1

QUANTIFIERS WITH COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Use quantifiers to describe the number or amount of countable and uncountable

nouns.
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable nouns can follow a or an in the singular. Adding s or es makes them
plural.
Uncountable nouns cannot follow a or an and cannot be made plural.

Examples: Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns

idea water
chair time*
message confidence
time* space
problem experience
change paper
people interest
* (time can be both countable and uncountable)
Quantifiers with Countable Nouns
Use these quantifiers to describe the number of a countable noun.
a couple of* = two
a few* = approximately 2-4
few* = almost none (not usually used in questions)
several* = more than a few (not usually used in questions)
many = a large number
* (can't be used in negative statements)
I only have a few dollars.
There are many cars in the parking lot.
Quantifiers with Uncountable Nouns
Use these quantifiers to describe the amount of an uncountable noun.
a little = a small amount (not used in negative statements)
Little = almost none (not used in questions or negative statements)
much = a large amount (used in questions and negative statements)
a great deal of = a large amount
How much money do you have?
He has a great deal of love for his dog.
Quantifiers with Countable or Uncountable Nouns
These quantifiers can be used with either countable or uncountable nouns.
even the smallest number or amount (used only in questions and
any =
negative statements)
enough = as many or as much as necessary
some = an indefinite number or amount (not used in negative statements)
a lot of = a large number or amount
Does he have any children?
I have a lot of emails to answer.

Full Explanation
Use these expressions to suggest a topic to be reviewed. They are all followed by a noun
phrase.
Use "at this point" and "at this stage" to summarize the present situation. Use "so far" to
summarize what has happened up to now. All of these expressions are followed by S + V.
Use "to sum up" to summarize information from a discussion or meeting. Use "to conclude" to
introduce a final comment. Both expressions are followed by S + V.

2
VERBS AND ADJECTIVES WITH THAT CLAUSES

Many sentences in English contain two clauses: a main clause and a that clause.
The that clause contains that + S + V. The word that is usually optional in these
sentences.
 I think (that) we should wait for his response.
Verbs with That Clauses
Verbs that show a person's thoughts or feelings can be followed by a that clause.
 think
 feel
 believe
 assume
 I believe (that) we have a lot of competition.
The Verb Be with That Clauses
The verb to be can also be followed by a that clause. In each of these sentences,
the subject is a problem, idea, or situation.
 Problem
 Issue
  Point
 Difficulty
 The difficulty is (that) our sales department is too small.
 The issue is (that) we don't have enough money.
Adjectives with That Clauses
Like verbs, adjectives that show a person's thoughts or feelings can be followed
by a that clause.

 Sure
 Glad
 Sorry
 Worried
 I am worried (that) Greg will be promoted.
 I'm glad (that) tomorrow is a holiday.
Adjectives That Describe a Situation
Adjectives that describe a situation can also be followed by a that clause. Note
that it is the subject of the sentence.
true
strange
obvious
too bad
It's too bad (that) she missed the meeting.
It's strange (that) he didn't call.

Full Explanation
You can use these expressions when you are either certain or uncertain about something.
Use these expressions when you are certain about something. Notice that "clearly" and
"obviously" are followed by a comma plus S + V.

You can also use these expressions when you are certain about something. They can be
followed by "that" + S + V. The word "that" is optional.
Use these expressions when you are uncertain about something. The word "not" makes them
negative. They can be followed by "that" + S + V, and the word "that" is optional.

EXPRESSING CERTAINTY AND UNCERTAINTY

Expressing Certainty
Use the following expressions when you are certain about something.
These expressions are followed by a comma plus S + V.
Clearly, + S + V
Obviously, + S + V
Clearly, he doesn't understand the problem.
These expressions can be followed by (that) + S + V. The word that is optional.
I'm sure (that) + S + V
I'm positive (that) + S + V
I'm certain (that) + S + V
I'm positive (that) he'll accept the offer.
Expressing Uncertainty
Use these expressions when you are uncertain about something. The word not
makes them negative. They can be followed by (that) + S + V. The word that is
optional.
I'm not sure (that) + S + V
I'm not positive (that) + S + V
I'm not certain (that) + S + V

