is given by,
I = mr2
= 10 × 72
= 490kgm2
Example 2
An object of mass 3kg is rotating a circular path of radius 10m. Calculate the
rotational inertia of the object.
Solution:
Given:
m = 3kg
r = 10m
Rotational inertia Formula is given by,
I = mr2
= 3 × 102
= 130kgm2
WORK DONE BY GRAVITY

FORMULA
Gravity is defi ned as the force that attracts a body towards the earth or
towards any other physical body having mass.
If a particular object is falling, the particle is bound to point in the direction of

gravity. The magnitude of the falling body depends on the mass, gravitational
constant and height from which it is falling.
The Work done by gravity formula is given by,
Wg = -mg(∆ h)
Where,
m = mass,
g = gravity,
h= height
The negative sign shows that the particle is dropping from a height Δ h
vertically in the direction of gravity.
If θ is the angle made when the body falls, the work done by gravity is given
by,
W = mgh cosθ
Where, the theta is the angle made when the body falls.
Example 1
A 15 kg box falls at angle 25 ∘ from a height of 10 m. Determine the work done by gravity.
Solution:
Given:
Mass m = 10 kg,
angle = 23o
The work done by gravity formula is given by,
W = mgh cos θ
W = 15 × 9.8 × 10 cos 25o
= 1470 J
Therefore, the work done by gravity is 1470 J.
Example 2
A boy drags a 10 kg box across frictionless surface. He applies a force of 30 N
at an angle of 32o to the horizontal for 6m. Determine the work done by
gravity.
Solution:
Given:
Mass m = 10 kg,
Force F = 30 N,
angle θ = 32o,
Displacement s = 6m
The work done by gravity formula is,
W = mgh cos θ
W = 10 x 9.8 x 6 × cos 32o
W = 490.392 J.
the work done by gravity is 490.392 J
WAVELENGTH TO FREQUENCY
FORMULA
Wavelength of any sinusoidal wave is defi ned as the spatial period of the wave,
that is, the distance over the shape of the wave repeats itself. The wavelength
is denoted by a Greek letter lambda (λ) and is calculated in the units of length
or metre.
Frequency is defi ned as the number of time a recurring event occurs in one
second. For a sinusoidal wave, we defi ne frequency as the number of cycles or
crest or trough completed in one second. Frequency is denoted by f or ν and is
calculated in the units of Hertz.
As we know, for a sinusoidal wave moving at a fi xed speed, the wavelength of

the wave is inversely proportional to its frequency. Calculate the wavelength to
frequency using Byju’s online calculator.
Formula for Wavelength to Frequency
The wavelength to frequency formula is given by
Speed = Frequency x Wavelength
As mentioned above, all the quantities are represented by a symbol. The

symbolic representation of the formula given above can be seen as,
In terms of wavelength to frequency formula, we can write,
Here,λ is the wavelength of the wave under consideration expressed in the

units of metre, C is the speed of the wave in the given medium, expressed in
terms of m/s and f is the frequency of the wave expressed in terms of Hertz.
Wavelength To Frequency Solved Examples
Example 1
In an experiment, the wavelength of a photon particle was observed to be 500

nm. What can be said about the frequency of the wave?
Solution:
Given, the wavelength of the photon particle = 500 nm.
In order to calculate the frequency of the photon particle, we use the formula
given above.
As we know, the speed of light is c = 3×108.

Substituting the known values in the equation above, we get that,
The frequency of the wave is equal to 6×10-4Hz.
Example 2
For a light ray having a wavelength equal to 200 nm, calculate the frequency.
Solution:
Given, the wavelength of the light ray = 200 nm.
In order to calculate the frequency of the light ray, we use the formula given
above.
As we know, the speed of light is c = 3×108.
Substituting the known values in the equation above, we get that,
The frequency of the wave is equal to 1.5×1014Hz.
WAVE SPEED FORMULA

A wave is defi ned as a kind of disturbance in a moving medium, for example,
the waves of the ocean move in a medium and can see the movement of wave
crest from one point to the other in a given time period. The motion of an
object can be described regarding speed which describes the velocity of the
object.
A wave is visualized when a source vibrates and disturbs a particle in the
medium. This can usually be seen in the case of tuning fork or ripples in water
when a body is dropped, etc.
The number of waves traveled in one second is the frequency and the time
period is the reciprocal of the frequency of the waves. Wavelength is the
distance between the corresponding points in any two consecutive waves.
The Wave speed formula which involves wavelength and frequency are
given by,
v = f λ
Where,
v = velocity of the wave,
f = frequency of the wave,
λ = wavelength.
Example1
A light wave travels with the wavelength 600 nm. Determine its frequency.
Solution:
Given:
Wavelength λ = 600 nm,
Velocity of light v = 3 × 108 m/s.
The frequency is calculated by,
f = v / λ
= 3×108 / 600×10−9
f = 5 ×1014 Hz.
The frequency of light wave is 5 ×1014 Hz.
Example 2
A sound wave has a wavelength of 1.5 mm. Determine its frequency.
Solution:
Given:
Wavelength λ = 1.5 mm,
Velocity of sound v = 343.2 m/s.
f = v / λ
= 343.2 / 1.5×10−2
f = 22.8 KHz.
The frequency of light wave is 22.8 KHz.
WAVE ENERGY FORMULA

You may have been near to any sea shore if you stay close to such places.
When the wind passes on the water surface, it leads to the pressure diff erence
between upper and bottom wind that results in the generation of waves. Wave
energy is the energy that is gained by the eaves. When the wind blows on the
sea shore, it shifts its energy to these waves. These waves carry a lot of power
which we call wave power.
The Wave energy formula is given by,
E = ρgH2 / 8
Where,
E = mean wave energy density,
H = wave height,
ρ = water density,
g = acceleration by gravity.
The wave power formula in terms of wave energy is given by,
P = Ecg
Where,
cg = group velocity in m/s.
Example 1
A wave in a sea shore travels with a height of 5 m. Determine the wave power.
Solution:
Given:
Wave height H = 5m,
Water density ρ = 999.97 kg/m3,
Gravity g = 9.8 m/s2
The wave energy formula is given by,
E = ρgH2 / 8
E = 999.97 × 9.8 × 25 / 8
E = 30624.08 J
The wave power in the sea is 30624.08 J
Example 2
A huge wave travels with the energy of 8000 J. Determine its wave height.
Solution:
Given:
Wave energy E = 8000J,
Water density ρ = 999.97 kg/m3,
Gravity g = 9.8 m/s2
The wave height is calculated by wave energy formula,
H = √8E / ρg
= √8 x 8000 / 999.97 x 9.8
= 2.55 m.
The wave height of the wave is 2.55 m.
RESISTANCE FORMULA
Resistance is the measure of opposition applied by any object to the fl ow of
electric current. A resistor is an electronic constituent that is used in the circuit
with the purpose of off ering that specifi c amount of resistance.
The resistance of any object is computed making use of the
formula:
In this case,
v = Voltage across its ends
I = Current fl owing through it
If the resistance’s are linked in series, the series resistance is articulated as-
If resistance are connected in parallel, the parallel resistance is given by
Where, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 …… R n are the given resistors. Resistance is measured in ohms

(Ω).
Resistance Formula is used to compute the resistance across any given number
of resistors in the circuit. It can similarly be made use of to compute the
resistance in any given object.
Resistance Solved Examples
Below are problems based on resistance which may be helpful for you.
Problem 1: Compute the resistance off ered by the body if 2mA of current is
fl owing having a potential diff erence of 2V?
Answer:
Known:
I (Current) = 2mA,
V (Potential diff erence) = 2 V
Problem 2: Compute the resistance if 5 Ω and 2 Ω are connected in parallel.

Answer:
Known:
Resistance
R 1 = 5 Ω,
R2 = 2 Ω
The parallel resistance is articulated as
RELATIVE VELOCITY FORMULA

Relative velocity is used to describe the motion of airplanes in the wind or
moving boats through water etc. This velocity is computed according to the
observer inside the object. This can be computed by introducing an
intermediate frame of references. In simpler words, this can be the vector
some of the velocities. Formula for relative velocity is articulated as,
Where,
V A B is the velocity with respect to A and B, V B C is the velocity with respect to B

and C and VACVAC is the velocity with respect to A and C.
Relative Velocity Solved Examples
Let us converse upon the problems of relative velocity for better

comprehension.
Problem 1: A train travels with a speed of 70m/s with regards to the ground in
the east direction. A spectator is moving with a speed of -15m/s with regards to
the train in west direction. Compute the speed of man with respect to the
ground?
Answer:
From the problem, it is known that

V B C (Velocity of train with respect to ground) = 70m/s
V A B (Velocity of man with respect to train) = -15m/s
V A C (Velocity of man with respect to ground), = ?
Relative Velocity Formula is,
VAC→ = VAB→ + VBC→
V A C → = -15+70 = 55m/s
Problem 2: A boat moves with a speed of 40m/s with respect to water in east
direction. An observer is moving with a speed of -5m/s with respect to the boat
in west direction. Compute the speed of man with respect to the water?
Answer:
From the problem, it is known that

V B C (Velocity of boat with respect to water) = 40m/s
V A B (Velocity of man with respect to boat) = -5m/s
(Velocity of man with respect to water) V A C = ?
Formula for relative velocity is,
VAC→ = VAB→ + VBC→
V A C → = -5+40 = 35m/s
STRAIN FORMULA
The consequence of stress is what is termed as strain. Strain is the measure of
how much distortion has befallen on the body compared to its initial shape due
to the action of force. It is denoted by ϵ.
Strain Formula is articulated as,
Where,
Change in dimension = x,
Original dimension = L.
There are three sorts of strain
Longitudinal strain is the ratio of change in length to the original
length.
Where,
Change in length = Δ l
Original length = l
Shearing strain is the ratio of change in angle to which it is turned to
its distance from fi xed layer.
Volumetric strain is the ratio of change in volume to the original

volume.
Where Δ V = Change in Volume,

V = Original volume.
Strain Solved Examples

Underneath are numerical founded on strain formula which might be useful for
you.
Problem 1: An elastic band of length 5cm is stretched such that its length
increases by 2mm. Compute the strain.
Answer:
Known:
x (Change in length) = 2mm,

