PILOT'S HANDBOOK of Aeronautical Knowledge 2003
PILOT'S HANDBOOK of Aeronautical Knowledge 2003
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PILOT’S HANDBOOK of Aeronautical Knowledge
2003
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATIONFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATIONFlight Standards Service
PREFACE
The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces pilots
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to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot training. Except for the Code of Federal
Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certification are presented. This handbook is
useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates.
Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not
intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).
It is essential for persons using this handbook to also become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at http://www.faa.gov/atpubs.
The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledge codes for all airman
certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://avinfo.faa.gov.
This handbook supersedes Advisory Circular (AC) 6123C, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 1997.
This publication may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC
204029325, or from http://bookstore.gpo.gov. This handbook is also available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site
at http://avinfo.faa.gov.
This handbook is published by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards
Branch, AFS630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this handbook should be sent in email form to
[email protected].
AC 002, Advisory Circular Checklist, transmits the current status of FAA advisory circulars and other flight information and
publications. This checklist is available via the Internet at
http://www.faa.gov/aba/html_policies/ac00_2.html.
According to the current Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 1, Definitions and Abbreviations, an aircraft is a
device that is used, or intended to be used, for flight. Categories of aircraft for certification of airmen include airplane, rotorcraft,
lighterthanair, poweredlift, and glider. Part 1 also defines airplane as an enginedriven, fixedwing aircraft heavier than air that is
supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of air against its wings. This chapter
Aircraft—A device that is used for flight in the air.
Airplane—An enginedriven, fixedwing aircraft heavier than air that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of air against its
wings.
provides a brief introduction to the airplane and its major components.
MAJOR COMPONENTS
Although airplanes are designed for a variety of purposes, most of them have the same major components. The overall characteristics
are largely determined by the original design objectives. Most airplane structures include a fuselage, wings, an empennage, landing gear,
and a powerplant. [Figure 11]
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FUSELAGE
The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which contains seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane. In addition, the
fuselage may also provide room for cargo and attachment points for the other major airplane components. Some aircraft utilize an
open truss structure. The trusstype fuselage is constructed of steel or aluminum tubing. Strength and rigidity is achieved by welding the
tubing together into a series of triangular shapes, called trusses. [Figure 12]
Figure 12.The Warren truss.
Construction of the Warren truss features longerons, as well as diagonal and vertical web members. To reduce weight, small airplanes
generally utilize aluminum alloy tubing, which may be riveted or bolted into one piece with crossbracing members.
As technology progressed, aircraft designers began to enclose the truss members to streamline the airplane and improve performance.
This was originally accomplished with cloth fabric, which eventually gave way to lightweight metals such as aluminum. In some cases,
the outside skin can support all or a major portion of the flight loads. Most modern aircraft use a form of this stressed skin structure
known as monocoque or semimonocoque construction.
The monocoque design uses stressed skin to support almost all imposed loads. This structure can be very strong but cannot tolerate
dents or deformation of the surface. This characteristic is easily demonstrated by a thin aluminum beverage can. You can exert
considerable force to the ends of the can without causing any damage.
Truss—A fuselage design made up of supporting structural members that resist deformation by applied loads.
Monocoque—A shelllike fuselage design in which the stressed outer skin is used to support the majority of imposed stresses.
Monocoque fuselage design may include bulkheads but not stringers.
12
However, if the side of the can is dented only slightly, the can will collapse easily. The true monocoque construction mainly consists of
the skin, formers, and bulkheads. The formers and bulkheads provide shape for the fuselage. [Figure 13]
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Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, a significant problem involved
in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits. Due to the limitations of
the monocoque design, a semimonocoque structure is used on many of today’s aircraft.
The semimonocoque system uses a substructure to which the airplane’s skin is attached. The substructure, which consists of bulkheads
and/or formers of various sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage. The
main section of the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and a firewall. [Figure 14]
SemiMonocoque—A fuselage design that includes a substructure of bulkheads and/or formers, along with stringers, to support flight
loads and stresses imposed on the fuselage.
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On singleengine airplanes, the engine is usually attached to the front of the fuselage. There is a fireproof partition between the rear of
the engine and the cockpit or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers from accidental engine fires. This partition is called a firewall and
is usually made of heatresistant material such as stainless steel.