3
REVIEW OF ARTICLES

Indefinite Articles: A, An, Some

Use a or an with indefinite nouns that are singular and countable. A noun is
indefinite when you or your listener is not thinking of a specific person or thing.
We need to hire a new salesperson.
A, An
Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds.
a dollar
a salary
an employee
an umbrella
a university*
an honest person*
*Note that the sound, not the spelling, determines which article you should use.
Some
Use some with indefinite nouns that are plural or uncountable.
Can you buy some vegetables, please?
I already bought some meat.
Definite Article: The
Use the with definite nouns. A noun is definite when you and your listener both
know which person or thing you are talking about. Also use the with unique nouns.
A noun is unique when there is only one.
Are you going to the party on Saturday?
The moon was beautiful last night.
Indefinite/Definite
Use an indefinite article--a, an, or some--the first time you mention something.
After that, the noun becomes definite and you should use the.
I went to a movie last night.
The movie starred my favorite actor.

Full Explanation
Use these expressions when you first enter a restaurant. The host or hostess may ask how
many people will be sitting at your table, or if you have made a reservation. Tell the person
how many people are in your group. If you have a reservation, give the name and time of the
reservation.
 We´d like a table for…
 We have a 6:00 reservation under the name
Use these expressions to ask for a particular menu. You can ask for a dinner or dessert menu.
Ask these questions to find out how the food is prepared and what side dishes it comes with.
 Could we see the ….. menu?
 How is it prepared?
Use these expressions to order your food and drinks and make special requests. For example,
you may ask to get the dish mild, medium rare, without the sauce, or with rice. When ordering
meat, it is typical to specify how much the meat should be cooked: rare, medium or well done.
 How is it prepared?
 What does it come with?
 I´d like the…
 Could I get it
Use these expressions at the end of the meal when you are ready to pay. If you aren't sure
whether the "gratuity" or tip is included in the bill, ask the waiter. This custom varies widely in
different countries.
 Could we have the check, please??
 Is the gratuity included?
 Is the tip included?
EATING IN A RESTAURANT

Entering a Restaurant
Use these expressions when you first enter a restaurant.
We'd like a table for two.
I have a 6 o'clock reservation under the name Lee.
Preparing to Order
Use these expressions to ask for a particular menu, find out how the food is
prepared, and hear about the side dishes something comes with.
Could we see the dinner menu?
How is the fish prepared?
What does the fish come with?
Ordering Food and Drinks
Use these expressions to order your food and drinks and make special requests.
When ordering meat, it is typical to specify how much the meat should be cooked:
rare, medium or well-done.
I'll have a glass of water.
I'd like the roast beef.
Could I get it with rice?
Could I get the roast beef rare?
Finishing the Meal
Use these expressions at the end of the meal when you are ready to pay.
Could we have the check, please?
Is the gratuity/tip included?

4
THE PRESENT PERFECT

The present perfect is used to talk about things that happened at unspecified
times in the past and makes a connection between the past and the present.
have/has + past participle
With regular verbs, the past participle form is the same as the simple past form;
they both end in -ed. But the past participles of some verbs are irregular.
She has visited France.
I have written a letter.
Short Form
With I, you, we, and they, the verb have is usually shortened to 've in spoken
English. With she, he, and it, the verb has is usually shortened to 's in spoken
English.
I've written a letter.
She's visited Japan.
Unspecified Time in the Past
Use the present perfect to show that something happened at an unspecified time
in the past.
Already can be used to emphasize that something happened before now.
Michael has finished his report.
Thomas has left already.
Unspecified Number of Times in the Past
Use the present perfect to show that something was repeated at two or more
unspecified times in the past.
Bob has seen that movie five times.
I've visited France many times.
With Since and For
Use the present perfect with since or for to show that something began in the past
and continues into the present.
Since + the specific time that an action began
For + the length of time of an action
Karl has worked here since January.
Marie has been here for five months.
Question Forms
Use the present perfect to ask if something happened at an unspecified time in
the past. Ever after the subject emphasizes that you are asking if something
happened at any time at all. Yet at the end of the sentence emphasizes that
something is expected to happen.
have/has + S + past participle
Have you studied Spanish?
Has he ever visited China?
Has she talked to her manager yet?
Negative Forms
The negative form shows that something didn't happen before now. Have not and
has not are often shortened to haven't and hasn't. Never after have/has
emphasizes that something has not happened. Yet at the end of the sentence
emphasizes that something has not happened but might still happen.
have/has + not/never + past participle
We haven't gone to that show.
I've never eaten at this restaurant.
Joe hasn't visited Germany yet.