L (Original length) = 5 cm
Problem 2: An iron bar 3m long is heated. It stretches by 0.5 mm. Compute

the strain.
Answer:
Known:
x (Change in length)= 0.5 mm,

L (Original length) = 3m
SPECIFIC GRAVITY FORMULA

Specifi c Gravity elucidates us about how lighter or denser a given object is. It
is found by comparing the mass, weight or density of given amount of material
or fl uid with the same amount of water at four degree Celsius.
Specifi c Gravity Formula is articulated as
or
or
It is unit less. Specifi c gravity formula is convenient in fi nding specifi c gravity

of any given material in any given.
The density of water is 1000 Kg/m 3
Specifi c gravity Solved Examples
Underneath are problems based on specifi c gravity which may be useful for
scholars.
Problem 1: If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m 3 , what is its specifi c gravity?
Answer:
Known:
Density of iron = 7850 Kg/m 3 ,

Density of water = 1000 Kg/m 3
Problem 2: Compute the specifi c gravity if the density of granite is 174.8
lbs/ft 3 and density of water is 62.4 lb/ft 3 ?
Answer:
Known:
Density of granite = 174.8 lbs/ft 3

Density of water = 62.4 lbs/ft 3
STOPPING DISTANCE FORMULA

When the body is moving with a certain velocity and suddenly brakes are
applied. You would have noticed that the body stops completely after covering
a certain distance. This is called stopping distance.
The stopping distance is the distance traveled between the time when the body
decides to stop a moving vehicle and the time when the vehicle stops
completely. The stopping distance depends on factors including road surface,
and refl exes of the car’s driver and it is denoted by d.
Stopping Distance formula is given by,
Where,
v = velocity,
μ = friction coeffi cient,
g = acceleration due to gravity.
The stopping distance formula is also given by,
Where,
k = a constant of proportionality
v = speed.
Example 1
A car is moving with a velocity of 40 m/s and suddenly applies brakes.

Determine the constant of proportionality if the body covers a distance of 10 m
before coming to rest.
Solution:
Given:
Stopping distance d = 10 m,
The constant of proportionality is given by the formula,
k = d / v2
= 10 / 1600
= 0.00625.
Example 2
A bike moves with a velocity of 15 m/s and applies a brake. Calculate its
stopping distance if the constant of proportionality is 0.9.
Solution:
Given:
Constant of proportionality k = 0.9,
the stopping distance is given by
d = k v2
= 0.9 × 225
= 202.5 m
THERMAL EXPANSION
FORMULA
Thermal expansion describes the tendency of an object to change in its area,
volume and shape to a shift in temperature through a transfer of heat. Heat is
a consistently decreasing function of the average molecular kinetic energy of
an object. Heating up a substance increases its kinetic energy.
Since thermal expansion leads to changes in dimension either in length or

volume, therefore, there are three types of thermal expansion namely – Linear
expansion, Area expansion, and Volume expansion.
1. Linear expansion occurs when there is a change in the length. Linear

expansion formula is given as,
Where,
L0 = original length,
L = expanded length,
α = length expansion coeffi cient,
ΔL = change in length.
2. Volume expansion occurs when there is a change in volume due

to temperature. Volume expansion formula is given as
Where,
V0 = original volume,
V = expanded volume,
αv = volume expansion coeffi cient,
ΔV = change in volume after expansion.
3. Area expansion occurs when there is any change in area due to

temperature change. Area expansion formula is given as,
Where,
A = original area,
ΔA = change in area,
αA = area expansion coeffi cient,
A0 = expanded area.
Example 1
A 5m long rod is heated to 40oC. If the length of the rod expands to 7m

after some time, calculate the expansion coeffi cient. Given room
temperature is 30o C.
Solution:
Given:
Initial length Lo = 5 m,
Expanded length L = 7 m
Change in length Δ L = 7 – 5 = 2 m
Temperature difference Δ T = 40o C – 30o = 10o C
= 283 K
The linear expansion formula is given by,
ΔL / Lo = αL Δ T
∴ Length expansion coefficient is given by,
αL = ΔL / Lo×ΔT
= 2 / 5 x 283
αL = 14 × 10-4 K-1.
Example 2:
A volume of a balloon changes from 4 cm to 10 cm. Determine the change in

its volume.
Solution:
Given:
Original volume Vo = 4 cm,
Volume expansion V = 10 cm
The change in volume is given by
Δ V = V – Vo
= 10 – 4
= 6 cm.
TANGENTIAL VELOCITY
FORMULA
Tangential velocity is the linear speed of any object moving along a circular
path. A point on the outside the edge of a turntable moves greater distance in
one complete rotation than a point near to the center. When a body moves in a
circular path at a distance r from the center, the body’s velocity is directed
tangentially at any instant. This is known as tangential velocity. In other words,
the linear velocity is its tangential velocity at any instant.
Tangential Velocity Formula is given by,
Where,
r = radius of circular path and
ω = angular velocity
Hence the Tangential Velocity Formula can also be given by,
If time t is only given, then
Tangential Velocity is determined using formula,

Tangential velocity formula is applied in calculating the tangential velocity of
any object moving in a circular path.
It is expressed in meter per second (m/s).
Example 1
If the angular velocity of a wheel is 40 rad/s, and the wheel diameter is 60 cm,
calculate the tangential velocity.
Solution:
Given:
Radius, r = ½ of diameter of 60 cm
= 30 cm = 0.30 m.
Angular velocity, ω = 40 rad/s.
Tangential velocity formula is given by,
Vt = ω r
= 40 x 0.30
= 12 m/s
Example 2
If a wheel is moves at 10 m/sec, and its angular velocity is 5 radians/sec,

calculate the radius of the wheel.
Solution:
Given:
Tangential velocity, Vt = 10 m/sec

Angular velocity, ω, = 5 radians/sec.
the formula for tangential velocity is given by,
Vt = ω r
Vt / ω = r
10/5= r
r = 2 m
VOLTAGE DIVIDER FORMULA

The voltage divider is the series of resistors or capacitors which that can be
tapped at any intermediate point to generate a specifi c fraction of the voltage
applied between its ends.
It consists of an electric circuit composed of two resistors and one input

voltage supply. Below fi gure shows a simple voltage divider. In this circuit, two
resistors are connected in series. The output voltage of the voltage divider is a
function of input voltage. This circuit helps to determine how the input voltage
divides among the components in the circuit.
The voltage divider formula is given by,

Where,
R a and R b = resistors
V i n = input voltage
Example 1
Determine the output voltage of the voltage divider circuit whose R a and R b are
6Ω and 8Ω respectively and input voltage is 10v.
Solution:
Given:
R a = 6Ω,
R b = 8Ω
V i n = 10V
Voltage divider formula is given by,
V o ut = R b / R a +R b V i n
= 8 / 6 + 8 x 10
V o u t = 5.71V
Example 2
The value of input voltage of a voltage divider is 20V, and the resistors are 5Ω
and 7Ω. Determine the output voltage.
Solution:
Given:
R a = 5Ω,
R b = 7Ω
V i n = 20V
Voltage divider formula is given by,
Vout = Rb / Ra+Rb Vin
= 7 / 5 + 7 x 20
Vout = 11.66V
WEIGHT FORMULA
Weight is not anything but the force gravity experiences. It is represented
by W and Newton is it’s SI unit. It is articulated as the product of mass and
acceleration due to gravity. So the weight of a given object will show variation
according to the gravity in that particular space. So, objects with similar mass
appear in diff erent weights across diff erent planets. The formula for weight is
articulatedas,
W=mg
Where,
Weight of the object = W

Mass of the object = m
Acceleration due to gravity = g
Solved ExamplesWeight
Numerical associated to weight calculations are providedunderneath:

Problem 1: Compute the weight of a body on the moon if the mass is 60Kg? g
is given as 1.625m/s 2 .
Answer:
It is known that,
m = 60kg and
g = 1.625m/s 2
Formula for weight is,

W = mg
W = 60×1.625
W = 97.5N
Problem 2: Compute the weight of a body on earth whose mass is 25kg?

Answer:
It is known that,
m = 25kg and
g = 9.8m/s 2
Formula for weight is,

W = mg
W = 25×9.8
W = 245N
WATER PRESSURE FORMULA

Pressure is defi ned as the force applied which is perpendicular to the surface of
the object per area over which the force is distributed. The Gauge pressure is
the pressure relative to ambient pressure.Various units are applied to express
pressure. Some of which derive from a unit of force per unit area. The SI unit of
pressure is Pascal (Pa). Similarly, water pressure is the term used to describe
the strength of water fl ow through a channel or pipe. The water pressure
formula is given by, Water Pressure = pgh
Where,
P = water pressure,
ρ = density of water,
g = gravitational force,
h = height
The loss of Water pressure can also be calculated.
The water pressure loss formula due to height h is given by,
Pressure loss = 0.4335 x h
Where,
h denotes the height
Example 1
A tank of height 6 m is fi lled with water. Calculate the pressure on the tank at
its bottom.
Solution:
Given:
Density of water ρ = 1000 kg/m3,
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2,
Height h = 6m
The water pressure formula on the tank is given by,
P = ρ g h
= 1000 × 9.8 × 6
= 58800 Pascal.
Example 2
A water fall has the height of 200 m. Determine the pressure loss when it
reaches the surface.
Solution:
Given:
Density of water ρ = 1000 kg/m3,
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2,
Height h = 200 m
the pressure loss formula is given by
Pressure loss = 0.4335 ×200
= 86.7 Pascal.
Magnetic flux is defi ned as the total number of

magnetic fi eld lines through a given coil or area. It is the normal component of
magnetic fi eld which passes through the area. Magnetic fl ux is denoted
by ΦB where B represents magnetic fi eld, and its unit is measured in Weber
(Wb). The value of magnetic fl ux is a vector quantity and it depends on the
direction of the magnetic fi eld.
The magnetic fl ux formula is given by,

Where,
B = magnetic fi eld,
A = surface area and
Θ = angle between the normal to the surface and magnetic field.
Example 1
The Dimension of a rectangular loop is 0.50m and 0.60m. B and θ are 0.02T
and 45° respectively. Determine the magnetic fl ux through the surface.
Solution:
Dimensions of rectangular loop = 0.50m and 0.60m,
B = 0.02T,
θ = 45°
Magnetic fl ux formula is given by
ΦB = B A Cosθ
Area, A = 0.50 × 0.60
= 0.3 m2
ΦB = 0.02 × 0.3 × Cos 45
= 0.00312 Wb
Example 2
The dimension of fl oor of a house is 20m by 15m. Vertical component of the

magnetic fi eld is 4.5 × 10-5T, determine the magnetic fl ux.
Solution:
Dimensions of house = 20m by 15m,

