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The Law and Practice of Delay Claims: A Practical Introduction

John Trainor S.C.

1. Introduction

1.1. The purpose of this paper is to present a brief practical introduction to the nature
of delay claims, their purpose, and how to establish an entitlement to succeed on
such claims.

2. Delay – What it Entails

2.1. A characteristic feature of construction contracts is that the contractor normally

has a specified period within which to complete the bulk of the construction
works. While different forms of contract define the beginning and end of such
periods differently, the usual phrases adopted to identify such points are the
“Commencement Date”, and the “Date of Practical Completion” .

2.2. The importance of these dates is not simply that they indicate the dates upon
which the works are intended to commence, and substantially complete. 1 Rather,
since the essence of a construction contract is that the Employer, during the
construction period, is required to deliver possession of the site to the Contractor,
they represent the dates upon which the Employer is deemed to cede possession
of the site to the Contractor, and, when the works are substantially complete, the
date when the Employer takes the site back into his possession. During the
construction period, the Contractor is legally responsible for the site, and has an
obligation to insure against risks and perils both to the works, and to third parties.
Likewise, in this period, the Contractor is entitled to bring onto the site, and to
maintain, site infrastructure such as portacabins, site compounds, machinery,
scaffolding and the whole apparatus required to undertake the building works.

1
Normally defined as the date upon which the works are so substantially complete as to be ready to
be taken over and put into use for their intended purpose, with only minor finishing works left to
be completed.
 2
The Contractor, as part of his tender, will normally have priced for the provision
of such site infrastructure, usually under the heading of a bill item entitled
“Preliminaries”.

2.3. Linked to the fact that the construction period (sometimes called the “Contract
Period”) is of a stipulated and defined length, construction contracts usually
contain provision that, if the Contractor takes longer than the stipulated period to
bring the works to practical completion, he will be obliged to pay Liquidated and
Ascertained Damages (“LADs”) to the Employer, normally fixed by the Contract
at a stipulated rate per week. All of the legal requirements concerning liquidated
damages apply to LADs, i.e. they must represent a genuine pre-estimate of the
loss which the Employer would expect to suffer in the event that he were not to be
delivered the building on time.

2.4. If the construction contract does not, unusually, contain a provision stipulating a
set time within which the Contractor is to complete the works, then time is said to
be “at large”. In such circumstances, the Contractor will be deemed to have a
reasonable period of time to complete the works.2 What that reasonable period
might be, in any given contract, will always be a matter for speculation and
debate. Only if the Contractor has failed to complete the works within a
reasonable time can the Employer thereafter sue for damages for breach of
contract, which will then be assessed in the ordinary way, at common law.

2.5. However, where the contract provides that the works are to be completed within a
stipulated period, then, if an event occurs for which the Employer is liable (this
can be an event for which, under the contract, the Employer is deemed to be
liable, or it may, alternatively, comprise an act or omission of the Employer
which would amount to a breach of contract), then it may be that, as a
consequence, the Contractor will be prevented from completing the contract
within the stipulated time. In such a case, if the contract does not contain some
mechanism whereby the time to complete can be extended, then an Employer act
of prevention, having the effect of rendering it impossible for the Contractor to
complete the Contract within the stipulated time, is said to have the effect of
putting time “at large”.3

2.6. In order to counter the possibility that time, in such circumstances, might be “put
at large”, most construction contracts contain express provision whereby, in
certain circumstances, the Contractor may be afforded an extension of the time to
complete.4 Typically the mechanism provided for by the Contract is such as to
provide that, where completion within the stipulated time has been rendered
impossible by reason of some event for which the Employer is liable under the
contract, the Contractor may apply to the Contract Administrator (who may be the
Architect, or the Employer’s Representative, or otherwise so described) who is
thereafter given a discretion, to be exercised independently, and in a quasi-judicial

2
See “Hudson’s Building and Engineering Contracts”, 12 th Ed. (“Hudson”) at Para 6.008 et seq.
3
Hudson, Para 6.025
4
Hudson, Para 6.026. See also Peak Construction Ltd v McKinney Foundations Ltd (1970) 1
B.L.R. 114.
 3
fashion, to award, or certify, the Contractor a fair and reasonable extension
of the time to complete, sufficient to make up for, and to compensate for, the
preventative effects of the Employer liable event.

2.7 Contract provisions providing for extension of time are often complex, and vary
from contract to contract. Sometimes they require the Architect, or Employer’s
Representative, to provide the Contractor with a fair and reasonable extension of
time, upon the happening of an Employer act of prevention, even in the absence
of an application for an extension of time by the Contractor. But most contract
provisions require an express application for an extension of time by the
Contractor. In some cases, the contract provisions require the application for an
extension of time (“EOT”) to be made quickly, within a stipulated time from the
breach, or as soon as reasonably practical. The requirement to serve timely notice
of an intention to claim EOT may be (and often is) described as a condition
precedent. Sometimes, the EOT application is required to be accompanied by
detailed particulars, including an express statement of the precise EOT requested
by the Contractor. Finally, any decision by the Architect, Contract
Administrator, or Employer’s Representative, as to what EOT is to be awarded to
the Contractor, is usually subject to a right of appeal or challenge by the
Contractor through the dispute resolution mechanism in the Contract.