INTRODUCING A NEW TOPIC

Beginning a Story
Use these expressions when you want to begin telling a story about something.
That reminds me of + noun phrase
Have I ever told you about + noun phrase?
That reminds me of my trip to London.
Have I ever told you about my trip to London?
Mentioning Something You've Heard or Read
Use these expressions when you want to mention something that you have heard
or read.
Someone told me (that) + S + V
I've heard (that) + S + V
Did you know (that) + S + V?
Someone told me that the tea in London is excellent.
I've heard the tea in London is excellent.
Did you know that the tea in London is excellent?
Commenting on the Most Recent Topic
The noun phrase refers to the most recent topic in a conversation. The clause (S
+ V) introduces new information. Note that speaking of + noun phrase can be
used to introduce the other expressions in this activity.
Speaking of + noun phrase, + S + V
Speaking of travel, I'm going to Japan next week.
Speaking of travel, did you know that airfares are really low this month?

5
PRESENT PERFECT VS. SIMPLE PAST

Unspecified or Specified Time in the Past

Use the present perfect to talk about something that happened at an unspecified
time in the past.
The company has produced a new TV spot.
Have you ever advertised on the radio?
Use the simple past to talk about something that happened at a specified time in
the past.
The company produced a new TV spot in May.
Did you advertise on the radio last fall?
Started in the Past and May Continue/ Began and Ended in the Past
The present perfect is used to talk about something that started in the past and
may continue into the future.
I've talked to Bill three times this week.
The simple past is used to express something that began and ended in the past.
I talked to Bill three times last week.
So far and Ago
Use so far with the present perfect to emphasize that the action is continuing.
Henry has called six clients so far.
Use ago with the simple past to indicate that the action began and ended in the
past.
Two days ago, Henry called six clients.
For
Use for with the present perfect if the action is continuing.
Brad has lived in Japan for seven years.
Use for with the simple past if the action ended in the past.
Brad lived in Japan for seven years.
Since
Use since with the present perfect to show that something began at a specified
time in the past and continues up to now.
Carl has worked at our office since he arrived in New York.
Already
Use already with the present perfect to emphasize that something happened
before now. It is used in statements and questions.
Doug has already met with the client.
Where's Ingrid? Has she already gone home?
Yet
Use yet with the present perfect to emphasize that something could still happen. It
is used in negative statements and questions.
I'm hungry. I haven't eaten lunch yet.
Have you seen the new advertisement yet?

Identifying Problems
Use these expressions to identify problems. They are followed by a noun phrase or
by (that) + S + V.
One problem is ...
An important problem is ...
Another problem is ...
One problem is that we don't have a CEO.
An important problem is increased competition from imports.
In addition to our import problem, another problem is our small sales staff.
Focusing on Strategies
Use these expressions to focus on strategies to solve problems. They are followed
by an infinitive (to + the base form of a verb) or of + gerund (verb-ing).
We need to figure out a way ...
We need to focus on a way ...
We need to figure out a way to beat our competition.
We need to focus on a way of improving sales.
Suggesting Solutions
Use these expressions during a discussion to suggest solutions to problems. They
are followed by an infinitive (to + the base form of a verb) or a gerund (verb-ing).
One option is ...
One possible solution is ...
One thing we could try is ...
One option is to develop some new products.
One possible solution is to fix the problem before we continue.
One thing we could try is hiring a consultant.

6
SO, TOO, NOT EITHER, NEITHER

Use these short responses to show that you feel the same way, have the same
opinion, or are in the same situation as another speaker.
Responding to Positive Statements with Too and So
You can use me too to respond to a positive statement. Or you can respond with
S + V + too. If the first speaker uses be or a modal, use a form of the same verb in
your response. If the first speaker uses the present perfect, use a form of have.
If the verb in the first speaker's statement is not be, a modal, or in the present
perfect, use the appropriate form of do in your response. Note that I am isn't
shortened to I'm.