B = 4.5×10-5T,
Because it is a vertical component, θ = 0°
Magnetic fl ux formula is given by,
ΦB = B A Cosθ
Area, A = 20 ×15
= 300 m2
ΦB = 4.5 × 10-5 × 300 × Cos 0
= 1350 x 10-5 Wb
MAGNETIC FIELD IN A
SOLENOID FORMULA
A coil of wire which is designed to generate a strong magnetic fi eld within the
coil is called a solenoid. Wrapping the same wire many times around a cylinder
creates a strong magnetic fi eld when an electric current is passed through it. N
denotes the number of turns the solenoid has. More the number of loops,
stronger is the magnetic fi eld.
A solenoid is a type of electromagnet whose purpose is to produce a controlled

magnetic fi eld. If the purpose of a solenoid is to impede changes in the electric
current, it can be more specifi cally classifi ed as an inductor.
The formula for magnetic fi eld of a solenoid is given by,
B = μoIN / L
Where,
N = number of turns in the solenoid,
I = current in the coil,

l = length of the coil.
Please note that magnetic fi eld in the coil is proportional to the applied current
and number of turns per unit length.
Example 1
Determine the magnetic fi eld produced by the solenoid of length 80 cm under

the number of turns of the coil is 360 and the current passing through is 15 A.
Solution:
Given:
Number of turns N = 360,
Current I = 15 A,
Permeability μo = 1.26 × 10−7 T/m,
Length l = 0.8 m.
The magnetic fi eld in a solenoid formula is given by,
B = μoIN / l
= 1.26×10−7 × 15 × 360 / 0.8
= 8.505 × 10−4 N/Amps m.
The magnetic fi eld generated by the solenoid is 8.505 × 10−4 N/Amps m.
Example 2
A solenoid of diameter 40 cm has a magnetic fi eld of 2.9 × 10−5 N/Amps m. If

it has 300 turns, determine the current fl owing through it.
Solution:
Given:
No of turns N = 300,
Length l = 0.4 m,
Magnetic fi eld B = 2.9 × 10−5 N/Amps m.
The magnetic fi eld formula is given by,
B = μoIN / l
The current fl owing through the coil is expressed by,
I = Bl / μoN
= 2.9×10−5 x 0.4 / 1.26×10−7 × 300
= 306 mA.
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING

FORMULA
Newton’s law of cooling describes the rate at which an exposed body changes
temperature through radiation which is approximately proportional to the
diff erence between the object’s temperature and its surroundings, provided the
diff erence is small, i.e.,
The Newton’s law of cooling is given by,

dT/dt = k(Tt – Ts)
Where
Tt = temperature at time t and
Ts = temperature of the surrounding,
k = constant.
The Newton’s Law of Cooling Formula is expressed by
T(t) = Ts + (T0 – Ts) e-Kt
Where,
t = time,
T(t) = temperature of the given body at time t,
Ts = surrounding temperature,
To = initial temperature of the body,
k = constant.
Please note that greater the diff erence in temperature between the system and
surrounding, more rapidly the body temperature changes.
Example 1
The oil is heated to 70oC. It cools to 50oC after 6 minutes. Calculate the time
taken by the oil to cool from 50oC to 40oC given the Surrounding temperature
Ts = 25oC.
Solution:
Given:
Temperature of oil after 10 min = 50oC,
Ts = 25oC,
To = 70oC,
t = 6 min
The Newton’s law of cooling formula is expressed as
T(t) = Ts + (To – Ts) e-kt
T(t)−Ts / To−Ts = e-kt
-kt ln = ln T(t)−Ts / To−Ts
-kt = ln 50−25 / 70−25
= ln 0.555
k = – (-0.555 / 6 )
= 0.092
If Tt = 45oC (average temperature as the temperature decreases from 50oC to

40oC)
Time taken is -kt ln e = ln T(t)−Ts / To−Ts
– (0.092) t = ln 45−25 / 70−25
– 0.092 t = -0.597
t = −0.597 / −0.092
= 6.489 min.
Example 2: Anil heats the water to 80oC. He waits for 10 min. How much
would be the temperature if k = 0.056 per min and surrounding temperature is
25oC.
Solution:
Given:
Ts = 25oC,
To = 80oC,
t = 10 min,
k = 0.056
The Newton’s law of cooling formula is expressed as
T(t) = Ts + (To – Ts)e-kt
= 25 + (80 – 25)e-(0.56)
= 25 + 55 × 0.57
= 45.6 oC
Temperature cools down from 80oC to 45.6oC after 10 min.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A
SPRING FORMULA
If the usual position(i.e., when not stretched), there is no energy in the spring.
But, when the position is altered from its usual position, the spring is able to
store energy by the virtue of its position. This stored energy is known as
potential energy. Potential energy of the spring is the potential energy stored
as a result of deformation of a particular elastic object, or a spring. It describes
the work done to stretch the spring and depends on the spring constant k and
the distance stretched.
The Potential energy of a spring is given by,
P.E = ½ k x 2
Where,
k = spring constant
x = spring displacement
Example 1: Determine the potential energy of a string whose spring constant

is 200N/m and the displacement is 0.8m.
Solution:
k = 200N/m,
x = 0.8m
Potential energy of a string formula is given by,
P.E = 1 / 2 k x2
P.E = ½ 200 x (0.8)2
= 64 J
Example 2: The spring constant and displacement of a stretched string is

100N/m and 0.5m respectively. Determine the potential energy stored in the
stretched string.
Solution:
k = 100N/m,
x = 0.5m
Potential energy of a string formula is given by,
P.E = 1 / 2 kx2
= 1 / 2 x 100 x (0.5)2
= 12.5 J
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

FORMULA
The amount of heat gained by a solid object to convert it into a liquid without
any further increase in the temperature is known as latent heat of fusion. The
content of latent heat is complex in the case of sea ice because it is possible
for sea ice and brine to exist together at any temperature and melt at a
temperature other than 0oc when bathed in a concentrated salt solution, just
like it occurs in the walls of brine cells when brine cells migration occurs. If m
kg of solid changes to liquid at constant temperature which is its melting point,
the heat absorbed by the substance or the latent heat of fusion formula is
given by,
Q = m L
Wherein,
L = specifi c latent heat of fusion of substance.
If the temperature of the object varies from the lower temperature t1 to higher
temperature t2, the heat gained or liberated by the material is given by,
Q = mc Δt
= mc (t2 – t1)
Therefore, the total heat gained or released by the substance will be,
Q = mL + mc Δt
Example 1
A piece of metal at 20oC has a mass of 60g. When it is immersed in a current

of steam at 100∘C, 0.5g of steam is condensed on it. Determine the specific heat of metal,
given that the latent heat of steam = 540 cal/g.
Solution:
Let c be the specifi c heat of the metal.
Heat gained by the metal
= m c Δt
= 60 × c × (100 – 20)
= 60 × c × 80 cal
Heat given by steam = mL = 0.5 × 540 cal
By the principle of mixtures,
Heat given is equal to Heat taken
0.5 × 540 = 60 × c ×80
c = 0.056 cal/g ∘C.
Example 2
Calculate the result if 64500 calories of heat are extracted from 100 g of steam
at 100∘C. Latent heat of ice and steam are given as 80 cal/g and 540 cal/g respectively.
Solution:
If the full steam is converted into the water at 100 ∘C, then the temperature of water
falls from 100∘C to 10∘C and then a part of water at 0∘C is turned into ice.
If the water converted into ice = mg
The heat gained to bring the steam at 100 ∘C to water at 100∘C = mL steam
= 100 × 540 cal
= 54000 cal.
The heat gained to bring water at 100∘C into water at 0∘C
= 100 × 1 × (100-0)
= 10000
The total heat extracted,
= 54000 + 10000
= 64000 cal.
Heat still remained
= 64500 – 64000
= 500 cal.
Amount of water converted to ice,
m = Q / L
= 500 / 80
= 6.25g.
MOLAR CONCENTRATION
FORMULA
Molar concentration is the most convenient method of expressing the
concentration of a solute in a solution. Molarity is defi ned as the number of
moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution, i.e., M = mol/L. All mole
calculations are applied to determine the amount in moles of the solution, for
which it is the molar concentration.
The balanced chemical equation leads to a mole ratio between the acid and the
base, which in turn leads to amount of moles of the base. Finally the molar
concentration of base is determined by the known volume and amount in
moles.
The molar concentration formula is given by,
Example 1
Determine the molar concentration of NaOH for the reaction between HCl and
NaOH.
Solution:
The balanced chemical equation can be framed as,
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
For an acid
n(HCl) = 35.0 / 1000dm3 × 0.250 mol dm-3