3 Consequences of an Award of EOT.

3.1. From the above, it can be seen that an application by a Contractor for EOT seeks
to achieve three purposes:-

(i) If awarded, it will allow him a longer period of time within which to
complete the works, sufficient to make up for the consequences of the
Employer act of prevention;

(ii) If awarded, it will entitle him to claim additional payment to compensate

him for the cost of maintaining his infrastructure on site for the extended
period. It is important to appreciate that, in a competitive tender, the
Contractor will have priced the works on the basis that his preliminaries
can be expected to be required to be on site for the contract period, and no
longer. If, for example, the Contractor has to maintain his infrastructure
on site for a longer period (which could be for months) then he will incur a
cost in connection therewith for which he will require to be remunerated.
An award of EOT normally carries with it an entitlement for the
Contractor to be paid for his extended preliminaries;

(iii) An award of EOT will relieve the Contractor from the obligation which he
would otherwise owe to the Employer to pay LADs during the extended
period of completion.

3.2 Accordingly, where the construction period has been lengthened due to matters
for which the Employer is liable, it will inevitably follow that the Contractor will
want to claim for EOT. A claim by a Contractor to be awarded EOT is
 4
commonly described as a “Delay Claim”. This is to be distinguished from a
claim for “Disruption”, which is a pure monetary claim which seeks to recover the
extra cost incurred by the Contractor as a result of inefficiencies to individual
construction activities caused by event for which the Employer is liable, but
which do not, in fact, delay completion of the works.
 5
4. Criteria for the Award of EOT.

4.1. In assessing a claim by a Contractor to be awarded EOT, the Architect, or

Employer’s Representative, will typically look for proof by the Contractor of the
following matters:-

(i) That an event has occurred which has prevented the Contractor from
completing the works within the contract period, i.e. an Employer liable
event. The event may include acts which are wholly legitimate, such as,
for example, the fact that the Employer has required, and the Architect has
subsequently instructed, a variation to the works. Alternatively, the
Employer may have failed to deliver vacant possession of the entire of the
site e.g. because of a failure of a tenant to leave the site in time.
Alternatively, the Contract may afford the Contractor an entitlement to
seek EOT and additional remuneration if, for example, he encounters
ground conditions different to those anticipated at the time of the Contract.
The list of circumstances which may comprise Employer liable events is,
in truth, endless.

(ii) The Architect/Employer’s Representative must thereafter be satisfied that

the event in question, has had the result that the works will not have been
capable of being completed within the contract period, such that an EOT,
of a defined length is required to restore the status quo ante.

4.2. With regard to the proving of (ii) above, not every act of prevention by an
Employer will have the effect of preventing the works from being completed
within the contract period. For example, the Employer act of prevention may
have had the effect of impeding some element of the works which, though
delayed, can quite happily proceed in parallel with the remainder of the works,
and will not, in fact, impede the completion of those works. Delay to such an
element of the works will not entitle a Contractor to be awarded EOT, though it
may justify a claim for Disruption.

4.3. On the other hand, there will be some elements of the works which, if delayed,
will inevitably have a “knock on” effect on the remainder of the works. For
example, unexpected ground conditions may prevent the completion of the
foundation excavations and, thus, the completion of the foundations. Where the
foundations have been delayed, it will inevitably follow that the remainder of the
substantial construction elements, such as the construction of floors, rising walls,
the roof, etc will also be delayed.

4.4. In this regard, the phraseology used in the construction sector to identify an event
which, if delayed, will have a “knock on” effect on the completion of the
remainder of the works, is known as an event said to be on the “critical path”.
The “critical path” is what is sometimes described as a pathway through the
programme for the works that identifies the longest period for the completion of
critical items which, if delayed, will have an effect on the capacity of the works to
be completed by the date for completion.
 6

4.5. It is only if an Employer act of prevention can be shown to have delayed the
completion of an element of the works that can be shown to be on the “critical
path” that will, therefore, entitle a Contractor to receive an award of EOT.

5. Establishing the Critical Path

5.1. It can immediately be seen that, in order to establish an entitlement to EOT, a

Contractor must first prove to the satisfaction of the Architect or the Employer’s
Representative where the “critical path” of the project lay at the point in time at
which the Employer act of prevention occurred, and that such event caused delay
to the completion of that activity. This can often prove quite difficult in practice.

5.2. The starting point for the Contractor will be to establish, to the satisfaction of the
Architect/Employer’s Representative, where the critical path lay at the
commencement of the project. The Contractor, in this regard, has a very
important advantage. As Contractor, he normally has complete control over how
and when he will perform the works. While, in many cases, the logical
construction methodology to be adopted may be largely the same no matter who
is awarded the contract, each individual Contractor will normally have his own
preferences and construction sequences which will suit his convenience, the plant
available to him, the availability of sub-contractors etc. But it will normally be
essential for the Contractor to prepare, initially for his own use (though most
contracts also provide that same must be provided to the Architect/Employer’s
Representative, at a minimum for their information, but in some cases also for
their approval) his own Construction Programme. Sometimes the Contractor will
be required to present his draft Construction Programme with his Tender. In
some cases the construction methodology and sequencing may be prescribed by
the Employer (who may, for example, stipulate periods of time when the works
will require to be temporarily suspended for one reason or other).