WINGS
The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are
numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various manufacturers. Each fulfills a certain need with respect to the expected
performance for the particular airplane. How the wing produces lift is explained in subsequent chapters.
Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage. These designs are referred to as high, mid, and lowwing,
respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two
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sets are called biplanes. [Figure 15]
Many highwing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the flight and landing loads
Airfoil—An airfoil is any surface, such as a wing, propeller, rudder, or even a trim tab, which provides aerodynamic force when it
interacts with a moving stream of air.
Monoplane—An airplane that has only one main lifting surface or wing, usually divided into two parts by the fuselage.
Biplane—An airplane that has two main airfoil surfaces or wings on each side of the fuselage, one placed above the other.
through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this
type of wing structure is called semicantilever. A few highwing and most lowwing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to
carry the loads without external struts.
Figure 15. Monoplane and biplane.
The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. [Figure 16] These are reinforced by
Fuel Tank
Spar
Spar
Ribs
Skin
Wing Flap
Aileron
Stringers
WingTip
Figure 16. Wing components.
trusses, Ibeams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). In
most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wing’s structure, or consist of flexible containers mounted inside
of the wing.
Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend
from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause
the airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The flaps are normally flush with the
wing’s surface during cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the wing
for takeoffs and landings.
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EMPENNAGE
The correct name for the tail section of an airplane is empennage. The empennage includes the entire tail group, consisting of fixed
surfaces such as the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator, and one or
more trim tabs. [Figure 17]
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Empennage—The section of the airplane that consists of the vertical stabilizer, the horizontal stabilizer, and the associated control
surfaces.
A second type of empennage design does not require an elevator. Instead, it incorporates a onepiece horizontal stabilizer that pivots
from a central hinge point. This type of design is called a stabilator, and is moved using the control wheel, just as you would the eleva
tor. For example, when you pull back on the control wheel, the stabilator pivots so the trailing edge moves up. This increases the
aerodynamic tail load and causes the nose of the airplane to move up. Stabilators have an antiservo tab extending across their trailing
edge. [Figure 18]
The antiservo tab moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator. The antiservo tab also functions as a trim tab to
relieve control pressures and helps maintain the stabilator in the desired position.
The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer. During flight, it is used to move the airplane’s nose left and right. The
rudder is used in combination with the ailerons for turns during flight. The elevator, which is attached to the back of the horizontal
stabilizer, is used to move the nose of the airplane up and down during flight.
Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface. These movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the
cockpit, reduce control pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator.
LANDING GEAR
The landing gear is the principle support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking off, or when landing. The most common type of
landing gear consists of wheels, but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water operations, or skis for landing on snow. [Figure
19]
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The landing gear consists of three wheels—two main wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front or rear of the airplane.
Landing gear employing a rearmounted wheel is called conventional landing gear. Airplanes with conventional landing gear are
sometimes referred to as tailwheel airplanes. When the third wheel is located on the nose, it is called a nosewheel, and the design is
referred to as a tricycle gear. A steerable nosewheel or tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlled throughout all operations while
on the ground.
THE POWERPLANT
The powerplant usually includes both the engine and the propeller. The primary function of the engine is to provide the power to turn
the propeller. It also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight instruments, and in most singleengine
airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and passengers. The engine is covered by a cowling, or in the case of some airplanes,
surrounded by a nacelle. The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around the engine and to help cool the
engine by ducting air around the cylinders. The propeller, mounted on the front of the engine, translates the rotating force of the engine
into a forwardacting force called thrust that helps move the airplane through the air. [Figure 110]
Nacelle—A streamlined enclosure on an aircraft in which an engine is mounted. On multiengine propellerdriven airplanes, the nacelle
is normally mounted on the leading edge of the wing.
American Flyers is happy to provide Chapter 1 from the Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge , an FAA Publication
Would you like to purchase a hard copy of the Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge? Click here for the American Flyers Pilot Shop.
Chapter 1 • Chapter 2 • Chapter 3 • Chapter 4 • Chapter 5 • Chapter 6 • Chapter 7 • Chapter 8 • Chapter 9 • Chapter 10
Chapter 11 • Chapter 12 • Chapter 13 • Chapter 14 • Chapter 15 • Chapter 16
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