= 8.75 ×× 10-3mol
the mole ratio NaOH : HCl = 1:1.
The amount of NaOH present in moles is 8.75 × 10-3mol.
Now we have the equation,
First convert the volume of aqueous NaOH into dm-3
25 cm3 = 25 / 1000dm3
= 25 × 10-3dm3
Therefore, molar concentration of NaOH
= 8.75×10−3 / 25.0×10-3
Molar concentration of NaOH = 0.350 mol dm-3
Example 2
The concentration of Ca(HCO3)2 is 0.85 gmol/L. Convert this concentration into

geq/L.
Solution:
Given :
[C] = 0.85 gmol/ L
[C]eq = [C][MM] / eq.mass
MM = 40.1(2) + 2{1+12+3(16)}
= 202.2
Number of reference species = 2
Therefore, eq.mass = Ca(HCO3)2 / 2
= 202.2 / 2
[C]eq = 0.85[202.2] / 202.2/2
= 1.7 geq/L
MASS FORMULA
The Mass concept decides the amount of matter is present in an object. It is a
quantitative measure of an object’s resistance to acceleration. Not to get
confused with the term weight, Weight is not a mass but the amount of
gravitational force that acts on the given body.The molar mass, M is the
physical property which is defi ned as the mass of a chemical substance divided
by its amount of the substance. The SI unit of molar mass is kg/mol.
The mass formula is given as
Where,
ρ = density and
v = the volume
The weight mass formula is given as
m = w / g
Where,
w = weight,
m = mass,
g = gravity
The mass formula is also given as
m = F / a
If acceleration itself is the gravity, then
M = F / g
Where,
F = force
G = gravity
The well known Einstein’s mass-energy relation that provides mass energy
formula as
m = E / c2
Where,
E = energy,
m = mass,
c = speed of light
The kinetic energy mass formula is given as
K.E = ½ mv2
Where,
m = mass,
v = velocity.
Example 1
Calculate the mass if the weight of a body is 90 N.
Solution:
Given,
weight of the body = 90 N,
The mass of the body is expressed by
m = w / g
= 90 / 9.8
= 9.183 kg
Example 2
Determine the mass of a body if the K.E is 60 J and velocity is 7m/s.
Solution:
Given:
Kinetic energy, k.E = 60 J,
Velocity, v = 7 m/s
the mass is expressed by

m = 2 k.E / v2
= 2 ×60 / 72
= 2.44 kg
MOMENT OF INERTIA FORMULA

Moment of Inertia is a quantity which describes body’s tendency to resist
angular acceleration. In other words it is the measure of the amount of moment
provided to a body to conquer its own inertia. It describes about the object
off ering resistance to accelerate or slow down its own motion.
It is the sum of the products of the mass of every component in the body with
the square of the distance from the point of rotation.
Moment of inertia formula is given by
I = MR²
Where,
R is the Distance between the axis and rotation in m
M is the Mass of the object in Kg
I = Moment of Inertia in Kgm²
It’s based on the shape and mass distribution of the body and also on
the orientation of the rotational axis
Example 1
Determine the Moment of inertia of the ball having mass of 10 Kg and radius of
5 cm.
Solution:
Mass of the ball = 10 Kg,

Radius = 5 cm
= 0.05 m,
Moment of Inertia is given as
I = MR²
= 10 × (0.05 )²
= 0.025 Kgm²
Example 2
A sphere is moving around and its moment of inertia is 20 Kgm² and radius 1
m, determine its mass.
Solution:
Given:
Moment of inertia, I = 20 Kgm²,
Radius of sphere, R = 1 m,
Moment of Inertia formula is given by,
I = MR²
M = I / R²
= 20 / 1
= 20 Kg
NET FORCE FORMULA
The net force is defi ned as is the sum of all the forces acting on an object. Net
force can accelerate a mass. Some or the other force acts on any body either
at rest or motion. The net force is a term used in a system when there is a
signifi cant number of forces.
If N is the number of forces acting on a body, the net force formula is given by,
FNet = F1 + F2 + F3….+ FN
Where,
F1, F2, F3….FN are the forces acting on a body.
Net force when a body is at rest:
When the body is at rest, the net force formula is given by,
FNet = Fa + Fg.
Where,
Fa = applied force,
Fg = gravitational force.
Net force when a body is in motion:
When a force is applied on the body, not only the applied force is acting there
are many other forces like gravitational force Fg, frictional force Ff and the
normal force that balances the other force.
Therefore, the net force formula is given by,
FNet = Fa + Fg + Ff + FN.
Where,
Fa = applied force,
Fg = gravitational force,
Ff = frictional force,
FN = normal force.
Example 1
In a tug of war, a fat man pulls with a force of 100 N on a side, and a lean man
pulls with 90 N on the other side. Determine the net force.
Solution:
Given:
Force F1= 100 N,
Force F2 = -90 N.
The net force formula is given by,
FNet = F1 + F2
= 100 – 90
= 10 N
Therefore, the net force is 10 N.
Example 2
A toy car is at rest, and a force of 70 N is applied to it. If the frictional force of
20 N, determine the net force.
Solution:
Given:
Applied force Fa = 70 N,
Frictional force Ff = -20 N.
The net force formula is given by,

FNet = Fa + Ff
= 70 – 20
= 70 N.
Therefore, the net force is 50 N.
ORBITAL SPEED FORMULA

The orbital speed of the body which is usually a planet or a natural satellite is
the speed at which it orbits around the barycenter of a system which is usually
around a massive body. The orbital speed of the earth around the sun is
108,000 km/h. It relates the mass of a given planet to the gravitational
constant and radius through the equation.
The orbital speed formula is provided by,
Where,
G = gravitational constant,
M = mass of planet
r = radius.
Example 1
The mass of the Moon is given as 8.35×1022 Kg and the radius is given as
2.7×106m. Determine the orbital speed.
Solution:
Given:
Mass of the Moon, M = 8.35×1022kg
Radius, R = 2.7×106m
G = 6.673×10-11m3/kgs2
Orbital speed equation is given by,
vorbit = √GM / R
vorbit = √6.673×10−11 ×8.35×1022 / 2.7×106

= 20.636 x 106 m/s.
Example 2
The mass of the Jupiter is given by 2.89×1027 Kg and the radius is given as
71400 km, determine the orbital speed.
Solution:
Given,
Mass of the Jupiter, M = 2.898×1027 kg
Radius, R = 71400 km
G = 6.673×10-11m3/ kgs2
Orbital speed equation is given by
vorbit = √GMR
= 6.673 x 10-11 x 2.898 x 1027 / 71400

= 2.708 x 1012 km/s
PROJECTILE MOTION FORMULA

One often experiences many kinds of motions in our daily life. Projectile
motion is one among them. A projectile is some body thrown in space or air.
The Curved path with which the projectile travels is what is termed as
trajectory. The free fall motion of any object in a horizontal path with constant
velocity is Projectile Motion.
Projectile Motion Formula (trajectory formula) is articulated as
Where,
the velocity along the x-axis is V x ,
the initial velocity along the x-axis is V x o ,
the velocity along the y-axis is V y ,
the initial velocity along the y-axis is V y o .
acceleration due to gravity is g, and
the time taken is t
Equations associated to the trajectory motion (projectile motion) are

articulated as,
Where,
the initial Velocity is V o ,
the component along the y-axis is sin θ,
the component along the x-axis is cos θ.
Projectile Motion formula is made use of to calculate the distance, velocity and
time engaged in the projectile motion.
Projectile Motion Solved Examples
Underneath are questions based on projectile motion which may help one in
their exam.
Problem 1: A body is projected with a velocity of 20 ms - 1 at 50 o to the

horizontal. Find
(i) Maximum height reached
(ii) Time of fl ight and
(iii) Range of the projectile.
Answer:
Initial Velocity V o = 20 ms - 1 ,
= 3.126s
Maximum height reached, H =
=11.97m
Horizontal Range R =
=40.196m
Problem 2: John is on top of the building, and jack is down. If John tosses a
ball at an angle of 60 o and with an initial velocity of 20 m/s, what height will
the ball touch after 2 s?
Answer:
Given:
V y o = 20 m/s,
Δ t = 2s,
The Vertical velocity in y-direction is articulated as V y = V y o sin 60 o
POSITION FORMULA
When something travels from a point to the other, it is called as displacement.
Presuming the golf ball moves from position x 1 to position x 2 .
The position change Δx (position formula) is articulated as,
Where, the fi rst position of the body is x 1 ,

the second position after undergoing displacement is x 2 ,
the rate of change of displacement when change in position takes place is Δx.
If the body changes its position after time t the rate of change in position at
any moment of time t, x(t) is articulated as,
Where,
the position of the body with respect to time t is x(t) ,
the initial velocity of the body is v0 ,
the acceleration the body possesses is α ,
the initial position of the body is x 0 .
Position Formula Solved Examples

Let’s examine some sample questions on position:
Problem 1: A boy who has an initial velocity of 3 m/s moves for a distance of
20 m. If it’s angular acceleration is 2 m/s 2 , compute the position of the boy at
the end of 5s.
Answer:
Known :
v0 (Intial velocity) = 3m/s,
x0 (distance) = 20 m,
α (angular acceleration) = 2 m/s 2 ,
t (time) = 5s
The alteration in position of the boy at instant of time t is articulated as
x(6) = 0.5 × 2 m/s 2 × (5s) 2 + 3 m/s × 5s + 20 m

= 25m + 15m + 20 m
= 60 m.
Problem 2: A man at a distance of 6m from his home travels some distance to

reach his workplace which is 100 m from his home. Calculate the change in
position.
Answer:
Known:
x 1 (First position) = 6 m,
x 2 (Second position) = 100 m

Change in position is articulated as
Δ x = x2 – x1
= 100 m – 6m
= 94 m.
PASCALS PRINCIPLE FORMULA
In any fl uid, the static pressure is exerted on the walls of the container and in
the fl uid. These forces act perpendicular to the walls of the container. When an
external pressure is applied to the fl uid, the pressure is distributed uniformly in
all parts of the fl uid and this is known as Pascal’s principle named after the
Physicist Blaise Pascal.The Pascal’s principle refers to only the external
pressure and within the fl uid the pressure at the bottom is greater than the
top.
According to Pascal’s principle, the force per unit area describes an external
pressure which is transmitted through fl uid and the formula is written as,
Example 1:
In a hydraulic system, a piston has a cross-sectional area of 20 square

centimeters pushes on an incompressible liquid with a force of 30 newtons. The
other end of the hydraulic pipe connects to the second piston with a cross-
sectional surface area of 100 square centimeters. Calculate the force on the
second piston.
Solution:
Pascal’s principle is given by,
We know that,
F1 = 30 newtons,
A1 = 20 square centimeters
Insert the given values to calculate the force on the second piston:
F2 = A2 x F1/A1
= 100 x 30 / 20
= 150 N
Example 2:
A piston has a cross-sectional area of 40 square centimeters in a hydraulic

system and pushes an incompressible liquid with a force of 50 newtons. The
other end of the hydraulic pipe is connected to a second piston with a cross-
sectional surface area of 50 square centimeters. Determine the force on the
second piston.
Solution:
Pascal’s principle is given by,
We know that,
F1 = 50 newtons,
Insert the given values to calculate the force on the second piston:
F2 = A2 x F1/A1
= 50 x 50 / 40
= 62.5 N
photon energy is defi ned as the quantum of
electromagnetic radiation. The term quantum refers to the smallest elemental
unit of a quantity. Hence, one quantum of electromagnetic energy is known as
a photon.
A photon is characterized either by wavelength (λ) or an equivalent energy E.
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength of a photon.
The Photon energy formula is given by,
Where
E = photon energy,
h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10−34 Js),
c = speed of the light and
λ = wavelength of the light.
Example 1
Determine the photon energy if the wavelength is 650nm.
Solution:
λ = 650nm
c = 3×108×108m/s
h = 6.626×10−34×10−34Js
Photon energy formula is given by,
E = hc / λ
E = 6.626×10−34 ×3×108 / 650×10−9