5.3. The Contractor’s Programme will normally be presented in a bar chart format,
often using widely available computer software, which will identify the sequence
in which the works are intended to be carried out, and over what period. The
Contractor will normally stipulate the periods of time required for each element of
the works e.g. X week for site clearance, Y weeks for earthworks and foundation
excavations, Z weeks for the construction of foundations etc. Each element of
the works will be expected to have a commencement and completion date
identified in the Programe.

5.4. Contractors’ Programmes can range from a very simple hand sketched
programme, involving less than 20 activities, to an extremely detailed
computerised programme involving hundreds of individual activities.

5.5. Often, the Contractor’s Programme may involve each element of the works being
sub-divided. For example, the construction of foundations may involve the
installation of blinding, the construction of formwork, the installation of the
reinforcing steel work, first pour of concrete, cube testing of concrete, second
 7
pour of concrete, more cube testing of concrete, and dismantling of formwork.
Each individual component will normally be allotted a specified construction
period, usually measured in days.

5.6. However the Contractor presents his programme, it will usually be possible to
discern therefrom a critical path by reference to which the impact of any future
delay events can be assessed.

5.7 But there can often be controversy concerning a Contractor’s Programme. For
example, a Contractor may present a particularly aggressive programme,
suggesting a very tight timetable for the carrying out of different elements
(normally the initial elements) of the works. Such a programme may enable the
Contractor to contend an entitlement to EOT at a very early stage, and upon the
happening of even the slightest act of employer prevention. It is for this reason
that Architects/Engineers Representatives are often wary of giving approval to the
Contractor’s initial programme.

6. The “Baseline Programme”

6.1. The Contractor’s initial programme is sometimes referred to as his “baseline

programme”, because it is the programme by reference to which delay events
must be thereafter assessed.

6.2. As stated above, there can often be dispute as to the adequacy of the Contractor’s
Baseline programme. An Architect/Employer’s Representative, called upon to
approve a Contractor’s baseline programme, will often be very sceptical. Even if
he may think it largely in order, he may, for tactical reasons, decline to issue a
formal approval for same, and may often seek to interrogate the adequacy of the
programme by various queries. In many cases, as the contract works progress,
the day-to-day exigencies of site operations can often see the requirement for
formal approval by the Architect/Employer’s Representative of the Contractor’s
Baseline Programme consigned to the “back seat”.

6.3. However, in the event of an application for EOT, it will be essential for the
Architect/Employer’s Representative (or any subsequent Arbitrator) to be
satisfied that the Contractor’s Baseline Programme was, in fact, achievable.

6.4. Proving that the Contractor’s Baseline Programme was, in fact, achievable can
often involve quite a detailed review both of what would be required to complete
each individual work element, and of the Contractor’s resources. For example, a
Contractor who has priced to bring on site only one excavator (whose outputs can
be capable of establishment through operator’s handbooks etc) may have
difficulty in proving that the time allowed for the carrying out and completion of
excavations could, in fact, have been achieved with the use of the single excavator
priced for in his tender, and which he subsequently brings on site. Thus,
verification of a Contractor’s Baseline Programme can often be a complicated
exercise involving the careful measurement, or estimation, of quantities in relation
to the work elements concerned, assessed by reference to the Contractor’s
 8
planned, and actual, capacity and work output potential, to be assessed by
reference to the plant and labour resources intended to be, and actually, brought
on site.

6.5. In practice, if matters reach Arbitration stage, it will usually be left to specialist
delay experts, sometimes supported by construction methodology experts, to
express opinions as to whether or not the Contractor’s Baseline Programme was
reasonable and achievable.

6.6. As can be readily imagined, it often happens, in complex construction

arbitrations, that much time and effort can be spent seeking to achieve agreement
between the parties’ Delay Experts on an appropriate Baseline Programme.

6.7 It often happens, in practice, that the Architect/Employer’s Representative, or the

parties’ Delay Experts, may identify inconsistencies and inadequacies in the
Contractor’s Baseline Programme, as presented during the construction phase.
For example, the Contractor may have failed to identify an important work
element in the Programme which should have been properly and separately
programmed, and which would affect his capacity to achieve completion within
his planned construction period.

6.8 Further, it can sometimes happen that what are known as “logic links” may not
have been properly identified by a Contractor. These may be “links” such as:-

“ Start to start”:- The identification of some construction activity which

must necessarily be first commenced before it will be possible for a
second construction activity also to commence;
“Finish to start”:- The identification of some construction activity which
must be first completed before it would be possible for the Contractor to
commence the next construction activity.