A: I think it's nice. B: Me too.

A: I'm finished. B: I am too.

A: I can do it. B: I can too.

A: I've been there. B: I have too.

A: I wanted to go. B: I did too.

You can also use so to respond to a positive statement. The form is So + V + S.

Notice that with so, the verb comes before the subject.

A: I think it's nice. B: So do I.

A: I'll come early. B: So will I.

Responding to Negative Statements

You can use me neither to respond to a negative statement. Or you can give a
short response with S + V + not either.

A: I don't like it. B: I don't either.

A: I'm not sure. B: I'm not either.

A: I shouldn't go. B: I shouldn't either.

A: I haven't seen her. B: I haven't either.

You can also use neither in a short response to a negative statement. The form is
Neither + V + S. Notice that with neither, the verb comes before the subject.

A: I didn't talk to him. B: Neither did I.

A: I can't go. B: Neither can I.

Responses with Different Subjects

In addition to I, you can use different subjects with these short responses. Do this
to show that someone else feels the same way as another speaker.
A: I'm excited about it. B: John is too.

A: Ken doesn't like it. B: Neither does Brad.

AGREEING AND DISAGREEING

Agreement
Use these expressions to show that you agree with another speaker's statement
or opinion.
I agree.
You're right.
I think so too.
Use this expression to show strong agreement.
I completely agree.
Use these expressions to show that you agree with another speaker's statement
or opinion, but not completely. After the expression, add your point.
That's true, but maybe we should consider other options.
You're right, but ...
You have a point, but ...
Disagreement
Use these expressions to show disagreement with another speaker's statement or
opinion.
I disagree.
I don't agree.
I don't think so.
Use these expressions to show strong disagreement.
I completely disagree.
I don't agree at all.

7
CONNECTORS SHOWING TIME RELATIONSHIPS

Time connectors join two clauses together into a single sentence. A clause that
begins with one of these connectors is the time clause. It cannot stand alone as a
sentence. It always needs a second clause. This second clause is the main
clause.

After I finished my work, I left the office.

 (Time Clause) (Main Clause)

When the time connector comes at the beginning of the second clause, no comma
is necessary.
I left the office after I finished my work.
Before and After
Before shows that the event in the main clause happens earlier than the event in
the before clause. After shows that the event in the main clause happens later
than the event in the after clause. When you are talking about an event in the
future, use the present tense in the time clause and the future tense in the main
clause.
Before I went home, I finished my work.
Before I go home, I will complete the project.
After I finished my work, I went home.
After I finish my work, I will go home.
When
When shows that one action happens at the same time as, or immediately after,
another action. When can also show that an action is interrupted. Notice that you
can use when with many different tenses. When you are talking about an event in
the future, use the present tense instead of the future tense with when in the time
clause.
When I visited Paris, I saw many museums.
When I get home tonight, I'll call you.
When Joe arrived, I was talking on the phone.
While and As
While and as show that two actions happen during the same time or that one
action interrupts another action.
Notice that we often use the progressive tense with while and as to show that an
action is in progress when another action happens.
While/As I was cooking dinner, Erin was sleeping.
While/As I was taking a shower, the phone rang.
Until and Till
Until and till show that an action happens up to a certain time and then no longer.
The word till is usually used in spoken, not written, English.
I stayed at the office until/till midnight.
These words can also mean that an action doesn't happen up to a certain time.
We didn't finish the work until/till midnight.
Since
Since shows that an action happened or didn't happen from a time in the past to
the present. When a clause begins with since, use the present perfect in the main
clause.
I haven't seen Joe since he left New York.
 GIVING A PRESENTATION, PART I

Beginning the Presentation

Use these expressions to get the audience's attention and begin your
presentation.
Excuse me. May I have your attention, please? (formal)
Good morning/afternoon/evening, ladies and gentlemen. (formal)
Thank you all for coming. (formal or informal)
My name is _________. (formal or informal)
OK, everybody. Let's get started. (informal)
Outlining Your Main Points
Use Today, I'd like to present ... to introduce and outline your main points.
Today, I'd like to present ___, ___, and ___. (formal or informal)
Presenting Your Main Points
Begin the central part of the presentation with your first main point. The word first
tells the audience that you are beginning. Let's is often used to make the audience
feel included.
First, let's begin with ...
Use the words second, third, next, and now to guide the audience through the
presentation. The verb discuss and the phrasal verbs talk about, look at, and
move on to are commonly used in presentations.
Second, let's discuss ...
Third, let's talk about ...
Next, let's look at ...
Now, let's move on to ...
Finally, let's conclude with ...