= 19.878 x 1028 / 650×10−9
= 0.030 x 10−17J
Example 2:
If the energy of a photon is 350×10−10J, determine the wavelength of that

photon.
Solution:
E = 350×10−10J
c = 3×108m/s
h = 6.626×10−34Js
Photon energy formula is given by,
E = hc / λ
So, λ = hc / E
= 6.626×10−34×3×108 / 350×10−10
= 19.87 x 10-28 / 350 x 10−10
= 0.056 x 10-16 m
RELATIVITY FORMULA
More topics in Relativity Formula
Time Dilation Formula Length Contraction

Formula
Relative Velocity Formula
RELATIVISTIC MASS FORMULA

The mass concept dialogue is a very standard one in physics. The well known
special theory of relativity voices a lot more about relativistic mass, when
there is comparative measurements of length and time in dissimilar frames.
The relative change in mass is also perceived when the body is in motion. This
concept is relativistic mass. Comparable to length contraction and time dilation
a thing called mass increase happens when the object is in motion.
The relativistic mass formula is articulated as,
Where,
the rest mass is m o ,
the velocity of the moving body is v ,
Velocity of light is c
Relativistic Mass Solved Examples
Some solved problems are given below based on Relativistic Mass:

Problem 1: An object in motion has mass of a 12 kg and travels in the air with
velocity 0.82. What would be its rest mass?
Answer:
Known:
(Mass) m = 12 kg,
(Velocity) v = 0.82c,
c = 3 × 1088 m/s22.
Rest mass, m o = 7.2 kg (approximately)
Thus, the rest mass of the given object is 7.2 kg.
Problem 2: A particle of mass 1.67 × 10 − 2 4 kg travels with velocity 0.65.

Compute its rest mass?
Answer:
Given: Mass m = 1.67 × 10 − 2 4 kg, v = 0.65c, c = 3 × 10 8 m/s 2 .

Rest mass, m o = 1.26 × 10 − 2 4 kg (approximately).
Thus, the rest mass of the particle is 1.26 × 10 − 2 4 kg.
REFRACTION FORMULA
Light travels in a straight line,and we are aware of that.This is true on the
condition that the light rays are traveling in the same medium, having the
same density throughout. What occurs when light enters from one see-through
medium to another? Does it still travel along a straight line path or changes its
direction? A ray of light, traveling from the lower side of the stick passes from
water into air and gets diverted (refracted) away from the normal (as it passes
from a denser medium ‘water’into rarer medium ‘air’). Another ray of light gets
refracted in another direction. The two refracted rays when produced
backwards, appear to meet at a point nearer to the water surface than the
original point. The above-formed image is termed as avirtual image.
Therefore, the immersed part of the stick gives the impression of being raised
and bent, forms a virtual image. Thus, we see that when the light rays are
made to go from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, the
light rays alter their direction at the boundary separating the two media. In the
above instance, when light rays traveling in water go into another medium, i.e.
air, they alter their direction on entering the air. The bending of light when it
passes obliquely from one transparent medium to another is termed as
Refraction of light.
In other words, the alteration in the direction of light when it crosses through
obliquely from one see-through medium to another is termed as refraction of
light.
A transparent substance in which light travels is known as a medium. A

medium in which light’s speed is more is known as an optically rarer medium.
Air is an optically rarer medium compared to glass and water. A medium in
which light’s speed is less is termed as an optically denser medium. An
optically denser medium than water and air would be glass.Diff erent media are
believed to have diff erent optical densities.The speed of light depends on the
optical density of the medium. Bigger the diff erence in the speeds of light in
the two mediums, larger will be the deviation in the track of light in the
secondary medium. In other words, there will be a bigger refraction of light.
Laws of Refraction of Light
The refraction of light in travelling from one medium to another takes place
according to two laws which are termed as the laws of refraction of light.
The First law of refraction : The normal, the incident ray, and refracted ray
at the point of incidence, all lie in a similar plane.
The Second law of refraction : The second law of refraction provides a

relationship amid the angle of refraction and the angle of incidence. This
relationship was perceived experimentally by Willebrod Snell in 1621. Thus, the
second law of refraction is termed as Snell’s law of refraction.
Conferring to Snell’s law of refraction of light, the ratio of the sine of the angle
of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for the light of a
given color and for a given pair of media.
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction then according to

Snell’s law of refraction of light,
This constant value is termed as the refractive index of the second medium
with regards to the fi rst.
STRESS FORMULA
We all come in touch with the word stress in our day-to-day life when some
external thing has an impact on our state of mind. Likewise in Physics, stress is
the external restoring force acting on per unit area.
Stress is denoted by σ. It is represented as N/m 2 .
Stress formula is articulated as
Where,
Force applied = F
Area on which force is acting = A
Stress formula is made use of to fi nd stress applied on any given body if force
and area on which force is exerted is given in the problem.
Stress Solved Examples
Underneath are problems based on stress which may be useful for you.
Problem 1: Find the stress if a force of 50 N is acting on an area of 5 mm 2 ?

Answer:
Given: Force F = 50 N,
Area A = 5mm 2
Problem 2: An elastic spring is given a force of 1000 N over an area of 0.2 m 2 .

Calculate the stress?
Answer:
Known:
F (Force) = 1000 N,
A (Area) = 0.2 m 2
STATIC FRICTION FORMULA
Let us imagine a car at rest. To start it without making use of the accelerator,
one will have to use a lot of force.
This is static friction! Here the object at rest is made to move confl icting the
frictional force.
Static friction is the resistive force perceived in a body which is at

rest. It is articulated as
Where,
static friction is F s ,
the coefficient of static friction is μs and

the normal force is F n
Static Friction Formula helps one to compute the frictional force, co-effi cient
of friction or normal force in any asked numerical.
Static Friction Solved Examples

Underneath are numerical on static friction which helps to comprehend where
one can use this formula:
Problem 1: A force of 200 N is exerted on a snacks box of 5kg still on the

fl oor. If the coeffi cient of friction is 0.3, calculate the static friction?
Answer:
Known:
Fn (Normal force) = 200 N,

μs (Coefficient of friction) = 0.3,
Static friction is given by F s = μs F n
= 0.3 × 200 N
= 60 N.
Problem 2: Amy is hauling a toy car of mass 4 kg which was at rest earlier on
the fl oor. If 50 N is the value of the static frictional force, calculate the friction
coeffi cient?
Answer:
Known:
m (Mass) = 4 kg,
Fs (static frictional force) = 50 N,
Fn (Normal force) = mg
= 5 Kg × 9.8 m/s 2
= 49 N
SPRING CONSTANT FORMULA

According to Hooke’s law, the force required to compress or extend a spring is
directly proportional to the distance it is stretched. It can be represented in an
equation as F = kx, where F is the force applied, k is the spring constant and x
is the extension of the object usually in meters.
In other words, spring constant is the force applied if the displacement in the
spring is unity.
If a force F is considered that stretches the spring so that it displaces the
equilibrium position by x.
The Spring Constant Formula is given as,
Where,
F = Force applied,
x = displacement by the spring
It is expressed in Newton per meter (N/m).
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1
A spring with load 5 Kg is stretched by 40 cm. Determine its spring constant.
Solution:
Given:
Mass m = 5 Kg,
Displacement x = 40 cm,
We know that,
Force F = m a
= 5 × 0.4
= 2 N
The spring constant is given as
k = – F / x
= – 2 / 0.4
= – 5 N/m
Example 2
A boy weighing 20 pounds stretches a spring by 50 cm. Determine the spring

constant of the spring.
Solution:
Given:
Mass m = 20 lbs = 20 / 2.2 = 9.09 Kg.
The force F = ma = 9.09 × 9.8 = 89.082 N
The spring constant formula is given by
k = – F / x
= – 89.082 / 0.5
= – 178.164 N/m.
SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY
FORMULA
According to electromagnetism, charge density is defi ned as a measure of
electric charge per unit volume of the space in one, two or three dimensions.
To be specifi c, the linear surface or volume charge density is the amount of
electric charge per surface area or volume, respectively.
Surface charge describes the electric potential diff erence between the inner
and outer surface of diff erent states like solid and liquid, liquid and gas or gas
and liquid. The surface charge density is present only in conducting surfaces
and describes the whole amount of charge q per unit area A.
Hence, the Surface charge density formula is given by,
σ = q / A.
Where,
q = charge and
A = surface area.
Electric fi eld regarding surface charge density formula is given by,
σ = -2 ϵ0 E.
Where,
ϵo = permittivity of free space,
E = electric fi eld.
Example1
Calculate the surface charge density of a conductor whose charge is 5 C in an

area of 10 m2.
Solution:
Given:
Charge q = 5 C,
Area A = 10 m2
Surface charge density formula is given by,
σ = q / A
= 5 / 10
Therefore, σ = 0.5 C/m2
Example 2
Calculate the surface charge density of sphere whose charge is 12 C and radius
is 9 cm.
Solution:
Given:
Charge q = 12 C,
Radius r = 9 cm.
The surface charge density formula is given by,
σ = q / A
For a sphere, area A = 4 π r2
A = 4 π (0.09m)2
A = 0.1017 m2
Surface charge density, σ = q / A
σ = 12 / 0.1017
= 117.994
Therefore, σ = 117.994
TEMPERATURE FORMULA
Temperature is the degree or intensity of the heat present in substance or a
system, expressed based on the comparative scale and shown by a
thermometer.
In other words, Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of a body

measured regarding degrees or Kelvin on the Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit
scales.
The change in temperature is based on the amount of heat released or

absorbed. The S.I unit of temperature is Kelvin.
The Temperature formula is given by,
Δ T = Q / mc
Where,
Δ T = temperature difference,
Q = amount of heat absorbed or released,
c = specifi c heat of the body.
Example 1
Determine the temperature if 200 J of heat is released by the body of mass 6
Kg and has a specifi c heat of 0.8 J/KgoC.
Solution:
Given:
Heat released Q = 200 J,
Mass m = 6 Kg,
Specifi c Heat c = 0.8 J/KgoC
The temperature is given by ΔT = Q / mc
= 200 / 6 x 0.8
= 41.66oC.
Example 2
Determine the heat released when the temperature changes by 40oC by a body
of mass 3 Kg which has a specifi c heat of 0.7 J/kgoC.
Solution:
Given:
Temperature change = 40oC,
Mass m = 3 kg,
Specifi c heat c = 0.7 J/kgoC,
The Heat released is given by formula Q = mc ΔT
= 3 × 0.7 × 40
= 84 J
ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