6.9 It therefore often happens that, during the advancement of a delay claim, the
parties’ Delay Experts may require to correct (by agreement, or, if not agreed,
through decision by the Arbitrator) the Contractor’s Baseline Programme by, for
example (i) inserting additional activities which the Contractor failed to include,
(ii) extending work activity durations, where it can be demonstrated that the
Contractor has failed to adequately plan for the correct activity duration of the
work element concerned, (iii) inserting logic links, where necessary, (iv)
including adjustment for industry holiday periods, or Employer-stipulated break
periods, or (v) for such other reason as may be appropriate.

6.10 Only when an agreed, or properly adjusted, Baseline Programme has been
properly identified will it be thereafter possible to identify the original appropriate
“critical path” for the project as about to be undertaken by the Contractor.

7. Impacting the Critical Path

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7.1 Thereafter, it will be necessary for the Contractor to demonstrate the
occurrence of an event, for which the Employer is liable, which can be shown to
have “impacted” the “critical path”, i.e. had the effect of lengthening the duration
of a work activity that can be shown to have been on the “critical path”. This
can entail a number of elements.

7.2. Firstly, it will be necessary to demonstrate that the event in question was one
which, in truth, was one for which the Employer bore a responsibility. This can
often be a matter of controversy. For example, a Contractor who, on reviewing
the contract documents, believes he needs additional information to complete a
work activity may seek additional instructions from the Architect. The
Architect/ER may disagree that the Contractor requires the additional information
sought, contending that such additional information is of a type that ought
reasonably to have been expected to lie within the knowledge and understanding
of a competent Contractor. In order to avoid dispute, he may, nevertheless, agree
to provide the additional information sought, without prejudice to his position that
the Contractor did not need that information. The works are delayed while the
additional information is provided. The Architect may thereafter decline an EOT
to take account of the delays caused by the requirement for the Contractor to wait
for the additional information sought. In any subsequent Arbitration, the
Arbitrator may be required to decide upon whether or not the Contractor was
entitled, under the Contract, to the additional information sought.

7.3. Even if the event concerned can be shown to have been an event for which the
Employer was liable, there may be issues as to whether the requirement to provide
that additional information in truth delayed the works. For example, the works
may already have been in delay by reason of another matter for which the
Contractor is liable. This can sometimes give rise to the thorny issue of
“concurrent delay”, addressed below.

7.4. Often the most critical issue for the Contractor to prove is the extent of any delay
caused by the Employer liable event. In this regard, it is usual for the Contractor
to be required to prove, or establish, the extent of the entitlement to EOT required.
This is often assessed in great detail down either to a day, or a half day, or
possibly even a quarter day (though usually a day, or a half day are the smallest
integers involved). Throughout, the Contractor must be able to demonstrate that,
both prior to, and subsequent to the end of the period of delay, he has diligently
sought to advance the works,5 with the result that the ensuing delay can be shown
to have been solely caused by the Employer liable delay event.

8. Concurrent Delays

8.1 It often happens that delay to the completion of the various works elements can be
shown to have been due to a number of different matters, for some for which the
Employer is liable, and for some for which the Contractor is liable. Where the

5
Though he has no obligation to use extra resources or effort to mitigate the effects of the
Employer’s Delay.
 10
Contractor’s capacity to complete the works within the Contract Period has
been impaired by reason of some event for which he is deemed to be liable (for
example, due to the effects of weather for which, under the Contract, he is liable,
or by reason of the fact that some element of the works has had to be dismantled
and re-done, or by reason of the failure on the part of one of his Sub-Contractors,
or for a multitude of other reasons), then the Contractor has no entitlement to
EOT. Instead, he will be at risk of suffering LADs.

8.1 However, during such periods, it can sometimes happen that, separately, an
Employer-related event has also occurred such as, for example, the issue of a
variation. In this regard, the Architect may have, for example, directed the
suspension of further work on a certain part of the project, on the critical path,
while that element of the works is redesigned to incorporate the new requirements
of the Employer. Alternatively, there may be a delay in the provision of
information which the Contractor is contractually entitled to receive under the
Contract.

8.2 Where, accordingly, an element of the works has been delayed by two or more
reasons, for some of which the Employer is liable, and for some of which the
Contractor is liable, the resultant delays are said to be “concurrent”.

8.3 There can often be a debate as to whether or not a given delay is said to be truly
“concurrent”. There is a school of thought that says that, for delays to be truly
“concurrent”, they must relate to the same work elements, and concern the same
precise periods of time. True concurrency, in this sense, can often be therefore
difficult to demonstrate.