8
CONNECTORS SHOWING CAUSE AND EFFECT

Cause
Because and Since
Use because and since to show cause. They are followed by the reason for
something.
The meeting is cancelled because/since the boss is sick.
Because and since join two clauses together into a single sentence. Remember
that a clause contains a subject and a verb. Clauses that begin with one of these
connectors cannot stand alone as a sentence in written English. However, they
often stand alone in spoken English.

I'm going back to the hotel because/since I'm tired.

S+V S+V

Because and since can take different positions in a sentence.

He vacations in Brazil because/since he likes hot weather.
Because/since he likes hot weather, he vacations in Brazil.
Effect
So
Use so to show effect--the result of something, or a reaction to it. So connects the
ideas in two sentences by combining them into one sentence. A comma comes
before so.
I was confused, so I asked some questions.
Therefore and As a result
Therefore and as a result are also used to show effect--the result of something, or
a reaction to it. These words connect the ideas in two sentences, but the
sentences remain separate.
Karen worked very hard. Therefore/As a result, she succeeded.
Therefore and as a result can take different positions in a sentence.
That date is not available. Therefore/As a result, we can't go.
That date is not available. We, therefore/as a result, can't go.
That date is not available. We can't go, therefore/as a result.

GIVING A PRESENTATION, PART II

Introducing a New Topic

Use As for and Regarding to introduce a new topic. They are followed by a noun
or noun phrase and a comma plus S + V.
As for the new ad campaign, I think it's great.
Regarding last year's profits, we could have done better.
Closing a Presentation
Use these expressions to close a presentation. All three expressions are complete
sentences.
I think that covers everything.
That's it.
That's all for now.
That's it. Thank you all very much for coming.
Asking for Questions
After you finish your presentation, use these expressions to find out if anyone in
the audience has any questions. After members of the audience have asked some
questions, use Any other questions? to ask for additional questions.
Now we'd like to answer any questions you might have.Does anybody have any
questions?
Any other questions?
Any other questions? No? Well, thank you all for coming.

9
MODALS OF ADVICE

Should and Ought To

These verbs have the same meaning and are used to give specific suggestions or
advice. They show that the speaker thinks that it is a good idea to do something.
They can express a range of advice, from mild suggestions to very strong
suggestions. Should is followed by the base form of a verb, even if the subject is
he, she, or it.
She should stop smoking.
Ought is always followed by the infinitive (to + V).
You ought to see a doctor immediately!
Could
Use could to suggest more than one possibility or to offer mild suggestions. It is
not as strong as should or ought to.
Could is followed by the base form of a verb even if the subject is he, she, or it.
He could call the hotel or send an email.
Negative Forms
Should can be used in the negative as should not or shouldn't to give advice not to
do something. Ought to is not normally used in the negative. Could is not used in
the negative to give advice.
You shouldn't worry about it.
Question Forms
Should can also be used to ask for advice. It comes before the subject when
forming a question. Ought to is not normally used to ask questions. The question
form of could is not used to ask for advice.
Should I fly or go by train?

ASKING FOR AND GIVING ADVICE

Asking for Advice

Use these expressions to ask a person for general suggestions or advice.
I was hoping you could help.
Do you have any advice?
What should I do?
Use Can you suggest how ...? to ask for advice about how to do a specific task.
Should I try ...? is used to ask for advice about an idea you want to try. Both
expressions are followed by an infinitive (to + V).
Can you suggest how to get to the airport?
Should I try to get there by bus?
Giving Advice
Use should, ought to, and could to give advice. Ought is followed by the infinitive
(to + V), and should and could are followed by the base form of a verb.
You should ask at the information desk.
You ought to ask at the information desk.
You could ask at the information desk.
Use the expressions Why don't you ...? and I would recommend/I'd recommend ...
to give suggestions. Why don't you ... is followed by the base form of a verb. I
would recommend ... is followed by a gerund (V + ing).
Why don't you spend your vacation in Paris?
I'd recommend visiting the Eiffel Tower.