FORMULA
Rotational kinetic energy is the energy absorbed by the object by the virtue of
its rotation. The expressions for linear and rotational kinetic energy can be
advanced in a parallel manner from the work-energy principle. Imagine the
following parallel between a constant torque exerted on a fl ywheel with a
moment of inertia I and a constant force exerted on a mass m, both beginning
from rest.
For the linear case, beginning from rest, the acceleration from Newton’s
second law is equivalent to the fi nal velocity divided by the time and the
average velocity is half the fi nal velocity, presenting that the work done on the
block gives it a kinetic energy equal to the work done. For the rotational case,
also beginning from rest, the rotational work is τθ and the angular acceleration
α provided to the flywheel is obtained from Newton’s second law for rotation.
The angular acceleration is equivalent to the fi nal angular velocity divided by
the time and the average angular velocity is equal to half the fi nal angular
velocity. It follows that the rotational kinetic energy given to the fl ywheel is
equivalent to the work done by the torque.
It is articulated by
Where the,
Moment of inertia = I and
Angular velocity of the rotating body = ω
Rotational kinetic energy formula is made use of to calculate the rotational

kinetic energy of the body in rotational motion. It is expressed in Joules (J).
Rotational kinetic Energy Problems

Here are problems on rotational kinetic energy for your reference.
Solved Examples
Problem 1: Calculate the rotational kinetic energy if angular velocity is

7.29 × 10 - 5 rad s - 1 and moment of inertia is 8.04 × 10 3 7 kgm 2 .
Answer:
Known:
(Angular velocity) ω = 7.29 × 10 - 5 rad s - 1 ,

(Moment of inertia) I = 8.04 × 10 3 7 kgm 2
The rotational kinetic energy is
= 2.13 × 10 2 9 J
Problem 2: Determine the rotational kinetic energy of electric motor if angular

velocity is 100 ππ rad/s and moment of inertia is 50 kgm 2 .
Answer:
Angular velocity ω = 100 π rad/s
Moment of inertia I = 50 kgm 2
The rotational kinetic energy is
= 2500 J
RESONANT FREQUENCY
FORMULA
The resonant frequency is the frequency of a resonant circuit. A Resonant
circuit is also identifi ed as LC circuit or tank circuit. This circuit comprises of
inductor and capacitor attached parallel to each other. The resonant circuit is
used to create a particular frequency or to select a particular frequency from a
complex circuit. So, the resonant frequency formula is articulated as,
Where, the resonant frequency is f0 , the inductance is L and the capacitance

is C
Resonant Frequency Solved Examples
Solved numerical of resonant frequency are provided below:
Problem 1: Compute the resonant frequency of a circuit whose inductance is

25mH and capacitance is 5μF?
Answer:
Known values are,

L = 25mH and
C = 5μF
The formula for resonant frequency is articulated as,
f 0 = 450.384Hz
Problem 2: The capacitance and inductance of a resonant circuit is given as
0.5F and 1H. Compute the resonant frequency of the circuit?
Answer:
Known values are,

L = 1H and
C = 0.5F
The formula for resonant frequency is articulated as,
f 0 = 0.2251Hz
RADIANT ENERGY FORMULA

The Radiant heat energy is a notion which is rather more nicely explained by
Stefan’s law. This law elucidates how the heat is radiated! It states that, The
amount of heat which is radiated (E) by a fl awless black body for a
second in a provided unit area is directly related to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature (T).
The Radiant heat energy formula is articulated as,
E α T4
or
E = σ T4
Where,
Stefan’s constant (5.67 × 10−8−8 W/m 2 /K 4 ) is σ ,
radiant energy is E,
absolute temperature is T.
Radiant Energy Solved Problems
Some of the solved numerical based on Radiant Energy is provided

underneath:
Problem 1: The surface temperature of the moon in the daytime is 123

Celsius. Compute the radiant heat energy for 1meter square area.
Answer:
Known: T (Temperature) = 123 C = 123 + 273 K = 396 K
σ (Stefans Constant) = 5.67 × 10−8−8 W/m22/K44
Radiant energy, E = σ T44
E = 5.67 × 10−8−8 W/m 2 /K 4 × (396)4
E = 1394.32.
Thus, the radiant heat energy is 1394.32.
Problem 2: If the radiant energy of the body is 129.34, calculate its surface
temperature.
Answer:
Known:
E (Radiant energy) = 129.34,
σ (Stefans Constant) = 5.67 × 10^-8 W/m 2 /K 4
Radiant energy, E = σ T4
Thus, the temperature of the surface is 218.54 K.
SPEED DISTANCE TIME

FORMULA
Speed is a very rudimentary concept in motion which is all about how slow or
fast an object travel. We defi ne speed as distance divided by time. Distance is
directly proportionate to Velocity when time is constant. Speed, distance, and
time numerical ask us to solve for one of the three variables with certain
information known. In these questions, we deal with objects moving at either
constant speeds or average speeds.
Speed Distance Time Formula is mathematically articulated as:
Where,
the Speed is x in m/s,

the Distance traveled is d in m,
t is the time taken in s.
Distance travelled formula is articulated as
d = xt
If any of the two variables among speed, distance and time is provided, we can
use this formula and fi nd the unknown numeric.
Speed Distance Time Solved Examples
Underneath are solved problems based on speed distance and time formula:
Problem 1: Lilly is driving a scooty with the speed of 6 km/hr for 2hr. How
much distance will she travel?
Answer:
Given: Speed of the scooty x = 6km/hr
Time taken t = 2 hr
Distance traveled d = ?
Speed DIstance time formula is given as
Distance traveled d = x × t
d = 6 km/hr × 2 hr
d = 12 km
Problem 2: A man rides the bike with the speed of 60 miles in 3/4 t h hours.
Compute the speed of the bike?
Answer:
Known :
d (Distance Covered) = 60 miles,
Time taken t =
Speed is calculated using the formula

=
= 80 miles/hr
SURFACE TENSION FORMULA

Surface tension is a word which is linked to the liquid surface. It is a physical
property of liquids, in which the molecules are drawn onto every side. This is a
type of dragging force per unit length. On the surface of the liquids, there is no
other molecules surround each atom. So the surface later layer gets attracted
inwards. The formula for fi nding surface tension is articulated as,
Where
the force per unit length is F

the length in which force act is L
Surface Tension Solved Examples
Solved numerical related to surface tension are provided underneath:
Problem 1: Compute the surface tension of a given liquid whose dragging

force is 5N and length in which the force acts is 2cm?
Answer:
Known values are,
F = 5N and L = 2cm
Formula for surface tension is,
Problem 2: Compute the surface tension if the force and length are 3N and
1.5cm respectively?
Answer:
Known values are,
F = 3N and L = 1.5cm
TIME DILATION FORMULA

According to theory of relativity, time dilation is defi ned as the diff erence
between elapsed time of the two events measured by either moving relative to
each other located diff erently from gravitational mass or masses.
Let’s consider a clock kept in two diff erent observers. One observer is at rest
and other is moving along with the speed of light. The existence of time
diff erence between the two clocks is known as time dilation.
The time dilation formula is given by,
Where
T = time observed,
T0 = time observed at rest,
v = velocity of the object, and
c = velocity of light in vacuum.
Example 1
Determine the relativistic time, if T0 is 7years and v is 0.55c.
Solution:
Given:
T0 = 7 years
v = 0.55c
Formula for time dilation is given by,
T = T0 /√ 1− v2/c2
= 7 / 1−(0.55c)2 / c2
T = 7 / 1 − 0.552
7 / 0.6975
T = 10.035 = 11 years
Question 2: Calculate the time dilation if T0 is 15 years and v = 0.6c.
Solution:
Given:
T0 = 15 years and v = 0.6c
Formula for time dilation is given by,
T = T0 / √1−v2/c2
= 15 / √1−(0.6c)2/c2
= 15 / √1−0.62
= 23.43 = 24 years
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

FORMULA
What is uniform circular motion?
The term circular is applied to describe the motion in a curved path.The motion
of any object along a circular path covering equal distance along the
circumference in same interval of time is known as uniform circular motion. In
any uniform circular motion, the speed remains constant, but the direction of
the velocity changes.
The tangential speed at every point on the circumference is found to be

constant in uniform circular motion, and the tangential velocity vector is
tangent at every point over the circumference.
Tangential velocity is the vector formed to the tangential speed; therefore, the
magnitude remains constant and equal to the tangential speed of the uniform
circular motion.
The Tangential speed of the uniform circular motion is given by,
V = 2π r / T
Any object moving in uniform circular motion also has an angular velocity.
The object’s velocity changes continuously and therefore there is an
acceleration in the circular motion, and this acceleration is always directed
towards the center of the circle which is termed as centripetal acceleration.
Example 1
A racer is moving with a constant tangential speed of 50 m/s, takes one lap
around a circular track in 40 seconds. Calculate the magnitude of the
acceleration of the car.
Solution:
Given:
Speed v = 50 m/s
T = 40 seconds.
We know that,
A = v2 / r
T = 2 π r / v
Therefore, r = Tv / 2π
When both the formulas are combined, we get
a = v2 / (Tv/2 π) = v / (T/2 π)
= 50 / 40 / 6.28
= 7.86
Example 2:
An object moving in a circular motion has a centripetal acceleration of 20 m/s2.