8.4. However, for practical reasons, most analysts, and judges, in most countries,
appear to accept that, where it can be demonstrated that the works were, or would
have been, inevitably delayed by reason of some event for which the Employer is
liable, and also by reason of some event for which the Contractor is liable, that the
Contractor is thereupon entitled to a fair and reasonable EOT to take account of
the delay for which the Employer was liable. Thus the existence of a truly
concurrent Delay Event, for which the Contractor is also liable, will rarely result
in the Contractor’s EOT claim being defeated.6

8.5 However, since the basis of recovery of additional cost will require the Contractor
to demonstrate that, but for the Employer breach, he would not have suffered the
loss, or cost, concerned, it is usually the case that, in cases of concurrent delay,
the Contractor will be unable to demonstrate that, but for the Employer’s breach,
he would not have suffered the floss concerned, since, had the Employer not been
in breach, he would otherwise have been required to incur the additional cost
since same would inevitably have resulted from his own breach. Accordingly, the
rule normally followed in most construction cases will be that an event of
concurrent delay will normally entitle the Contractor to EOT and consequent
6
See here the Judgment of Akenhead J in Walter Lilly & Co Ltd v Mackay & Anor. [2012] EWHC
1772 (TCC), 11 July 2012, at Para 366 et seq, distinguishing English law on this issue from
Scottish law, which applies an apportionment in the case of concurrency.
 11
relief from LADs, but will not entitle him to advance a claim for the
recovery of extended preliminaries or other site infrastructure cost.7

9. Accommodating the Contractor’s Own Events of Delay/Inefficiencies

9.1 From the foregoing it can thus be seen that, in the assessment of any delay claim
by a Contractor, it will be necessary also to take account of any separate events of
delay for which the Contractor was individually (and not concurrently) liable.
Such events, if they can be shown to have affected the critical path, must also be
taken into account by the Architect/Employer, or Arbitrator. For example, a
Contractor seeking an EOT of e.g. 12 weeks, may find himself faced with a
defence by the Employer to the effect that a significant part of that delay was, in
truth, caused by events for which the Contractor was himself responsible.

9.2 One practical problem which can sometimes arise concerns circumstances where,
during a period of Employer Delay, the Architect/Employer’s Representative
notes that, for no apparent reason, the Contractor’s operations, on other sectors of
the work, appear to “go slow”. This sometimes gives rise to an issue as to
whether or not the Contractor has been “pacing”, i.e. slowing down progress on
those other elements of the works, in order to absorb, and keep busy, labour
resources which might otherwise be idle by reason of delay caused by the
Employer breach; or whether, on the other hand, the Contractor has simply,
despite his best efforts, been unable to achieve the progress planned. It can
sometimes be difficult for an Arbitrator to decide whether or not a Contractor,
who appears to have been making slow progress on other elements of the works
during a period of Employer Delay, has been guilty of simple inefficiency, or has
been, on the other hand (as he will no doubt claim) “pacing”.

9.3 Another issue that can cause significant difficulty concerns the position where the
Contractor’s Baseline Programme may demonstrate some periods of hiatus
between where one activity may be shown to be planned to conclude, and the next
(successor) activity shown as intended to start. Such periods are sometimes
referred to as “float”. Where a Contractor’s Programme has “float”, same can be
sometimes used by the Contractor to absorb his own inefficiencies. But what
happens if, due to the Contractor’s own efficiency, his progress is sufficient not to
require him to absorb, or use, any part of his “float”, but an Employer Delay
Event intervenes which, though causing elongation and delay to the construction
activity entitled to the benefit of the float, has not caused the duration of that
activity to extend beyond the expiry of the period of “float”? Sometimes, in such
circumstances, the Employer will argue that, since he has “got to the float” first,
his acts of prevention have caused, in fact, no delay to the overall completion of
the project. On the other hand, the Contractor will be likely to contend that he is
the owner of the “float”, such that, if used up to absorb the effects of the
Employer’s delay, he may find himself unable to avail of the “float” in the event
that the works are subsequently delayed for some event for which he is himself

7
See De Beers v MTDS Origin IT Services UK (2011) BCR 274, Para 177, approved in Walter Lilly
at Para 368
 12
liable. While there can be different schools of thought about this, it is
submitted that, in general, the Contractor, whose absolute right it is to plan the
progress of the works to suit his own convenience, is entitled to ownership of the
“float”, such that the existence of “float” should not deprive him of an entitlement
to EOT if otherwise deserved. It should be noted, however, that some contracts
make express provision for ownership of the float, and, indeed, permit the float to
be availed of by the party who first causes delay to the progress of the works.

9.4 It can thus be seen that the resolution of a delay claim will require the Arbitrator
to consider carefully the evidence adduced by both sides for the purposes of
assessing whether or not the delay in the completion of the works was, in truth,
caused by events for which the Contractor was liable, or whether the delay to
completion was caused by events for which the Employer was liable, and can
require careful assessment of such issues as concurrent delay, pacing, and the
existence of float.

9.5 Finally, (and inevitably), it often happens that, in practice, Contractors will often
seek to “play up” periods of delay for which the Employer can be shown to be
liable, and “play down” periods of delay for which the Contractor himself was
liable, and vice versa.

10. Presenting the Delay Claim – The Delay Analyst

10.1 Having regard to the complexity of the issues involved, it is normal for parties in
a construction arbitration to engage Specialist Delay Analysts to assist them in the
preparation of their delay claims.