10
ASKING FOR AND GIVING ADVICE

Asking for Advice

Use these expressions to ask a person for general suggestions or advice.
I was hoping you could help.
Do you have any advice?
What should I do?
Use Can you suggest how ...? to ask for advice about how to do a specific task.
Should I try ...? is used to ask for advice about an idea you want to try. Both
expressions are followed by an infinitive (to + V).
Can you suggest how to get to the airport?
Should I try to get there by bus?
Giving Advice
Use should, ought to, and could to give advice. Ought is followed by the infinitive
(to + V), and should and could are followed by the base form of a verb.
You should ask at the information desk.
You ought to ask at the information desk.
You could ask at the information desk.
Use the expressions Why don't you ...? and I would recommend/I'd recommend ...
to give suggestions. Why don't you ... is followed by the base form of a verb. I
would recommend ... is followed by a gerund (V + ing).
Why don't you spend your vacation in Paris?
I'd recommend visiting the Eiffel Tower.

INTRODUCING DIFFERENT VIEWS

Use these expressions to introduce a view that is different from one that has
already been mentioned or discussed. All three of these expressions are followed
by a clause. Separate the expression and the clause with a comma.
On the other hand, ...
Then again, ...
Even so, ...
Then again, we could go by train.
Use these expressions to ask someone to consider another view of a situation.
They are both complete sentences.
Look at it this way.
Look at it from this angle.
Use these expressions to emphasize the long-term effect of a situation. These two
expressions are followed by a clause. Separate the expression and the clause
with a comma.
But in the long run, ...
But down the road, ...
But in the long run, it might be a bad idea.

11
Expressions
NEGOTIATING: MAKING AND RESPONDING TO OFFERS

Making an Offer
Would you be interested in + noun phrase?
Would you consider + noun phrase?
We'd like you to consider + noun phrase.
How does + noun phrase + sound?

Accepting an Offer
Noun phrase + sounds reasonable/ acceptable.
We're willing to agree to + noun phrase.
That's fine.
Declining an Offer
We understand your position, but + S + V.
I'm sorry, but we can't agree to + noun phrase.
I'm afraid we can't accept + noun phrase.

12
Grammar
REAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

All Real Conditional Sentences

Present Tense in If Clause
 If we leave now, we'll make it on time.
Situations Which Happen Often
Present Tense in Result Clause
 If I go to bed late, I'm tired the next day.
Facts or General Truths
Present or Future Tense in Result Clause
 If the traffic light is red, the cars stop.
 If the traffic light is red, the cars will stop.
Future Situations
Future Tense in Result Clause
 If I don't get a job soon, I will be very poor.
13
Grammar
TAG QUESTIONS

Positive Statement Negative Tag Question

S + is/are ..., isn't/aren't + pronoun?

S + was/were ..., wasn't/weren't +

pronoun?

S + V (present tense) ..., doesn't/don't +

pronoun?

S + V (past tense) ..., didn't + pronoun?

S + has/have + past hasn't/haven't +

participle ..., pronoun?

S + had + past participle ..., hadn't + pronoun?

S + should + V ..., shouldn't + pronoun?

S + could V (past tense), couldn't + pronoun?

S + can V (past tense), can't + pronoun?

Negative Statement Positive Tag Question

S + is/are + not ..., is/are + pronoun?

S + was/were + not ..., was/were + pronoun?

S + V (present tense), does/do + pronoun?
+ not ...,

S + V (past tense), + not ..., did + pronoun?

S + has/have + not + has/have + pronoun?

past participle ...,

S + had + not + had + pronoun?

past participle ...,

S + should + not + V ..., should + pronoun?

S + could + not could + pronoun?

S + can + not can + pronoun?

Any Statement Tag Question

S + V ..., huh?