If the radius of the motion is 0.5m, calculate the frequency of the motion.
Solution:
Given:
Acceleration = 20 m/s2
Radius = 0.5m
We know that,
a = v2 / r
20 = v2 / 0.5
V = 3.16 m/s
V = 2 πr / t
3.16 =3.14 / t
T = 1.006
F = 1/t = 1/1.006
Therefore, F = 0.99 Hz
WAVELENGTH FORMULA
The distance between consecutive crests of a wave, particularly the points of
an electromagnetic wave is known as its wavelength.The wavelength and
frequency are closely related. Higher the frequency, shorter is the wavelength.
Since all the light waves move through a vacuum with same speed, the number
of wave crests passing by a given point per second depends on the
wavelength.
The Wavelength is denoted by λ. The Wavelength Formula of any wave is
given by
Λ = V/F
Where,
V= wave speed
f = frequency
The Wavelength is expressed in m, velocity is expressed in m/s, frequency is

expressed in Hz.
Example 1
A harmonic wave is moving along a rope. The source generating the waves
completes 50 to and fro motions in 20 s. A trough travels 3m in 4s; determine
the wavelength of the wave.
Solution:
Time taken for 50 oscillations = 20 s
Time for 1 oscillation, t = 20/50= 0.4 s
Frequency of 1 oscillation, f = 1/0.4 = 2.5 Hz
The wave travels a distance of 3m in 4s.
The wave speed is calculated by v = 3 / 4
= 0.75 ms-1
The wavelength formula is given by λ = v / f
= 0.75/2.5
= 0.3 m.
Example 2
The frequency of a tuning fork is 200 Hz and sound travels a distance of 20 m

while tuning fork executes 30 vibrations. Determine the wavelength of sound.
Solution
Given:
Frequency f = 200 Hz,
Distance d = 20 m,
No of vibrations/ oscillations = 30
Wavelength λ = Distance / No of oscillations
= 20 / 30
= 0.66 ms-1
WAVE FORMULA
A wave is sensed when a source vibrates and disturbs a particle on the way in
the medium. This can be seen in ripples in water when its surface is touched, in
tuning fork, etc. This generates a wave pattern that starts to move along the
medium from particle to particle. The frequency at which each particle vibrates
is equal to frequency at which the source vibrates. In one period, the source is
capable of displacing the fi rst particle upward from the rest, back to rest,
downward from rest and fi nally back to rest. This whole back and forth
movement makes one complete wave cycle. Every wave has its own
wavelength, frequency, speed and time period.
The wave formula which constitutes speed, wavelength and frequency

are given by,
V = f λ
Where,
v = velocity of the wave,
f = frequency of the wave,
λ = wavelength.
Example 1
A light wave travels with a wavelength of 700 nm. Determine its frequency.
Solution:
Given:
Wavelength λ = 700 nm,
Velocity of light v = 3 × 108m/s.
f = v / λ
= 3×108 / 700×10−9
f = 4.2 × 1014 Hz.
Therefore, the frequency of the light wave is 4.2 × 1014 Hz.
Example 2: A sound wave has a wavelength of 2.5 mm. Determine its

frequency.
Solution:
Given:
Wavelength λ = 2.5 cm,
Velocity of sound v = 343.2 m/s.
f = v / λ
f = 343.2 / 2.5×10−2
f = 13.72 KHz.
Therefore, the frequency of sound wave is 13.72 KHz.
SHEAR MODULUS FORMULA

When a shear force is applied on a body which results in its lateral
deformation, the elastic coeffi cient is called the shear modulus of rigidity. So,
shear modulus of rigidity measures the rigidity of a body. Conceptually, it is the
ratio of shear stress to shear strain in a body. It can be represented as:
Where, G is measured in N/m2, F is the force that acts on the body, l is the
initial length, ∆x is the change in length and A is the area.
Shear modulus can be used to explain how a

material resists transverse deformations but this is practical for small
deformations only, following which they are able to return to original state.
This is because large shearing forces lead to permanent deformations (no
longer elastic body). The value of G for steel it is 7.9×1010 and for plywood
is 6.2×108. This implies that steel is a lot more rigid than plywood, about 127
times more!
Shear modulus is related to other elastic moduli of a material and is given

by the equation:
2G (1+υ) = E =3K (1−2υ)
Where E is Young’s Modulus, G is Shear Modulus, K is Bulk Modulus and υ is

Poisson’s Ratio.
Derivation:
Shear Stress:
Internal restoring forces cause the elastic bodies to regain their initial shape.
This restoring force that acts on per unit area of a deformed body is termed as
stress. When the forces being applied on the surface is parallel to it and thus
the stress that’s acting on the surface also plots a tangent. This kind of stress
is termed as a shearing or tangential stress. Stress is expressed as N/m2.
Shearing Stress = Force / Surface Area
Where F is the force applied, σ is the stress applied and A is the area of force
applied.
Shear Strain:
The strain is the measure of deformation experienced by a body in the

direction of the force applied, divided by the body’s initial dimensions. It can
be expressed as:
Where ϵ is the strain caused due to the applied stress, l is the original length
and ∆x is the change in length of the material.
It is to be noted here that the quantity strain does not have any dimension as it
is indicative of a relative change in the shape of a body.
Hence, shear modulus can be expressed as:
Shear Modulus in Real Life:
The concept of shear modulus can be defi ned by the use of the word “friction”.
You may observe a lot of examples where shear modulus is applied. One of the
common examples might be to consider a pair of sneakers that are too stiff or
tight. When you them, they run up and down on the back of the heel, which will
eventually leads to a shearing injury on skin as a blister. Other examples are
painting, brushing teeth, opening of screw, bottle cap, friction between
car tyres and ground, between mouse feet and mouse pad.
Solved Examples:
Question 1: The thickness of an iron plate is 0.3 inches. A hole of radius 0.6
inches is to be drilled on the plate. The shear strength is . Find the
force needed to make the hole.
Solution: Here the shear stress is exerted over the cylindrical surface.
Therefore, the area of the cylindrical surface = 2πrh = 2 × 3.14 × 0.06 × 0.30
= 0.11304 inch2
Given,
Thus, to drill the hole, the force needed= 4 x 104 x 0.11304
Force = 4521.6lb
Question 2: Compute the Shear modulus, if the stress experienced by a body
is and strain is .
Solution: Given,
Stress =
Strain =
TENSION FORMULA
Tension is nothing but the drawing force acting on the body when it is hung
from objects like chain, cable, string etc. It is represented by T (occasionally
also symbolized as F t ).
Tension formula is articulated as
Where,
The Weight of the body = W,
mass of the body = m,

acceleration of the moving body = a
If the body is traveling upward, the tension will be T = W + ma

If the body is traveling downward, the tension will be T = W – ma
If the tension is equivalent to the weight of body T = W.
The weight of the object can be articulated as W = mg. Therefore, tension
formula can also be represented as:
Where,
g = acceleration due to gravity,
a = acceleration of the moving body.
Tension Formula is made use of to fi nd the tension force acting on any object.
It is useful in problems. Tension is a force so it is expressed in Newtons (N).
Tension Solved Examples
Underneath are questions based on tension which may be useful for you.
Problem 1: A 8 Kg mass is dangling at the end of a string. If acceleration of

the mass is
 3 m/s2in the upward direction
(b) 3 m/s 2 in downward direction.
Find the tension in the string.
Answer:
Known:
m (Mass of the hanging body) = 8 Kg,

(a) If the body is traveling in the upward direction the tension force is
articulated as
T = mg + ma = 8 × 9.8 + 8 × 1.5 = 90.4 N
(b) If the body is traveling in down direction, the tension force is articulated as
T = mg – ma = 8 × 9.8 – 8 × 1.5 = 66.4 N.
Problem 2: A 500 N man is standing on the fl oor of an elevator. The scale is
keeping a watch on the force. What will be the force if the acceleration is
(a) 1.5 m/s 2 in upward direction
(b) 9.8 m/s 2 in downward direction.
Answer:
Known:
Weight of the man W = 500 N,
 If the body is traveling in upward direction, the tension force is articulated

as
T = W + ma = 500 + 51 × 5 = 500 – 76.5 = 423.5 N
 If the body is traveling in down direction, the tension force is articulated

as,
T = W – ma = 500N- 51.02× 9.8 = 500 N – 499.998N = 0 N.
THERMAL ENERGY FORMULA

Thermal energy is the energy generated from heat. This heat is produced by
the movement of small particles within an object. The faster the particles
move, more the heat is generated.
Thermal energy is responsible for the temperature of the system and a part of
total energy of the system which is the sum of potential energy and kinetic
energy.
The thermal energy is usually expressed by Q. It is directly proportional to the

mass of the substance, temperature diff erence and the specifi c heat.
The SI unit of thermal energy is Joules(J).
The thermal energy formula is given by
Where
Q = thermal energy,
m = mass of the given substance,

c = specifi c heat, and
ΔT = temperature diff erence.
Example 1
Determine the thermal energy of a substance whose mass is 6kg and specifi c
heat is 0.030J/kg°C. The temperature diff erence of this system is given as
20°C.
Solution:
Given:
m = 6kg,
c = 0.030J/kg°C,
ΔT = 20°C
The thermal energy formula is given by,
Q = mcΔT
= 6 x 0.030 x 20
= 3.6 J
Example 2
A 5kg substance undergoes temperature diff erence of 60°C whose specifi c heat
is 0.07J/kg°C, Determine the thermal energy.
Solution:
Given:
m = 5kg,
c = 0.07J/kg°C,
ΔT = 60°C
The for thermal energy formula is given by,
Q = mcΔT
= 5×0.07×60
= 21J
TERMINAL VELOCITY
FORMULA
Terminal velocity is the highest velocity that can be attained by an object when
it falls through the air. It happens when the sum of the dragged force (Fd) and
buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the body.
The object holds zero acceleration since the net force acting is zero.
Terminal Velocity Formula is given as
Where,
h = height from the ground
Terminal velocity formula is applied to calculate terminal velocity, acceleration

due to gravity or height if any of these quantities are known.
Terminal velocity is expressed in meter per second (m/s).
Example 1
A man is at the height of 2000 m from the ground. What would be his terminal
velocity.
Solution:
Given:
Height h = 2000 m,
The terminal velocity formula is given by
Vterminal = √2×9.8 ×2000
= √39200
= 197.98 m/s.
Example 2
Determine the height of the body if its terminal velocity is 100 m/s.
Solution:
Given:
Terminal velocity Vterminal = 100 m/s,
The height is given by
h = v2terminal / 2g
= 10000 / 9.8 x 2
= 510.204 m.
TERMINAL VELOCITY
FORMULA
Terminal velocity is the highest velocity that can be attained by an object when
it falls through the air. It happens when the sum of the dragged force (Fd) and
buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the body.
The object holds zero acceleration since the net force acting is zero.
Terminal Velocity Formula is given as
Where,
h = height from the ground
Terminal velocity formula is applied to calculate terminal velocity, acceleration

due to gravity or height if any of these quantities are known.
Terminal velocity is expressed in meter per second (m/s).
Example 1
A man is at the height of 2000 m from the ground. What would be his terminal
velocity.
Solution:
Given:
Height h = 2000 m,
The terminal velocity formula is given by
Vterminal = √2×9.8 ×2000
= √39200
= 197.98 m/s.
Example 2
Determine the height of the body if its terminal velocity is 100 m/s.
Solution:
Given:
Terminal velocity Vterminal = 100 m/s,
The height is given by
h = v2terminal / 2g
= 10000 / 9.8 x 2
= 510.204 m.
YOUNGS MODULUS FORMULA