10.2 The practice of delay analysis has been sometimes described as a “black art”, or a
process of “smoke and mirrors”. Often it can be a matter of careful judgment as
to the assessment by the delay experts of various events on various elements of
the works. It is not unusual to see a delay analysis presented by a Contractor
which, fortuitously, just manages to show that the period of delay caused by the
various events for which the Employer is responsible exceeds, in almost every
case, the delay effects of those for which the Contractor was responsible, thus
perhaps ascribing the totality of the overall period of delay to the Employer.
Conversely the Employer’s Expert may seek to do likewise, blaming all delays on
the Contractor.

10.3 The basic “tools of the trade” of the Delay Analyst will comprise an electronically
adjustable sophisticated computerised programme model, such as provided by
Primavera, or Microsoft Project. Some Delay Analysts have gone so far as to
develop their own sophisticated software by reference to which delay events can
be analysed, often involving sub-programmes known as “fragnets” which can
then be adjusted and subsequently inserted into the overall computerised model.

10.4 The basic task to be undertaken by Delay Experts will involve identification,
firstly, of an appropriate (and if possible agreed) Baseline Programme.
Thereafter, it will be necessary for the Delay Analysts to identify, and agree, if
 13
possible, what is called the “As- Built” programme. This is a programme,
based on the Baseline Programme, which identifies each of the work elements in
question and identifies the dates when, as a matter of fact, the work element in
question actually commenced, and were actually completed, on site.

10.5 Identification of the “As Built” programme can also be a matter of significant
debate in a delay claim. There can often be dispute as to the date upon which a
particular work element can be shown to have completed. It often happens that
the completion dates of the different work elements will not have been formally
recorded on site (though the date of completion of some of the larger elements
may be identified in site minute meetings etc). Often it will be necessary to have
recourse to dated site photographs, or the oral evidence of witnesses, for the
purposes of establishing when individual elements of the works were completed.

10.6 Only when the As-Built Programme has been identified, will it be possible to
compare both the “As-Planned” and “As-Built” durations of the various work
elements concerned, and therefrom identify where delay to the completion of the
project actually occurred.

10.7 Thereafter, it will be necessary for the Delay Analysts to identify (through, for
example, the Contractor’s pleaded case, or the evidence and recollection of the
Architect/Employer’s Representative), the various events that caused or
contributed to the delay to completion of each of the work elements concerned.

10.8 Having identified the various events of delay, the Delay Analysts will thereafter
required to identify (or if in dispute, the Arbitrator will require to so find), the
periods of delay caused or contributed to the overall delay to completion caused
by each individual event of delay.

10.9 It is usual for the work of the Delay experts to “narrow the gap” between the
parties, thus leaving the matters remaining in contention being as follows:-

- Whether the delay events identified comprise the entirety of the delay
events responsible for delaying completion (the Employer, for example,
may contend for the existence of additional Contractor-related delay
events);

- Where legal liability for the consequences of the delay event lies, i.e. with
the Employer or with the Contractor (a matter for the ultimate
determination of the Arbitrator, if not agreed);

- The proper length of the period of delay to be attributed to the delay event
concerned. (The Contractor may argue for a longer delay effect, the
Employer for a shorter).

10.10 Once the foregoing analysis has been completed (or, if in dispute, so found by the
Arbitrator), it will usually be a simple matter of adding up the number of days of
delay found to be due to events for which the Employer is liable, and the total
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arising will constitute the due entitlement of the Contractor to receive
EOT in respect of the time concerned.

11 Methodology of Analysis

11.1 It can be immediately seen from the foregoing exercise that the capacity of the
Contractor to prove an entitlement to EOT, and to have same supported by his
Delay Analyst, will be dependent, to a large extent, on the capacity to which he
can prove the relevant facts.

12.2 In this regard, facts will be best proven through the availability of site records, e-
mails, documents, site minute meetings, site photographs, site diary extracts,
supported by the oral evidence and testimony of the Contractor’s witnesses, Site
Foreman, Sub-Contractors etc. For the Employer, the contrary evidence will
normally be expected to come from his Architect, Site Clerk, or Employer’s
Representative, or the Resident Engineers on site responsible for monitoring the
progress of the works, and who will also have records. The records kept may
include, for example, progress statements or payment applications from the
Contractor (which may assert a degree of progress or percentage completions of
the different elements of the works as at the date of the payment application),
which can also be used to assess progress.

11.3 If the Contractor’s records are very good, it will, in many cases, be possible to
prove, in detail how the works were progressing up to the date of occurrence of
the event of Employer breach sought to be relied upon as a basis for a claim to
EOT.

11.4 Where the quality of the contract records is sufficiently complete, the Delay
Analysts may have recourse to what is known as a “Time Impact Analysis”. This
is a form of analysis which takes the Baseline Programme, and identifies each
succeeding event of delay. Thereafter the Baseline Programme is adjusted to
show the appropriate degree of completion of the works immediately prior to the
occurrence of the delay event concerned, and then proceeds to “impact” the
Baseline Programme with the anticipated delaying effects of the event concerned.
The adjusted programme will thus provide a “snapshot” of the Contractor’s
entitlement to EOT as assessed at the date of occurrence of the delay event.
Thereafter, the Delay Analyst will proceed to the next event of delay, updating
progress up to that date, then adding in the next delay event to the Programme,
and then impacting the effects of the next delaying event. Sometimes the
impacting of the second delay event will exacerbate the delaying effects of the
first delay event; sometimes it will have a separate and new effect. This analysis
will result in a new adjusted programme.