Young’s modulus which can also be called as elastic modulus is a mechanical
property of linear elastic solid substances. It describes the relationship
between stress (force per unit area) and strain (proportional deformation in an
object. The Young’s modulus is named after the British scientist Thomas Young.
A solid object deforms when a particular load is applied to it. If the object is
elastic, the body regains its original shape when the pressure is removed. Many
materials are not linear and elastic beyond a small amount of deformation. The
constant Young’s modulus applies only to linear elastic substances.
The Young’s modulus formula is given by,
Where,
E = Young’s modulus
s = stress
e = strain
Example 1
Determine the Young’s modulus, when 2N/m2 stress is applied to produce a

strain of 0.5.
Solution:
Given:
Stress, σ = 2 N/m2
Strain, ε = 0.5
Young’s modulus formula is given by,
E = σ / ϵ
= 2 / 0.5
=4 N/m2
Example 2
Determine the Young’s modulus of a material whose elastic stress and strain
are 4 N/m2 and 0.15 respectively?
Solution:
Given:
Stress, σ = 4 N/m2
Strain, ε = 0.15
Young’s modulus formula is given by,
E = σ / ϵ
E = 4 / 0.15
=26.66 N/m2
VOLTAGE DROP FORMULA

Voltage drop specifi es how the supplied energy from a voltage source is
reduced as electric current fl ows through the elements that do not supply
voltage (passive elements) of the electrical circuits. The voltage drop across
conductors, across connectors and internal resistances of the source are
unwanted since the supply energy is lost. The voltage drop across active circuit
elements and loads are desired, since supplied power performs effi cient work.
The voltage drop formula is given by,
V = I Z
Where,
I = Current in amperes
Z = impedance in Ω
Similarly,
The single phase voltage drop formula is given by,
VD = 2 LRI / 1000
The three phase voltage drop formula is given by,
VD = 2 LRI / 1000 x 0.866
Where
L = length of the circuit
R = resistance in Ω,
I = load current in amperes.
Example 1:
A current of 9A flows through a circuit that carries a resistance of 10 Ω.

Determine the voltage drop across the circuit.
Solution:
Given:
Current I = 9A,
Impedance Z = 10Ω
the voltage drop formula is given by
V = IZ
= 9 × 10
= 90 v.
Example 2
A lamp of 15 Ω and 30 Ω are connected in series. A current of 4 A is made to

fl ow through it. Determine the voltage drop.
Solution:
Given:
Resistance Z = (15 + 30) Ω
= 45 Ω,
Current I = 4A
The voltage drop formula is given by,
V = IZ
= 4 × 45
= 180 V
WIND ENERGY FORMULA

Wind energy is a kind of solar energy. Wind energy describes the process by
which wind is used to produce electricity. The wind turbines convert the kinetic
energy present in the wind to mechanical power.
Wind energy is a renewable source of energy that determines the total power in
the wind. The wind turbines which convert kinetic energy to mechanical power,
where in the mechanical power is converted into electricity which acts as a
useful source.
The wind energy formula is given by,

P = 1 / 2 ρ A V3
Where,
P = power,
ρ = air density,
A = swept area of blades given by A = π r2 where r is the radius of the blades,
V = velocity of the wind.
Example 1
Determine the power in the wind if the wind speed is 20 m/s and blade length
is 50 m.
Solution:
Given:
Wind speed v = 20 m/s,
Blade length l = 50 m,
Air density ρ = 1.23 kg/m.
The area is given by, A = π r2
A = π × 2500
= 7850 m
The wind power formula is given as,
P = 1 ρ A V
= 1 x 1.23 x 7850 x 8000
P = 38.62 MW
Example 2
A wind turbine travels with the speed is 10 m/s and has a blade length of 20 m.
Determine the wind power.
Solution:
Given:
Wind speed v =10 m/s,
Blade length l = 20 m,
air density ρ = 1.23 kg/m3,
area A = πr2
= π × 400
= 1256 m2
The wind power formula is given as,
P = 1 / 2 ρ A V3
= 1 / 2× 1.23 × 1256 × 1000
P = 77.2 MW.
WAVE POWER FORMULA

Wave power is the energy carried by the wind waves and consumption of that
energy to do useful work, for example, electricity generation, pumping of water
into the reservoirs or water desalination. A machine capable of exploiting wave
power is known as wave energy converter. Wave power is diff erent from diurnal
fl ux of tidal power and steady gyre of ocean currents. On a whole, the wave
power is the energy transport by the wave surface of the ocean.
The Wave power formula is given by,
Where,
P = power of water wave present in depth (Watts),
ρ = water density (1.025 kg/m3),
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2),
T = wave period,
h = wave height,
l = length of wave front.
Example 1
The tides move with a power of 30 Watts crossing the great height of 20 m in 1
s. Determine the length of the wave.
Solution:
Given:
Power p = 30 Watts,
Height h = 20 m,
Wave period T = 1s.
The Wave power formula is expressed by,
P = ρg2Th2l / 32π
l = 32π x p / ρg2Th2
= 32π × 30 / 1.025× 1× (9.8)2 × (20)2
Length l = 0.076 m = 7.6 cm.
The length of the wave is 7.6 cm.
Example 2
A rock falls on water and the waves come out making the height of 5m and a
length of 0.6 m in 20 ms. Determine its wave power.
Solution:
Given:
Height h = 5m,
Length l = 0.6m,
Wave period T = 20 ms.
The wave power formula is given by,
P = ρg2Th2l / 32π
= 1.025 x (9.81)2 × 20×10−3 ×25 x 0.6 / 32π
= 29.592 / 100.48
P = 0.2945 W.
The wave power is 0.294 W
PHYSICS FORMULAS
Physics is all about articulating the things rather than memorizing them up.
When individuals are doing so,one come across many concepts, problems etc.
where they have to use their imagination,ability,creativity and good sort of
potential. Physics makes noteworthy off erings in new technologies that rise
from theoretical advances. For instance, advances in comprehension of
electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the improvement of new
products such as computers, television, home appliances, and nuclear
weaponry’s; developments in thermodynamics led to the advancement of
industrialization, and the progress in mechanics inspired the development of
calculus. Conceptual understanding is a basic block without which you are
nowhere.
Only when one understands the theories thoroughly, they can easily fi nd the
relation between the quantities by which construct the formulas, derive it and
learning them will be simple.
Questions in physics are something which challenges your skills and physics
knowledge which are grounded on three things
1. Examine what is provided and what is asked in the numerical?
2. Making use of the correct formula
3. Filling in the values and computing properly.
To crack these kinds of challenges, one needs to have a proper understanding

of physics formula as well as its concepts.

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ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

Diagram showing absolute pressure, vacuum and gauge

The vacuum pressure is articulated as,

Vacuum Pressure=Atmospheric Pressure-Absolute Pressure

At sea level it is around 14.7 pounds per square inch.

Let’s see some examples of absolute pressure:

Problem 1: A pressure gauge measures the p g a u g e reading as 31 psi. If the

Given: p a t m (Atmospheric pressure) = 31 psi

Given: Atmospheric pressure p a t m = 15 psi

The Gauge pressure is

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

The angle between two vectors formula is given by

where θ is the angle between a⃗ a→ and b⃗ b→.

Let’s see some samples on angle between two vectors:

The dot product is articulated as

The Magnitude of vectors is given by

The angle between two vectors is

Problem 2: Find the angle between two vectors 5i – j + k and i + j – k.

a.b = (5)(1) + (-1)(1) + (1)(-1)

The Magnitude of vectors is given by

The angle between two vectors is

AVERAGE FORCE FORMULA

For a particular interval of time t, the force is described as the frequency of

Average Force – Samples

Known: Mass of bowling ball m = 5 kg,

Known: m = 0.25 kg, (Mass of the ball)

Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity to the change in time. It

Acceleration Solved Examples

Problem 1: A toy car accelerates from 3m/s to 5m/s in 5 s. What is its

Given: Initial Velocity u = 3m/s,

(Initial Velocity) u = 0 (because the stone was at rest),

From the Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we can write

Also, as per Newton’s Law of Gravity, we can write,

Example 1: Given the mass and the diameter of the moon is kg

As given in the question, the diameter of the moon = m

r = diameter/2 = 3.48 × 106 /2 = 1.74 × 106m = 1740000 m

Also, the mass of moon = 7.35 × 1022 kg

Using the formula for acceleration due to gravity, we write,

Upon substituting the values, we get,

The acceleration due to gravity is calculated to be 1.620 m/sec2.

= 6380 km + 250 km = 6630 km = 6,630,000 m

Using the formula for acceleration due to gravity, we write,

Upon substituting the values, we get,

Where the distance covered by the wave is D and

The frequency of the wave is F.

Amplitude Solved Examples

Underneath we have provided some sample numerical based on amplitude

Question 1: If y (= 5 sin ω t)represents the wave, fi nd the amplitude of the

Henceforth, the amplitude is A = 5.

Question 2: Compute the amplitude of the wave if a wave travels a distance

Given: Distance D = 0.5 m,

The amplitute is given by

Motion and It's Types

AMPERES LAW FORMULA

The magnetic fi eld in space an electric current is proportionate to the electric

The Ampere’s law formula is,

Where the permeability of the medium is mu and the magnetic fi eld is B ,

Solved Samples – Ampere’s Law