11.5 The delay analysis will continue, in this manner, until it has taken account of
every delay event on the project.
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11.6 An analysis done in the foregoing detail is called a “Time Impact Analysis”
(“TIA”). In complex cases, it may require the Delay Analyst to analyse and
impact the effects of hundreds of separate events of delay. In consequence, the
costs of the preparation of a detailed TIA can cost hundreds of thousands of Euro.

11.7 It can immediately be seen that a detailed delay claim can be both extremely
complex and costly to mount, and be capable of taking a very long period of time
to conclude.

11.8 In complex construction disputes, such as relating to the construction of a

motorway where the construction cost may exceed €100M, and an Employer’s
LADs claim may run into millions, it can be nevertheless seen that a proper delay
analysis will be an unavoidable expense, and will be essential to both defeat the
Employer’s claims to LADs, and to establish any consequent entitlement of the
Contractor to extended preliminaries.

11.9 Where it is not possible to do a TIA, because, for example, the contract records
are not sufficiently adequate, it may still be possible for the Delay Analyst to
present a compelling analysis, or report, using a different, or modified, sequence
of reporting, such as using analysis by “windows” (assessing the contract by
taking specific periods of time and assessing how progress was delayed up to
those times), or possibly by identifying delays to different segments of the works.
A consideration of the many different forms of delay analysis which may be
possible, dependent upon the quality of the contract records, would go beyond the
introductory ambit of this paper. However, there are many different forms of
delay analysis, short of reaching the standard of a TIA, which can suffice to
establish entitlement to EOT.

12. The Essential Elements Involved in Establishing a Claim to EOT

12.1 As can be seen from the foregoing, the essential elements normally required to be
established by a Contractor to support a claim for EOT will be as follows:-

(i) Identification of a series of Employer liable events of delay;

(ii) Proper proof that such events impacted, and delayed the completion of,
construction activities that can be demonstrated to have been on the
critical path;

(iii) Proof as to the length of delay (and thus the quantum of the entitlement to
EOT) caused by each delay event;

(iv) Proof that the delay effects were not caused (at least not caused beyond a
concurrent delay effect) by events for which the Contractor was
responsible;
 16
(v) All of the foregoing to be supported by contemporary documents,
Witness Statements, and supported by a competently prepared Delay
Analysis prepared to an appropriately qualified Delay Expert.

12.2 When the Contractor has established (or been awarded by the Arbitrator)
appropriate settlement to EOT, it will thereafter be necessary for the quantum of
the Contractor’s entitlements by way of extended preliminaries, to be duly
assessed. This exercise is normally undertaken in a separate hearing module,
before the Arbitrator, and will involve the Contractor giving evidence as to the
rates tendered for his preliminaries, the appropriateness of those rates, with the
Contractor’s claim duly vouched, tested, and verified through the support of a
Quantum Expert.

12.3. The proper presentation of an EOT claim, at Arbitration, will involve the usual
sequence that practitioners will be familiar with including:-

- The proper pleading (supported by appropriate particulars) of the

Contractor’s claims for EOT,

- Prior engagement, under the direction of the Arbitrator, of the Delay

Experts, for the purposes of endeavouring to identify an agreed (i)
Baseline Programme and (ii) As-Built Programme, with, where
appropriate, any differences in opinion appropriately identified, for
resolution in the Arbitral Hearing;

- Subsequent engagement between the Delay Experts comparing their

respective Delay Analysis, again, endeavouring to agree as much as
possible;

- Preparation by the Delay Experts of appropriate Scott Schedules;

- Directions by the Arbitrator with regard to oral hearings concerning all

remaining matters in dispute;

- Exchange of Witness Statements in the usual way;

- Exchange of the final Reports of the Delay Experts;

- An oral hearing before the Arbitrator, followed by his ruling on the

entitlement to EOT.

- Followed, where appropriate, by a quantum hearing in relation to the

Contractor’s entitlement to recover extended preliminaries or, as
appropriate, to determine the Employer’s entitlements as to LADs.

13. Smaller Cases

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13.1 In large contracts, both the Contractor and the Employer will retain
extensive site staff and supervisory resources. The contract documents may
impose detailed obligations on the Contractor with regard to the degree of record
keeping to be undertaken, including detailing the type of computerised
programme model to be maintained by the Contractor, and updated as to progress,
wherefrom any delay claims can be properly assessed. The supervisory staff
concerned, on both sides, will be expected to keep detailed records of progress,
any events likely to involve delay, and to promptly address such issues through
correspondence, e-mails etc. All this material will greatly facilitate the
prosecution, and defence, of a delay claim by the Contractor at a later stage.

13.2. In smaller contracts, the same degree of record-keeping is not usually undertaken,
nor required. In, for example, the building of a one-off house, or a small
commercial unit, it may be that the Contractor will have prepared only a basic
hand-drawn sketch as to his intended Construction Programme. Requests for
additional information may be made by telephone, and not properly recorded.
Site meeting minutes may be very succinct and not properly record progress, or
events of delay. The Contractor may allow himself to be directed by the
Employer who, for example, may attend on site and suggest that a window shown
on the drawing to be placed here, is preferred by him (or her) to be placed there.
The Contractor, anxious to please his Employer may accommodate the request
and only subsequently consult with the Architect. There may be a degree of
informality inconsistent with the formal contract documents executed by the
parties (assuming a formal contract document was, in fact, so executed). How
are delay claims in such circumstances to be assessed?

13.3 The standard building contracts normally require the Architect to allow the
Contractor a “fair and reasonable” EOT where same is found to be deserving.
The Architect is given a broad discretion in this regard, again to be exercised
independently, and in a quasi-judicial manner, and the Arbitrator, if the parties
dispute the Architect’s certification as to EOT, may do likewise.

13.4 In such circumstances, it will still remain the case that the Contractor must prove,
to the satisfaction of the Arbitrator, that the event of Employer Delay described
has, on the balance of probabilities, caused delay to the completion of the works.

13.5 In such cases, even the Contractor’s basic hand-drawn sketch can be easily turned
into a basic computerised electronically adjustable model by a competent Contract
Claims Consultant, or Delay Expert. However, the list of activities may be small,
say 2 dozen or so. The events of delay may, again, be relatively few, (say, again
less than a dozen), and the impacting process is much less time-consuming than
would be the case in a complex delay claim. Again, the engagement of a Delay
Analyst, even in a relatively small claim, may be desirable. In each case it is a
question of balancing, on the one hand, the cost to be incurred in commissioning a
proper delay analysis on the one hand, with the overall cost and benefit to the
Contractor (or Employer) of establishing, or defeating, the delay claim, on the
other hand.
 18
13.6 Finally, in very small cases, the Architect, with his experience, (and an
Arbitrator, in a dispute) will be able to assess the evidence and, using a “broad
brush” approach, still assess an appropriate degree of EOT, always bearing in
mind, again, the necessity for the Contractor to show, in every case, that the
Employer Delay Event did, on the balance of probabilities, delay the overall
completion of the works.

14. Concluding Remarks

14.1 It is hoped that the foregoing general introduction to the presentation of an EOT
claim will be of assistance to practitioners. However, it is essential to remember
that, in each case, the starting point is to consider, carefully, the provisions of the
contract in question. In Ireland, at present, construction disputes tend to involve
a consideration of the RIAI Standard Conditions of Contract, or, alternatively, the
various FIDIC forms of Contract (often heavily amended by Public Authorities),
or, as is becoming more and more prevalent, the GCC Conditions of Contract,
which govern the majority of Public Works Contracts placed since 2007 in the
State.

14.2 Each form of Contract has its own highly specific provisions concerning the
processing of delay claims. In some cases, the Conditions of Contract impose
strict obligations with regard to the prior agreement as to the Contractor’s
Baseline Programme, the periodic updating thereof for progress during the
currency of the Contract, the maintenance of records, and, in particular, the
requirement, as a condition precedent, to provide Notice of an Intention to Claim
EOT.

14.3. Likewise, issues pertaining to delay have generated considerable controversy in

the case law which will require to be monitored carefully from time to time, and
organisations such as the Society of Construction Law, have produced useful
publications explaining and detailing best practice with regards to the presentation
of delay claims.8

14.4 Further, it is to be remembered that, during the construction period, EOT granted
by an Architect/ER can generally not be reclaimed; hence any EOT granted
during the construction period is likely to be very conservative, and probably
inadequate. Furthermore, the tension which often results on a construction site,
for one reason or another, can see EOT claims mounted either excessively
vigorously, or aggressively, or, alternatively, where valid and appropriate EOT
claims are lodged, unfairly rejected for one reason (often tactical) or another.

14.5 Accordingly, delay claims can sometimes be the most complex and difficult
construction disputes to bring to resolution.9 The resolution may entail
considerable cost and delay. The presentation and defence often requires very
close liaison between the construction personnel concerned, the Delay Analysts,
8
See, for example the SCL “Delay and Disruption Protocol” (2002)
9
For the most detailed textbook consideration of delay claims, see “Delay and Disruption in
Construction Contracts”, Pickavance, 4th Ed. (2010).
 19
Contract Claims Consultants, and the legal teams concerned. Contractors
and Employers, particularly in large contracts, are usually very familiar with the
relevant principles concerned, and are very astute as to the tactical issues arising.
The groupings on both sides tends to constitute closely knit “teams” and it is
necessary for the legal advisers concerned, and, as appropriate, Counsel, to
appreciate that, in discharging their roles in formulating and presenting delay
claims, they will be expected to be very much part of the “team”, and will benefit,
in particular, from the expertise and familiarity with such issues which will
normally be possessed by competent delay experts, and by the other members of
the team.

John Trainor S.C.